Nuclear thermonuclear weapon. Pure thermonuclear weapons

Explosion initiator (trigger). This type of weapon does not create long-term radioactive contamination, due to the absence of decaying substances in it. At present, it is considered theoretically, of course, possible, but the ways of practical implementation are not clear.

Concept

In modern thermonuclear weapons, the conditions necessary to start a nuclear fusion reaction are created by detonating a trigger - a small plutonium nuclear charge. The explosion of the trigger creates the heat and pressure necessary to start a fusion reaction in the lithium deuteride. At the same time, the main part of the long-term radioactive contamination in a thermonuclear explosion is provided by radioactive substances in the trigger.

However, the conditions for the start of a thermonuclear reaction can be created without the use of a nuclear trigger. Such conditions are created in laboratory experiments and experimental thermonuclear reactors. Theoretically, it is possible to create a thermonuclear weapon in which the reaction will be initiated without the use of a trigger charge - a "pure thermonuclear" weapon.

Such a weapon will have the following advantages:

Neutron variant of a pure thermonuclear weapon

The main damaging factor in a purely thermonuclear device can be a powerful burst of neutron radiation Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]][[C:Wikipedia:Articles without sources (country: Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]] , not a thermal flash or shock wave [[C:Wikipedia:Articles without sources (country: Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]][[C:Wikipedia:Articles without sources (country: Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]][[C:Wikipedia:Articles without sources (country: Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]] . Thus, collateral damage from detonating such weapons can be limited. On the other hand, this makes purely thermonuclear weapons not the best means for those situations when it is necessary to destroy solid structures that do not contain biological matter or electronic devices (for example, bridges).

The disadvantages of the neutron version of a pure thermonuclear weapon are the same as any neutron weapon:

• Due to the strong absorption and scattering of neutrons in the atmosphere, the range of destruction by neutron radiation, compared with the range of destruction of unprotected targets by a shock wave from an explosion of a conventional nuclear charge of the same power, is small.
• The interaction of neutrons with structural and biological materials leads to the appearance of induced radioactivity, that is, the weapon is not completely "clean".
• Armored vehicles, since the 1960s, have been developed taking into account the possibility of using neutron weapons. New types of armor have been developed that are already capable of protecting equipment and its crew from neutron radiation. For this purpose, sheets with a high content of boron, which is a good neutron absorber, are added to the armor, and depleted uranium is added to the armor steel. In addition, the composition of the armor is chosen so that it does not contain elements that give strong induced radioactivity under the action of neutron irradiation. Thus, modern armored vehicles are extremely resistant to neutron weapons as well.

Possible Solutions

Various ways to solve the problem of clean thermonuclear weapons have been considered continuously since 1992, but at the present time they have not yielded a positive result. The main problem is the significant complexity of creating the conditions for the start of a thermonuclear reaction. In laboratory experiments and thermonuclear reactors, such conditions are created by large-sized installations, which are also very energy-intensive. At present, it is not possible to create a thermonuclear weapon suitable for use in combat conditions, based, for example, on laser ignition of a reaction - the lasers required for this are huge and consume a significant amount of energy.

There are several theoretically possible ways to solve the problem:

Pure thermonuclear weapon on a shock wave emitter

It seems theoretically possible to create a relatively compact purely thermonuclear weapon based on a shock wave emitter. At the same time, a pulse of electromagnetic radiation of the radio frequency range is used to start a thermonuclear reaction.

According to theoretical calculations, a pure thermonuclear device based on a shock wave emitter will have a TNT equivalent approximately comparable to its own mass, or even less. Thus, as explosive device it would be completely ineffective. However, most of the energy (up to 80%) will be released in the form of a neutron flux capable of hitting an enemy at a distance of hundreds of meters from the epicenter. Such a weapon would, in fact, be a pure neutron weapon - leaving no radioactive contamination and causing little to no collateral damage.

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An excerpt characterizing Pure thermonuclear weapons

And also, despite the fact that at that time Lithuania was already under the heel of the "brown plague", it still somehow retained its independent and militant spirit, which even the most ardent servants of communism did not have time to knock out of it... And this attracted the Seryogins even more than the beauty of the local nature or the hospitality of people. So they decided to stay "for a while" ... what happened - forever ... It was already 1942. And the Seryogins watched with regret as the “brown” octopus of National Socialism squeezed the country that they loved so much with its tentacles tighter and tighter ... Having crossed the front line, they hoped that they would be able to get from Lithuania to France. But even with the "brown plague" the door to " Big world"For the Seryogins (and, of course, for my dad) it turned out to be closed, and this time forever ... But life went on ... And the Seryogins began to gradually settle in their new place of residence. They had to look for work again in order to have some means of subsistence. But it turned out to be not so difficult to do this - there was always a place for those who wanted to work in hardworking Lithuania. Therefore, very soon life flowed along their usual course and it seemed that everything was calm and good again...
My dad began to "temporarily" go to a Russian school (Russian and Polish schools in Lithuania were not uncommon), which he really liked and he categorically did not want to leave it, because constant wandering and changing schools affected his studies and, more importantly - did not allow to make real friends, without which it was very difficult for any normal boy to exist. My grandfather found a good job and had the opportunity to somehow “take his mind off” on weekends in his adored county forest.

And my grandmother at that time had her little newborn son in her arms and dreamed at least a short time not to move anywhere, because physically she did not feel too well and was the same as her whole family, tired of constant wanderings. Several years passed unnoticed. The war was long over, and life was becoming more normal in every way. My dad was an excellent student all the time and the teachers denigrated him with a gold medal (which he received after graduating from the same school).
My grandmother calmly raised her little son, and grandfather finally found his old dream - the opportunity every day to “plunge headlong” into the Alytu forest he loved so much.
Thus, everyone was more or less happy, and so far no one wanted to leave this truly "God's corner" and again start wandering along the high roads. They decided to give dad the opportunity to finish the school he loved so much, and to give the little grandma's son Valery the opportunity to grow up as much as possible, so that it would be easier to embark on a long journey.
But the days passed imperceptibly, months passed, replaced by years, and the Seryogins still lived in the same place, as if forgetting all their promises, which, of course, was not true, but simply helped them get used to the idea that they might not it will never be possible to fulfill the word given to Princess Elena ... All the Siberian horrors were far behind, life became everyday habitual, and sometimes it seemed to Seregins that this was possible and never happened, as if it had been a dream in some long-forgotten, nightmare dream. ..

Vasily grew up and matured, becoming a handsome young man, and his adoptive mother more and more often thought that this was her native son, since she really loved him very much and, as they say, did not look for a soul in him. My dad called her mother, because he still did not know the truth about his birth (according to the general agreement), and in return he loved her as much as he would love his real mother. This also applied to grandfather, whom he called his father, and also sincerely, with all his heart he loved.
So everything seemed to be getting better little by little, and only occasionally slipping conversations about distant France became less and less, until one fine day they stopped altogether. There was no hope of getting there, and the Seryogins apparently decided that it would be better if no one reopened this wound ...
My dad had already finished school at that time, as he was predicted - with a gold medal and entered the literary institute in absentia. To help his family, he worked as a journalist for the Izvestia newspaper, and in his spare time he began to write plays for the Russian Drama Theater in Lithuania.

Everything seemed to be fine, except for one, very painful problem - since dad was an excellent speaker (for which he really, from my memory, had a very great talent!), The committee of the Komsomol of our town did not leave him alone, wanting to have him as his secretary. Dad resisted with all his might, because (even without knowing about his past, which the Seryogins decided not to tell him about yet) he hated the revolution and communism with all his heart, with all the consequences that follow from these “teachings”, and no “sympathy” for them he didn’t feed ... At school, he, of course, was a pioneer and a Komsomol member, since without this it was impossible at that time to dream of entering any institute, but he categorically did not want to go further than this. And also, there was another fact that brought dad into real horror - this was participation in punitive expeditions on the so-called "forest brothers", who were none other than just as young as dad, guys "dispossessed "parents who hid in the forests so as not to be taken to a distant and very frightening Siberia.
A few years after the advent of Soviet power, there was no family left in Lithuania from which at least one person would not have been taken to Siberia, and very often the whole family was taken away.
Lithuania was small, but very rich country, with a magnificent economy and huge farms, the owners of which are Soviet times began to be called "kulaks", and the same Soviet authorities began to "dispossess kulaks" of them very actively ... And it was precisely for these "punitive expeditions" that the best Komsomol members were selected to show the rest a "contagious example" ... They were friends and acquaintances the same “forest brothers” who went to the same schools together, played together, went dancing together with the girls ... And now, on someone’s crazy order, for some reason they suddenly became enemies and were supposed to be friends exterminate a friend...
After two such trips, in one of which two of the twenty departed guys returned (and dad turned out to be one of these two), he got drunk half to death and the next day wrote a statement in which he categorically refused further participation in any such “events” . The first “pleasure” that followed after such a statement was the loss of a job, which at that time was “desperately” needed by him. But since dad was a truly talented journalist, he was immediately offered a job by another newspaper - Kaunasskaya Pravda - from a neighboring town. But, unfortunately, we didn’t have to stay there for a long time either, for such a simple reason as a short call “from above” ... which instantly deprived dad of the new work. And dad was once again politely escorted out the door. Thus began his long-term war for the freedom of his personality, which even I remembered very well.

A new generation could drastically lower the threshold for the applicability of nuclear weapons and disrupt the existing strategic balance

In July 2006, during operations against Lebanese Hezbollah militants, the Israeli army used so-called anti-bunker bombs. At the same time, traces of enriched uranium were found in soil samples taken from bomb funnels. At the same time, it was established that the radioactive decay of fission fragments was not accompanied by gamma radiation and the formation of the cesium isotope137, and the radiation level, which was high inside the funnels, decreased by about half at a distance of several meters from them.

It is possible that Israel used a new generation of nuclear weapons (NW) in southern Lebanon. It could have been delivered to Israel from the United States specifically for its testing in combat conditions. Experts also suggest that such weapons have already been used in Iraq and Afghanistan.

The absence of explosion products with a long decay period, as well as the insignificant radioactive contamination of the area, suggest that so-called "clean" thermonuclear munitions could be used in southern Lebanon.

It is known that the existing thermonuclear charges do not provide a noticeable localization (both in time and area) of the scale of radioactive contamination. environment, since the work of their secondary node is initiated by the fission reaction of heavy nuclei, the consequence of which is precisely the long-term radioactive contamination of the area.

Until now, it is the latter circumstance that has guaranteed a high threshold for the use of any type of current nuclear weapons, including nuclear weapons of low and ultra-low yield. Now, if the results independent expertise correspond to reality, we can talk about the emergence of new thermonuclear munitions, the presence of which in service drastically reduces the psychological threshold for the applicability of nuclear weapons.

At the same time, "clean" thermonuclear munitions are currently not subject to the restrictions of any of the existing international treaties and formally become, according to the conditions of their application, on the same level with the usual precision weapons(WTO), significantly surpassing the latter in terms of destructive power.

There is still no consensus among specialists as to how far the United States and other leading foreign states have advanced in the process of developing "clean" thermonuclear munitions.

Meanwhile, an indirect confirmation of the fact that, in conditions of strict secrecy, work on their creation is already in full swing in the United States, are the results of the practical activities of the current US administration to reform its strategic offensive forces (SNA).

The plans to create a new generation of thermonuclear weapons are also evidenced by the UK's ongoing efforts aimed at changing the existing structure of its strategic nuclear forces (SNF) and deploying a new research infrastructure for fusion research.

The American leadership was the first among the leading foreign states to realize that both the current "dirty" strategic nuclear weapons and the conventional WTO, which was much discussed in discussions about the need for an early transition to the concept of "not nuclear deterrence", now do not allow to ensure the solution of all the tasks assigned to the strategic forces.

First of all, this concerns the guaranteed destruction of enemy strategic highly protected and heavily buried targets, as well as the neutralization of the chemical and biological components of weapons. mass destruction(WMD).

New American nuclear strategy

An analysis of the new nuclear strategy adopted by the United States in 2002 shows that "clean" thermonuclear weapons are assigned the role of the cornerstone of a promising American strategic triad.

It also fits in exceptionally well with the recently adopted by the United States concept of "preemptive" nuclear strikes, according to which the US Armed Forces received the right to use nuclear weapons even in peacetime.

The main provisions of the new US nuclear strategy are set out in the Nuclear Posture Review submitted to the US Congress in January 2002 (hereinafter referred to as "Review..." for brevity).

In this concept paper, the need to develop and put into service a new generation of nuclear weapons is substantiated as follows.

"... The modern nuclear arsenal, still reflecting the needs of the Cold War period, is characterized by low firing accuracy, limited retargeting capabilities, high power of nuclear warhead chargers, silo, land and sea-based ballistic missiles with individually targetable warheads, low ability to hit deep targets", therefore "...a nuclear strategy based solely on the capabilities of strategic offensive nuclear forces cannot ensure the deterrence of potential adversaries that the United States will have to face in the 21st century."

Further, in the "Review ..." the main requirements for a new generation of nuclear weapons are formulated: "... giving modern nuclear forces new capabilities should ensure: the defeat of objects that pose a threat, such as highly protected and buried targets, carriers of chemical and biological weapons; detection and destruction of mobile and moving targets; increasing the accuracy of shooting; limiting collateral damage from the use of nuclear weapons.

The "Review ..." also states that "the provision of such capabilities through intensive R&D and the deployment of new weapons systems is an urgent requirement for creating a new triad."

As can be seen, in the presented concept of the development of US nuclear forces, one of the key requirements for new types of nuclear weapons is the limitation of collateral damage during their use.

Since in "pure" thermonuclear munitions the fusion reaction must be initiated by an energy source alternative to the fission reaction, the key point in their development is the replacement of the existing atomic "fuse" with a powerful and compact "detonator".

In this case, the latter must have sufficient energy to initiate a thermonuclear fusion reaction, and, in terms of its weight and size characteristics, “fit” into the head parts of existing delivery vehicles.

It can be expected that the main damaging factors of the new nuclear weapons will be instantaneous gamma-neutron radiation, a shock wave, and also light radiation. In this case, the penetrating radiation, which is a consequence of the radioactive decay of fission fragments, will be relatively insignificant.

A number of experts believe that, first of all, the new thermonuclear weapons will be used to equip high-precision guided missiles and air bombs. At the same time, its capacity can be varied from units to hundreds or more tons of TNT equivalent.

This will make it possible to use "pure" thermonuclear weapons for selective destruction of enemy targets located both in open areas (including mobile ballistic missile systems) and in the FUEC, without fear of long-term radioactive contamination of the area.

Due to the absence of radioactive fallout, ground units will be able to operate on the territory that was hit by nuclear weapons, according to estimates, in 48 hours.

When new types of munitions are used to destroy the TZSZZ, including storage facilities for nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, neutron and gamma radiation arising immediately at the time of the explosion will be almost completely absorbed by the soil layers adjacent to the explosion site.

By expert opinion, in order to destroy the TBSC located at a depth of more than 300 meters, it will be necessary to create thermonuclear munitions with a yield of about 100 kt or more.

According to American specialists, the use of "clean" thermonuclear munitions as warheads of anti-missiles (BC PR) should also significantly increase the effectiveness of the created national system PRO.

It is expected that such munitions will have sufficiently wide lethal capabilities to guarantee the neutralization of warheads of enemy ballistic missiles equipped with WMD. At the same time, the detonation of a missile defense warhead over its territory, even at low altitude, will not lead to significant radioactive contamination of the environment.

New structure American strategic forces

Let us now consider in more detail the changes that should take place directly in the structure of the American SNA.

Currently, the US SNA triad consists of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) and strategic bomber aircraft (SBA), which are armed with about 6,000 "dirty" nuclear warheads (YaBZ).

The new American nuclear strategy provides for the creation instead of it of a qualitatively different strategic triad, which will include:

• nuclear and non-nuclear strategic offensive weapons;
• active and passive strategic defensive weapons;
• updated military, research and industrial infrastructure.

The listed components of the new triad must be combined into a single whole by an improved system of communications, command and control, intelligence and adaptive planning.

The first (shock) component of the new strategic triad, in turn, will consist of two small triads: the triad of forces " global blows"and the old SNS triad of reduced composition.

The "global strike" forces are planned to be deployed on the basis of SBA aircraft (including part of the current aviation component of the US SNA), multipurpose nuclear submarines (NPS) and surface ships carrying sea-launched cruise missiles (SLCM), as well as parts of ICBMs and SLBMs from the SNA.

It is expected that the forces of "global strikes" will be armed with WTO in both conventional and nuclear ("clean" nuclear weapons) equipment.

The existing SNA triad under the Treaty on the Reduction of Strategic Offensive Potentials will undergo a radical reduction. By 2012, it will have 17,002,200 operationally deployed nuclear warheads in service. The remaining YaBZ will be transferred to an active or passive reserve.

The operational control of both strike components of the new strategic triad is currently entrusted to the Joint Strategic Command (USC) of the US Armed Forces.

Based on the tasks assigned to the USC and the Joint Commands (JC) of the US Armed Forces in the forward zones, it can be assumed that the forces of "global strikes" will be used for the prompt delivery of preventive strikes against strategic enemy targets anywhere in the world, as well as for warfare in regional conflicts.

The nuclear forces of the old triad of the SNA, which will retain the existing types of strategic nuclear weapons, will continue to carry out the tasks of strategic nuclear deterrence. In the event of a fundamental change in the military-political situation, they will be used to deliver "anti-force" or "anti-value" nuclear missile strikes against the enemy's most important strategic targets, which Russia and China are primarily considered to be.

The second component of the US strategic triad will also consist of two components: shock (active) forces designed for operational engagement missile systems the enemy in their positional areas, as well as missile defense forces to intercept launched ballistic missiles and their warheads (passive forces).

In 2003, the US denounced the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. This circumstance allows them to start unlimited development, testing and deployment anti-missile systems any classes with the placement of their components both in the United States and outside it.

The new thermonuclear munition organically "fits" into the plans for the creation of the third component of the American strategic triad - an updated defense infrastructure.

According to the plans of the American leadership, it is designed to quickly develop, test, produce and put into service advanced offensive and defensive systems, including nuclear ones, in response to any emerging threats.

At present, a powerful test base has been deployed in the United States to study the problem of thermonuclear fusion in three different areas. There is no doubt that this base will be used not only for the industrial development of thermonuclear energy, but also for the creation of new thermonuclear charges.

So, in the Livermore Laboratory. Lawrence (California) to simulate nuclear tests, the world's most powerful laser fusion facility (LTU) NIF (National Ignition Facility) was created, capable of realizing the temperatures and pressures observed in nature only in the center of stars. The total cost of the installation is estimated to be $3.3 billion by 2008.

For the same purposes, the Los Alamos National Laboratory (New Mexico) and the Air Force Research Laboratory (Kirtland Air Force Base) jointly use the MTF (Magnetized Target Fusion) installation.

For the benefit of studying physical processes with high energy density in the national laboratory "Sandia" (Albuquerque) modernizes a powerful generator of electrical impulses, the so-called "Zmachine".

The creation of new types of nuclear weapons is impossible without nuclear testing. For this reason, the Bush administration refused to resubmit the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty to the US Senate for ratification.

Being, therefore, outside the legal framework of this treaty, the United States ensured for itself the opportunity to implement any nuclear test program at any time convenient for itself.

In parallel with conducting scientific research, the United States is actively implementing measures to reduce from 36 to 12 months the time for the readiness of the test site in Nevada to resume underground nuclear explosions.

Strategy for preventive nuclear strikes

In 2005, the United States made important changes to its nuclear strategy.

In accordance with the concept of "preemptive strikes", better known as the "Bush Doctrine", the US armed forces received the right to strike at Peaceful time preventive nuclear strikes countries that may pose a threat to the national security of the United States or its allies.

It should be emphasized that this doctrine also provides for the possibility of returning to the US Air Force and Navy (primarily to surface warships and submarines) removed in 1991 carriers of tactical nuclear weapons.

It should be added that the deployment of a strategic strike system based on nuclear submarines (SSGN) of the Ohio type, equipped with Tomahawk Block IV cruise missiles, which are the optimal means of delivering new nuclear weapons to targets, is almost completed in the United States.

According to its performance characteristics, the Tomahawk Block IV SLCM is the most advanced cruise missile of this class. The maximum range of its flight is already 2800 km. The missile is capable of loitering in the target area for 2 hours for its search or additional reconnaissance. By equipping the SLCM with a satellite communication channel, it is also possible to retarget the missile in flight.

Each Ohio-class SSGN can accommodate up to 154 SLCMs.

In 2006, the UK (following the US) embarked on a radical revision of its nuclear deterrence doctrine.

At present, the British strategic nuclear forces are based on four Vanguard-class missile-carrying submarines, each of which is equipped with 16 Trident-2 ballistic missiles with multiple warheads. The current British strategic nuclear forces seem to be an outdated model of confronting the modern nuclear threat and are more in line with the realities of the Cold War than today. An alternative version of the existing Vanguard system will be a weapon system deployed on the basis of submarines equipped with nuclear cruise missiles. It is emphasized that in order to comply with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, cruise missile warheads must be developed by the UK itself, and not obtained from the United States.

The UK has already begun converting its multi-purpose nuclear submarines into Tomahawk SLCM carriers of the Block IV modification.

The nuclear submarine "Trafalgar" became the first boat in the British Navy capable of launching these missiles. The boat has been installed latest system Tomahawk SLCM fire control (TTWCS), developed by the American company Lockheed Martin, and the TSN (Tomahawk Strike Network) two-way satellite communication system, designed to retarget SLCMs of this modification in flight.

The presented version of the development of the strategic nuclear forces of Great Britain is not something new. Back in the mid 1970s. The British Ministry of Defense studied the issue of adopting American SLCMs of the Tomahawk type in nuclear equipment into service with their strategic nuclear forces. However, in 1979, for a number of reasons, the British government abandoned this option in favor of the current Wangard-class SSBNs with Trident-2 SLBMs.

In parallel with the development of a new doctrine of nuclear deterrence in the UK, a number of programs are being carried out to develop nuclear infrastructure, which may be required to create nuclear weapons designed to equip the new component of the British strategic nuclear forces.

At the same time, Great Britain (like the USA) is concentrating its efforts on creating a test base aimed at studying the problem of thermonuclear fusion. In this regard, it is expected that, following the United States, "clean" thermonuclear munitions will soon appear in service with the updated British strategic nuclear forces.

In the summer of 2005, at a meeting of the Select Committee on Defense of the House of Commons of the British Parliament, it was announced the expansion of the research center for the development of nuclear weapons in the UK. In the city of Aldermaston (Berkshire) the construction of a LTU worth about one billion pounds has begun, and by 2008 an additional hiring of more than 1,000 specialists has been announced for this center.

According to the press, after the commissioning of the new LTU "Orion" it should ensure the reconstruction of the physical processes occurring in the conditions of a nuclear reaction. Without going beyond the scope of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, to which the UK is a party, LTU will also be used to test elements of the YaBZ being developed.

Thus, it can be assumed that in the near future the UK will focus on creating a new strategic nuclear "dyad", which will consist of four Vanguard-class SSBNs with Trident-2 SLBMs and several Trafalgar-class SSBNs equipped with Tomahawk SLCMs. with "clean" thermonuclear munitions.

SSBNs of the Vanguard type will be in service with the upgraded British strategic nuclear forces until at least 20202025, when the service life of the Trident2 ballistic missiles expires.

It is estimated that the creation of a new strategic "dyad" Britain could spend about 20 billion pounds.

In conclusion, one important circumstance should be noted. In the event of successful development of a new generation of nuclear weapons, the United States and Great Britain will acquire significant military-technical superiority in the field of strategic weapons. The current "dirty" strategic nuclear weapons, by and large, are becoming unnecessary for them.

In this regard, it is necessary to be prepared for the fact that the United States and Great Britain, relying on the thesis about the threat to world civilization from "dirty" nuclear weapons, may come up with an initiative to ban it altogether. At the same time, armed nuclear countries only "clean" thermonuclear weapons should remain, in which ~ 99% of the energy should be released in fusion reactions.

It is clear that thermonuclear munitions, which now form the basis of the strategic weapons of the nuclear powers, will not meet such high requirements.

Thus, using controlled international organizations, the US and the UK can put before the rest of the participants nuclear club a kind of scientific and technical barrier. It may represent, for example, international commitments to develop and put into service exclusively thermonuclear warheads with a fragmentation activity of less than one percent.

This will require others nuclear states urgent creation of a powerful research, production and testing base, huge financial and time costs.

At the same time, the existing military-technical reserve in the field of "clean" thermonuclear weapons will allow the US and Great Britain to gain unilateral military-political advantages for a rather long period of time.

In this way:

1. The United States and Great Britain are actively developing a new generation of nuclear weapons, the use of which makes it possible to ensure the limitation of collateral damage. In this regard, they began to radically reform the structure and composition of their strategic nuclear forces, as well as the forms and methods combat use these forces.
2. New nuclear weapons are outside the legal framework of all existing international treaties related to the development, testing, proliferation or use of nuclear weapons.
3. The adoption of a new generation of nuclear weapons makes it possible to significantly lower the threshold for the use of nuclear weapons and practically eliminate the difference between them and the general-purpose WTO in terms of combat use.
4. The Russian Federation urgently needs to take adequate measures to strengthen the domestic deterrence capacity.

Nuclear weapons are weapons mass destruction explosive action, based on the use of the fission energy of heavy nuclei of some isotopes of uranium and plutonium, or in thermonuclear fusion reactions of light nuclei of hydrogen isotopes of deuterium and tritium, into heavier nuclei, for example, nuclei of helium isotopes.

Warheads of missiles and torpedoes, aviation and depth charges, artillery shells and mines can be equipped with nuclear charges. By power, nuclear weapons are distinguished as ultra-small (less than 1 kt), small (1-10 kt), medium (10-100 kt), large (100-1000 kt) and extra-large (more than 1000 kt). Depending on the tasks to be solved, it is possible to use nuclear weapons in the form of underground, ground, air, underwater and surface explosions. Features of the damaging effect of nuclear weapons on the population are determined not only by the power of the ammunition and the type of explosion, but also by the type of nuclear device. Depending on the charge, they distinguish: atomic weapons, which are based on the fission reaction; thermonuclear weapons - when using a fusion reaction; combined charges; neutron weapons.

The only fissile material found in nature in appreciable quantities is an isotope of uranium with a nucleus mass of 235 atomic units masses (uranium-235). The content of this isotope in natural uranium is only 0.7%. The rest is uranium-238. Because the Chemical properties isotopes are exactly the same, to isolate uranium-235 from natural uranium, it is necessary to carry out a rather complicated process of isotope separation. The result can be highly enriched uranium, containing about 94% uranium-235, which is suitable for use in nuclear weapons.

Fissile substances can be obtained artificially, and the least difficult from a practical point of view is the production of plutonium-239, which is formed as a result of the capture of a neutron by a uranium-238 nucleus (and the subsequent chain of radioactive decays of intermediate nuclei). A similar process can be carried out in a nuclear reactor running on natural or low enriched uranium. In the future, plutonium can be separated from the spent fuel of the reactor in the process of chemical processing of fuel, which is much simpler than the isotope separation process carried out in the production of weapons-grade uranium.

Other fissile substances can also be used to create nuclear explosive devices, for example, uranium-233 obtained by irradiating thorium-232 in a nuclear reactor. However practical use found only uranium-235 and plutonium-239, primarily because of the relative ease of obtaining these materials.

The possibility of practical use of the energy released during nuclear fission is due to the fact that the fission reaction can have a chain, self-sustaining character. In each fission event, approximately two secondary neutrons are produced, which, being captured by the nuclei of the fissile material, can cause their fission, which in turn leads to the formation of even more neutrons. When special conditions are created, the number of neutrons, and hence the number of fission events, grows from generation to generation.

The explosion of the first nuclear explosive device was carried out by the United States on July 16, 1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico. The device was a plutonium bomb that used a directed explosion to create criticality. The power of the explosion was about 20 kt. In the USSR, the explosion of the first nuclear explosive device, similar to the American one, was carried out on August 29, 1949.

In thermonuclear weapons, the energy of the explosion is generated during the fusion reactions of light nuclei, such as deuterium, tritium, which are isotopes of hydrogen or lithium. Such reactions can only occur when high temperatures ah, under which kinetic energy nuclei is sufficient to bring the nuclei together at a sufficiently small distance.

The use of fusion reactions to increase the power of the explosion can be done in different ways. The first way is to place a container with deuterium or tritium (or lithium deuteride) inside a conventional nuclear device. The high temperatures arising at the time of the explosion lead to the fact that the nuclei of light elements enter into a reaction, due to which additional energy is released. Using this method, you can significantly increase the power of the explosion. At the same time, the power of such an explosive device is still limited by the finite time of expansion of the fissile material.

Another way is the creation of multi-stage explosive devices, in which, due to a special configuration of the explosive device, the energy of a conventional nuclear charge (the so-called primary charge) is used to create the necessary temperatures in a separately located "secondary" thermonuclear charge, the energy of which, in turn, can be used to detonate the third charge, etc. The first test of such a device - the Mike explosion - was carried out in the USA on November 1, 1952. In the USSR, such a device was first tested on November 22, 1955. The power of an explosive device designed in this way can be arbitrarily large. The most powerful nuclear explosion was produced precisely with the help of a multi-stage explosive device. The power of the explosion was 60 Mt, and the power of the device was used by only one third.

Our article is devoted to the history of creation and general principles of synthesis of such a device as sometimes called hydrogen. Instead of releasing explosive energy from the fission of nuclei of heavy elements like uranium, it generates even more of it by fusing the nuclei of light elements (like isotopes of hydrogen) into one heavy one (like helium).

Why is nuclear fusion preferable?

In a thermonuclear reaction, which consists in the fusion of the nuclei of the chemical elements involved in it, much more energy is generated per unit mass of a physical device than in a pure atomic bomb that implements a nuclear fission reaction.

In an atomic bomb, fissile nuclear fuel is rapidly, under the action of the energy of undermining conventional explosives unites in a small spherical volume, where its so-called critical mass is created, and the fission reaction begins. In this case, many neutrons released from fissile nuclei will cause the fission of other nuclei in the fuel mass, which also release additional neutrons, which leads to a chain reaction. It covers no more than 20% of the fuel before the bomb explodes, or perhaps much less if the conditions are not ideal: for example, in the atomic bombs Baby, dropped on Hiroshima, and Fat Man, which hit Nagasaki, efficiency (if such a term can be applied to them at all) apply) were only 1.38% and 13%, respectively.

The fusion (or fusion) of the nuclei covers the entire mass of the bomb charge and lasts as long as the neutrons can find the thermonuclear fuel that has not yet reacted. Therefore, the mass and explosive power of such a bomb are theoretically unlimited. Such a merger could theoretically continue indefinitely. Indeed, a thermonuclear bomb is one of the potential doomsday devices that could destroy all human life.

What is a nuclear fusion reaction?

The fuel for the fusion reaction is the hydrogen isotope deuterium or tritium. The first differs from ordinary hydrogen in that in its nucleus, in addition to one proton, there is also a neutron, and in the nucleus of tritium there are already two neutrons. In natural water, one atom of deuterium accounts for 7,000 hydrogen atoms, but out of its quantity. contained in a glass of water, it is possible to obtain the same amount of heat as a result of a thermonuclear reaction, as in the combustion of 200 liters of gasoline. In a 1946 meeting with politicians, the father of the American hydrogen bomb, Edward Teller, emphasized that deuterium provides more energy per gram of weight than uranium or plutonium, but costs twenty cents per gram compared to several hundred dollars per gram of fission fuel. Tritium does not occur in nature in a free state at all, therefore it is much more expensive than deuterium, with a market price of tens of thousands of dollars per gram, however, the greatest amount of energy is released precisely in the fusion of deuterium and tritium nuclei, in which the nucleus of a helium atom is formed and released neutron carrying away excess energy of 17.59 MeV

D + T → 4 He + n + 17.59 MeV.

This reaction is shown schematically in the figure below.

Is it a lot or a little? As you know, everything is known in comparison. So, the energy of 1 MeV is about 2.3 million times more than what is released during the combustion of 1 kg of oil. Consequently, the fusion of only two nuclei of deuterium and tritium releases as much energy as is released during the combustion of 2.3∙10 6 ∙17.59 = 40.5∙10 6 kg of oil. But we are talking only two atoms. You can imagine how high the stakes were in the second half of the 40s of the last century, when work began in the USA and the USSR, the result of which was a thermonuclear bomb.

How it all began

Back in the summer of 1942, at the beginning of the atomic bomb project in the United States (the Manhattan Project) and later in a similar Soviet program, long before a bomb based on uranium fission was built, the attention of some participants in these programs was drawn to a device, which can use a much more powerful thermonuclear fusion reaction. In the USA, the supporter of this approach, and even, one might say, its apologist, was Edward Teller, already mentioned above. In the USSR, this direction was developed by Andrei Sakharov, a future academician and dissident.

For Teller, his fascination with thermonuclear fusion during the years of the creation of the atomic bomb played rather a disservice. As a member of the Manhatan Project, he persistently called for the redirection of funds for the implementation of own ideas, the purpose of which was a hydrogen and thermonuclear bomb, which did not please the leadership and caused tension in relations. Since at that time the thermonuclear direction of research was not supported, after the creation of the atomic bomb, Teller left the project and took up teaching, as well as research on elementary particles.

However, the cold war, and most of all, the creation and successful testing of the Soviet atomic bomb in 1949, became a new chance for the fierce anti-communist Teller to realize his scientific ideas. He returns to the Los Alamos laboratory, where the atomic bomb was created, and, together with Stanislav Ulam and Cornelius Everett, starts the calculations.

The principle of a thermonuclear bomb

In order to start the nuclear fusion reaction, you need to instantly heat the bomb charge to a temperature of 50 million degrees. The thermonuclear bomb scheme proposed by Teller uses the explosion of a small atomic bomb, which is located inside the hydrogen case. It can be argued that there were three generations in the development of her project in the 40s of the last century:

• the Teller variant, known as the "classic super";
• more complex, but also more realistic constructions of several concentric spheres;
• the final version of the Teller-Ulam design, which is the basis of all thermonuclear weapons systems in operation today.

The thermonuclear bombs of the USSR, at the origins of the creation of which stood Andrei Sakharov, also went through similar design stages. He, apparently, quite independently and independently of the Americans (which cannot be said about the Soviet atomic bomb, created by the joint efforts of scientists and intelligence officers who worked in the United States) went through all of the above design stages.

The first two generations had the property that they had a succession of interlinked "layers", each reinforcing some aspect of the previous one, and in some cases feedback was established. There was no clear division between the primary atomic bomb and the secondary thermonuclear one. In contrast, the Teller-Ulam design of a thermonuclear bomb sharply distinguishes between a primary explosion, a secondary explosion, and, if necessary, an additional one.

The device of a thermonuclear bomb according to the Teller-Ulam principle

Many of its details are still classified, but there is reasonable certainty that all thermonuclear weapons now available use as a prototype a device created by Edward Telleros and Stanislav Ulam, in which an atomic bomb (i.e., a primary charge) is used to generate radiation, compresses and heats fusion fuel. Andrei Sakharov in the Soviet Union apparently independently came up with a similar concept, which he called "the third idea."

Schematically, the device of a thermonuclear bomb in this embodiment is shown in the figure below.

It was cylindrical, with a roughly spherical primary atomic bomb at one end. The secondary thermonuclear charge in the first, still non-industrial samples, was from liquid deuterium, a little later it became solid from a chemical compound called lithium deuteride.

The fact is that lithium hydride LiH has long been used in industry for the balloonless transportation of hydrogen. The developers of the bomb (this idea was first used in the USSR) simply proposed taking its deuterium isotope instead of ordinary hydrogen and combining it with lithium, since it is much easier to make a bomb with a solid thermonuclear charge.

The shape of the secondary charge was a cylinder placed in a container with a lead (or uranium) shell. Between the charges is a shield of neutron protection. The space between the walls of the container with thermonuclear fuel and the body of the bomb is filled with a special plastic, usually Styrofoam. The body of the bomb itself is made of steel or aluminum.

These shapes have changed in recent designs such as the one shown in the figure below.

In it, the primary charge is flattened, like a watermelon or an American football ball, and the secondary charge is spherical. Such shapes fit much more effectively into the internal volume of conical missile warheads.

Thermonuclear explosion sequence

When the primary atomic bomb detonates, then in the first moments of this process, powerful x-ray radiation (neutron flux) is generated, which is partially blocked by the neutron shield, and is reflected from the inner lining of the case surrounding the secondary charge, so that x-rays fall symmetrically on it throughout its entire length. length.

On the early stages In a thermonuclear reaction, the neutrons from the atomic explosion are absorbed by the plastic core to prevent the fuel from heating up too quickly.

X-rays cause the appearance of an initially dense plastic foam that fills the space between the case and the secondary charge, which quickly turns into a plasma state that heats and compresses the secondary charge.

In addition, the X-rays vaporize the surface of the container surrounding the secondary charge. The substance of the container, symmetrically evaporating with respect to this charge, acquires a certain impulse directed from its axis, and the layers of the secondary charge, according to the law of conservation of momentum, receive an impulse directed towards the axis of the device. The principle here is the same as in a rocket, only if we imagine that the rocket fuel is scattered symmetrically from its axis, and the body is compressed inward.

As a result of such compression of thermonuclear fuel, its volume decreases thousands of times, and the temperature reaches the level of the beginning of the nuclear fusion reaction. A thermonuclear bomb explodes. The reaction is accompanied by the formation of tritium nuclei, which merge with the deuterium nuclei that were originally present in the secondary charge.

The first secondary charges were built around a rod core of plutonium, informally called a "candle", which entered into a nuclear fission reaction, that is, another, additional atomic explosion was carried out in order to raise the temperature even more to guarantee the start of the nuclear fusion reaction. It is now believed that more efficient compression systems have eliminated the "candle", allowing further miniaturization of the bomb design.

Operation Ivy

That was the name given to the tests of American thermonuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands in 1952, during which the first thermonuclear bomb was detonated. It was called Ivy Mike and was built according to the typical Teller-Ulam scheme. Its secondary thermonuclear charge was placed in a cylindrical container, which was a thermally insulated Dewar vessel with thermonuclear fuel in the form of liquid deuterium, along the axis of which a "candle" of 239-plutonium passed. The Dewar, in turn, was covered with a layer of 238-uranium weighing more than 5 metric tons, which evaporated during the explosion, providing a symmetrical compression of the fusion fuel. The container with primary and secondary charges was placed in a steel case 80 inches wide and 244 inches long with walls 10-12 inches thick, which was the largest example of a wrought product up to that time. The inner surface of the case was lined with sheets of lead and polyethylene to reflect radiation after the explosion of the primary charge and create a plasma that heats up the secondary charge. The entire device weighed 82 tons. A view of the device shortly before the explosion is shown in the photo below.

The first test of a thermonuclear bomb took place on October 31, 1952. The power of the explosion was 10.4 megatons. Attol Eniwetok, on which it was produced, was completely destroyed. The moment of the explosion is shown in the photo below.

USSR gives a symmetrical answer

The US thermonuclear primacy did not last long. On August 12, 1953, the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb RDS-6, developed under the leadership of Andrei Sakharov and Yuli Khariton, was tested at the Semipalatinsk test site. but rather a laboratory device, cumbersome and highly imperfect. Soviet scientists, despite the low power of only 400 kg, tested a completely finished ammunition with thermonuclear fuel in the form of solid lithium deuteride, and not liquid deuterium, like the Americans. By the way, it should be noted that only the 6 Li isotope is used in the composition of lithium deuteride (this is due to the peculiarities of the passage of thermonuclear reactions), and in nature it is mixed with the 7 Li isotope. Therefore, special facilities were built for the separation of lithium isotopes and the selection of only 6 Li.

Reaching power limit

This was followed by a decade of uninterrupted arms race, during which the power of thermonuclear munitions continuously increased. Finally, on October 30, 1961, in the USSR over the test site New Earth in the air at an altitude of about 4 km, the most powerful thermonuclear bomb that had ever been built and tested, known in the West as the "Tsar Bomba", was detonated.

This three-stage munition was actually developed as a 101.5-megaton bomb, but the desire to reduce the radioactive contamination of the territory forced the developers to abandon the third stage with a capacity of 50 megatons and reduce the estimated yield of the device to 51.5 megatons. At the same time, 1.5 megatons was the explosion power of the primary atomic charge, and the second thermonuclear stage was supposed to give another 50. The actual explosion power was up to 58 megatons. The appearance of the bomb is shown in the photo below.

Its consequences were impressive. Despite the very significant explosion height of 4000 m, the incredibly bright fireball almost reached the Earth with its lower edge, and rose to a height of more than 4.5 km with its upper edge. The pressure below the burst point was six times the peak pressure at the Hiroshima explosion. The flash of light was so bright that it could be seen at a distance of 1000 kilometers, despite the cloudy weather. One of the test participants saw a bright flash through dark glasses and felt the effects of a thermal pulse even at a distance of 270 km. A photo of the moment of the explosion is shown below.

At the same time, it was shown that the power of a thermonuclear charge really has no limits. After all, it was enough to complete the third stage, and the design capacity would have been achieved. But you can increase the number of steps further, since the weight of the Tsar Bomba was no more than 27 tons. The view of this device is shown in the photo below.

After these tests, it became clear to many politicians and military men both in the USSR and in the USA that the nuclear arms race had reached its limit and that it had to be stopped.

Modern Russia has inherited the nuclear arsenal of the USSR. Today, Russia's thermonuclear bombs continue to serve as a deterrent to those seeking world hegemony. Let's hope they play their role only as a deterrent and never get blown up.

The sun as a fusion reactor

It is well known that the temperature of the Sun, more precisely its core, reaching 15,000,000 °K, is maintained due to the continuous flow of thermonuclear reactions. However, everything that we could learn from the previous text speaks of the explosive nature of such processes. Then why doesn't the sun explode like a thermonuclear bomb?

The fact is that with a huge proportion of hydrogen in the composition of the solar mass, which reaches 71%, the proportion of its deuterium isotope, the nuclei of which can only participate in the thermonuclear fusion reaction, is negligible. The fact is that deuterium nuclei themselves are formed as a result of the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei, and not just a fusion, but with the decay of one of the protons into a neutron, positron and neutrino (the so-called beta decay), which is a rare event. In this case, the resulting deuterium nuclei are distributed fairly evenly over the volume of the solar core. Therefore, with its huge size and mass, individual and rare centers of thermonuclear reactions of relatively low power are, as it were, spread over the entire core of the Sun. The heat released during these reactions is clearly not enough to instantly burn out all the deuterium in the Sun, but it is enough to heat it up to a temperature that ensures life on Earth.

atomic weapons - a device that receives huge explosive power from the reactions of NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion.

About atomic weapons

Nuclear weapons are the most powerful weapon today, which is in service with five countries: Russia, the USA, Great Britain, France and China. There are also a number of states that are more or less successful in the development of atomic weapons, but their research is either not completed, or these countries do not have necessary funds delivery of weapons to the target. India, Pakistan, North Korea, Iraq, Iran have the development of nuclear weapons at different levels, Germany, Israel, South Africa and Japan theoretically have the necessary capabilities to create nuclear weapons in a relatively short time.

It is difficult to overestimate the role of nuclear weapons. On the one hand, this is a powerful deterrent, on the other hand, it is the most effective tool for strengthening peace and preventing military conflicts between powers that possess these weapons. It has been 52 years since the first use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. Global community came close to realizing that a nuclear war would inevitably lead to a global ecological disaster which will make the further existence of mankind impossible. Over the years, legal mechanisms have been put in place to defuse tensions and ease the confrontation between the nuclear powers. For example, many agreements were signed to reduce nuclear capability powers, the Convention on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was signed, according to which the possessor countries pledged not to transfer the technology for the production of these weapons to other countries, and the countries that do not have nuclear weapons pledged not to take steps to develop it; Finally, most recently, the superpowers agreed on a total ban on nuclear tests. It is obvious that nuclear weapons are the most important instrument that has become the regulatory symbol of an entire era in the history of international relations and in the history of mankind.

atomic weapons

NUCLEAR WEAPON, a device that derives tremendous explosive power from the reactions of ATOMIC NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion. The first nuclear weapons were used by the United States against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. These atomic bombs consisted of two stable doctritic masses of URANIUM and PLUTONIUM, which, when strongly collided, caused an excess of CRITICAL MASS, thereby provoking an uncontrolled CHAIN ​​REACTION of atomic fission. In such explosions, a huge amount of energy and destructive radiation is released: the explosive power can be equal to the power of 200,000 tons of trinitrotoluene. The much more powerful hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear bomb), first tested in 1952, consists of an atomic bomb that, when detonated, creates a temperature high enough to cause nuclear fusion in a nearby solid layer, usually lithium deterrite. Explosive power can be equal to the power of several million tons (megatons) of trinitrotoluene. The area of ​​destruction caused by such bombs reaches a large size: a 15 megaton bomb will explode all burning substances within 20 km. The third type of nuclear weapon, neutron bomb, is a small hydrogen bomb, also called a high-radiation weapon. It causes a weak explosion, which, however, is accompanied by an intense release of high-speed NEUTRONS. The weakness of the explosion means that the buildings are not damaged much. Neutrons, on the other hand, cause severe radiation sickness in people within a certain radius of the explosion site, and kill all those affected within a week.

Initially, an atomic bomb explosion (A) forms a fireball (1) with a temperature of millions of degrees Celsius and emits radiation (?) After a few minutes (B), the ball increases in volume and creates! high pressure(3). The fireball rises (C), sucking up dust and debris, and forms a mushroom cloud (D), As it expands in volume, the fireball creates a powerful convection current (4), emitting hot radiation (5) and forming a cloud (6), When it explodes 15 megaton bomb blast destruction is complete (7) within an 8 km radius, severe (8) within a 15 km radius and noticeable (I) within a 30 km radius Even at a distance of 20 km (10) all flammable substances explode within two days fallout continues with a radioactive dose of 300 roentgens after a bomb detonation 300 km away The attached photograph shows how a large nuclear weapon explosion on the ground creates a huge mushroom cloud of radioactive dust and debris that can reach a height of several kilometers. Dangerous dust in the air is then freely carried by the prevailing winds in any direction. Devastation covers a vast area.

Modern atomic bombs and projectiles

Radius of action

Depending on the power of the atomic charge, atomic bombs are divided into calibers: small, medium and large . To obtain energy equal to the energy of an explosion of a small-caliber atomic bomb, several thousand tons of TNT must be blown up. The TNT equivalent of a medium-caliber atomic bomb is tens of thousands, and large-caliber bombs are hundreds of thousands of tons of TNT. Thermonuclear (hydrogen) weapons can have even greater power, their TNT equivalent can reach millions and even tens of millions of tons. Atomic bombs, the TNT equivalent of which is 1-50 thousand tons, are classified as tactical atomic bombs and are intended for solving operational-tactical problems. Tactical weapons also include: artillery shells with an atomic charge with a capacity of 10-15 thousand tons and atomic charges (with a capacity of about 5-20 thousand tons) for anti-aircraft guided projectiles and projectiles used to arm fighters. Atomic and hydrogen bombs with a capacity of over 50 thousand tons are classified as strategic weapons.

It should be noted that such a classification of atomic weapons is only conditional, since in reality the consequences of the use of tactical atomic weapons can be no less than those experienced by the population of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and even greater. It is now obvious that the explosion of only one hydrogen bomb is capable of causing such severe consequences over vast territories that tens of thousands of shells and bombs used in past world wars did not carry with them. A few hydrogen bombs quite enough to turn vast territories into a desert zone.

Nuclear weapons are divided into 2 main types: atomic and hydrogen (thermonuclear). AT atomic weapons the release of energy occurs due to the fission reaction of the nuclei of atoms of the heavy elements of uranium or plutonium. AT hydrogen weapons energy is released as a result of the formation (or synthesis) of nuclei of helium atoms from hydrogen atoms.

thermonuclear weapons

Modern thermonuclear weapons are classified as strategic weapons that can be used by aviation to destroy the most important industrial, military facilities, large cities as civilization centers behind enemy lines. The most well-known type of thermonuclear weapons are thermonuclear (hydrogen) bombs, which can be delivered to the target by aircraft. Thermonuclear warheads can also be used to launch missiles for various purposes, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. For the first time, such a missile was tested in the USSR back in 1957, and is currently in service with Missile Troops Strategic Purpose consist of several types of missiles based on mobile launchers, in mine launchers, on submarines.

Atomic bomb

The operation of thermonuclear weapons is based on the use of a thermonuclear reaction with hydrogen or its compounds. In these reactions, which proceed at ultrahigh temperatures and pressures, energy is released due to the formation of helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei, or from hydrogen and lithium nuclei. For the formation of helium, mainly heavy hydrogen is used - deuterium, the nuclei of which have an unusual structure - one proton and one neutron. When deuterium is heated to temperatures of several tens of millions of degrees, its atoms lose their electron shells during the very first collisions with other atoms. As a result, the medium turns out to consist only of protons and electrons moving independently of them. The speed of thermal motion of particles reaches such values ​​that deuterium nuclei can approach each other and, due to the action of powerful nuclear forces, combine with each other, forming helium nuclei. The result of this process is the release of energy.

The basic scheme of the hydrogen bomb is as follows. Deuterium and tritium in the liquid state are placed in a tank with a heat-impermeable shell, which serves to keep the deuterium and tritium in a strongly cooled state for a long time (to maintain it from the liquid state of aggregation). The heat-impervious shell can contain 3 layers consisting of a hard alloy, solid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen. An atomic charge is placed near a reservoir of hydrogen isotopes. When an atomic charge is detonated, hydrogen isotopes are heated to high temperatures, conditions are created for a thermonuclear reaction to occur and an explosion of a hydrogen bomb. However, in the process of creating hydrogen bombs, it was found that it was impractical to use hydrogen isotopes, since in this case the bomb acquires too big weight(more than 60 tons), because of which it was impossible to even think about using such charges on strategic bombers, and even more so in ballistic missiles any range. The second problem faced by the developers of the hydrogen bomb was the radioactivity of tritium, which made it impossible to store it for a long time.

In study 2, the above problems were solved. The liquid isotopes of hydrogen were replaced by the solid chemical compound of deuterium with lithium-6. This made it possible to significantly reduce the size and weight of the hydrogen bomb. In addition, lithium hydride was used instead of tritium, which made it possible to place thermonuclear charges on fighter bombers and ballistic missiles.

The creation of the hydrogen bomb was not the end of the development of thermonuclear weapons, more and more of its samples appeared, a hydrogen-uranium bomb was created, as well as some of its varieties - super-powerful and, conversely, small-caliber bombs. The last stage in the improvement of thermonuclear weapons was the creation of the so-called "clean" hydrogen bomb.

H-bomb

The first developments of this modification of a thermonuclear bomb appeared back in 1957, in the wake of US propaganda statements about the creation of some kind of “humane” thermonuclear weapon that does not cause as much harm to future generations as an ordinary thermonuclear bomb. There was some truth in the claims to "humanity". Although the destructive power of the bomb was not less, at the same time it could be detonated so that strontium-90 did not spread, which poisons for a long time in a conventional hydrogen explosion. earth's atmosphere. Everything that is within the range of such a bomb will be destroyed, but the danger to living organisms that are removed from the explosion, as well as to future generations, will decrease. However, these allegations were refuted by scientists, who recalled that during the explosions of atomic or hydrogen bombs, a large amount of radioactive dust is formed, which rises with a powerful air flow to a height of up to 30 km, and then gradually settles to the ground over a large area, infecting it. Studies by scientists show that it will take 4 to 7 years for half of this dust to fall to the ground.

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