Hydrogen weapons. Nuclear weapons and their damaging factors

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Explosion initiator (trigger). This type of weapon does not create long-term radioactive contamination, due to the absence of decaying substances in it. At present, it is considered theoretically, of course, possible, but the ways of practical implementation are not clear.

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Concept

In modern thermonuclear weapons, the conditions necessary for the start of a nuclear fusion reaction are created by detonating a trigger - a small plutonium nuclear charge. The explosion of the trigger creates the heat and pressure necessary to start a fusion reaction in the lithium deuteride. At the same time, the main part of the long-term radioactive contamination in a thermonuclear explosion is provided by radioactive substances in the trigger.

However, the conditions for the start of a thermonuclear reaction can be created without the use of a nuclear trigger. Such conditions are created in laboratory experiments and experimental thermonuclear reactors. Theoretically, it is possible to create a thermonuclear weapon in which the reaction will be initiated without the use of a trigger charge - a "pure thermonuclear" weapon.

Such a weapon will have the following advantages:

Neutron variant of a pure thermonuclear weapon

The main damaging factor in a purely thermonuclear device can be a powerful burst of neutron radiation [ ] , rather than a thermal flash or shock wave [ ] . Thus, collateral damage from detonating such weapons can be limited. On the other hand, this makes purely thermonuclear weapons not the best remedy for those situations when it is necessary to destroy solid structures that do not contain biological matter or electronic devices (for example, bridges).

The disadvantages of the neutron version of a pure thermonuclear weapon are the same as any neutron weapon:

Due to the strong absorption and scattering of neutrons in the atmosphere, the range of destruction by neutron radiation, compared with the range of destruction of unprotected targets by a shock wave from an explosion of a conventional nuclear charge of the same power, is small.
The interaction of neutrons with structural and biological materials leads to the appearance of induced radioactivity, that is, the weapon is not completely “clean”.
Armored vehicles, since the 1960s, have been developed taking into account the possibility of using neutron weapons. New types of armor have been developed that are already capable of protecting equipment and its crew from neutron radiation. For this purpose, sheets with a high content of boron, which is a good absorber of neutrons, are added to the armor, and depleted uranium is added to the armor steel. In addition, the composition of the armor is chosen so that it does not contain elements that give strong induced radioactivity under the action of neutron irradiation. Thus, modern armored vehicles are extremely resistant to neutron weapons as well.

Possible Solutions

Various paths Solutions to the problem of clean thermonuclear weapons have been considered continuously since 1992, but at present have not yielded a positive result. The main problem is the significant complexity of creating the conditions for the start of a thermonuclear reaction. In laboratory experiments and thermonuclear reactors, such conditions are created by large-sized installations, which are also very energy-intensive. At present, it is not possible to create thermonuclear weapons suitable for use in combat conditions, based, for example, on laser ignition reactions - the lasers required for this are huge and consume a significant amount of energy.

There are several theoretically possible ways to solve the problem:

Pure thermonuclear weapon on a shock wave emitter

It seems theoretically possible to create a relatively compact purely thermonuclear weapon based on a shock wave emitter. At the same time, a pulse of electromagnetic radiation of the radio frequency range is used to start a thermonuclear reaction.

According to theoretical calculations, a pure thermonuclear device based on a shock wave emitter will have a TNT equivalent approximately comparable to its own mass, or even less. Thus, as explosive device it would be completely ineffective. However, most of the energy (up to 80%) will be released in the form of a neutron flux capable of hitting an enemy at a distance of hundreds of meters from the epicenter. Such a weapon would, in fact, be a pure neutron weapon - leaving no radioactive contamination and causing little to no collateral damage.

Modern thermonuclear weapons are classified as strategic weapons that can be used by aviation to destroy the most important industrial, military facilities, large cities as civilization centers behind enemy lines. The most well-known type of thermonuclear weapons are thermonuclear (hydrogen) bombs, which can be delivered to the target by aircraft. Thermonuclear warheads can also be used to launch missiles for various purposes, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. For the first time, such a missile was tested in the USSR back in 1957, and is currently in service with Missile Troops Strategic Purpose consist of several types of missiles based on mobile launchers, in mine launchers, on submarines.

The operation of thermonuclear weapons is based on the use of a thermonuclear reaction with hydrogen or its compounds. In these reactions, which proceed at ultrahigh temperatures and pressures, energy is released due to the formation of helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei, or from hydrogen and lithium nuclei. For the formation of helium, mainly heavy hydrogen is used - deuterium, the nuclei of which have an unusual structure - one proton and one neutron. When deuterium is heated to temperatures of several tens of millions of degrees, its atoms lose their electron shells during the very first collisions with other atoms. As a result, the medium turns out to consist only of protons and electrons moving independently of them. The speed of the thermal motion of particles reaches such values that deuterium nuclei can approach each other and, thanks to the action of powerful nuclear forces combine with each other to form helium nuclei. The result of this process is the release of energy.

The basic scheme of the hydrogen bomb is as follows. Deuterium and tritium in the liquid state are placed in a tank with a heat-impermeable shell, which serves to keep the deuterium and tritium in a strongly cooled state for a long time (to maintain it from the liquid state of aggregation). The heat-impervious shell can contain 3 layers consisting of a hard alloy, solid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen. An atomic charge is placed near a reservoir of hydrogen isotopes. When an atomic charge is detonated, hydrogen isotopes are heated to high temperatures, conditions are created for a thermonuclear reaction to occur and an explosion of a hydrogen bomb. However, in the process of creating hydrogen bombs it was found that it was impractical to use hydrogen isotopes, since in this case the bomb acquires too big weight(more than 60 tons), because of which it was impossible to even think about using such charges on strategic bombers, and even more so in ballistic missiles any range. The second problem faced by the developers of the hydrogen bomb was the radioactivity of tritium, which made it impossible to store it for a long time.

In study 2, the above problems were solved. The liquid isotopes of hydrogen were replaced by the solid chemical compound of deuterium with lithium-6. This made it possible to significantly reduce the size and weight of the hydrogen bomb. In addition, lithium hydride was used instead of tritium, which made it possible to place thermonuclear charges on fighter bombers and ballistic missiles.

The creation of the hydrogen bomb was not the end of the development of thermonuclear weapons, more and more of its samples appeared, a hydrogen-uranium bomb was created, as well as some of its varieties - super-powerful and, conversely, small-caliber bombs. The last stage in the improvement of thermonuclear weapons was the creation of the so-called "clean" hydrogen bomb, which will be described below.

Thermonuclear weapon (aka Hydrogen bomb) - type of weapon mass destruction, the destructive power of which is based on the use of the reaction energy of the nuclear fusion of light elements into heavier ones (for example, the synthesis of one nucleus of a helium atom from two nuclei of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) atoms), in which an enormous amount of energy is released. Having the same damaging factors Like nuclear weapons, thermonuclear weapons have a much higher explosive yield. Theoretically, it is limited only by the number of components available. It should be noted that the oft-cited assertion that radioactive contamination from a thermonuclear explosion is much weaker than from an atomic explosion refers to fusion reactions, which are used only in conjunction with much more "dirty" fission reactions. The term "clean weapon", which appeared in English-language literature, fell into disuse by the end of the 1970s. In fact, it all depends on the type of reaction used in a particular product. Thus, the inclusion of elements from uranium-238 in a thermonuclear charge (At the same time, uranium-238 used in a hydrogen bomb decays under the action of fast neutrons and gives radioactive fragments. The neutrons themselves produce induced radioactivity.) allows you to significantly (up to five times) increase the total power explosion, but significantly (5-10 times) increases the amount of radioactive fallout.

Teller-Ulam scheme.

general description

A thermonuclear explosive device can be built using either liquid deuterium or gaseous compressed deuterium. But the appearance of thermonuclear weapons became possible only thanks to a variety of lithium hydride - lithium-6 deuteride. This is a compound of the heavy isotope of hydrogen - deuterium and the isotope of lithium with a mass number of 6.

Lithium-6 deuteride is a solid substance that allows you to store deuterium (whose normal state is a gas under normal conditions) at positive temperatures, and, in addition, its second component, lithium-6, is a raw material for obtaining the most scarce isotope of hydrogen - tritium. Actually, 6Li is the only industrial source of tritium:

Early US thermonuclear munitions also used natural lithium deuteride, which contains mainly a lithium isotope with a mass number of 7. It also serves as a source of tritium, but for this, the neutrons involved in the reaction must have an energy of 10 MeV and higher.

A thermonuclear bomb, operating on the Teller-Ulam principle, consists of two stages: a trigger and a container with thermonuclear fuel.

The trigger is a small fusion-enhanced plutonium nuclear weapon with a yield of several kilotons. The task of the trigger is to create the necessary conditions for inciting a thermonuclear reaction - high temperature and pressure.

The thermonuclear fuel container is the main element of the bomb. It is made from uranium-238, a substance that decays under the influence of fast neutrons (>1 MeV) released during the fusion reaction and absorbs slow neutrons. May be made from lead. The container is covered with a layer of neutron absorber (boron compounds) to prevent premature heating of the thermonuclear fuel by the neutron flux from the trigger, which can prevent its effective compression. Inside the container is thermonuclear fuel - lithium-6 deuteride - and a plutonium rod located along the axis of the container, which plays the role of a fuse for a thermonuclear reaction. The coaxial trigger and container are filled with a special plastic that conducts radiation from the trigger to the container, and are placed in a bomb body made of steel or aluminum.

It is possible that the second stage is made not in the form of a cylinder, but in the form of a sphere. The principle of operation is the same, but instead of a plutonium ignition rod, a plutonium hollow sphere is used, located inside and interspersed with layers of lithium-6 deuteride. Nuclear testing of bombs with a spherical second stage proved to be more effective than bombs using a cylindrical second stage.

When the trigger explodes, 80% of the energy released from it is spent on a powerful pulse of soft X-rays, which is absorbed by the shell of the second stage. As a result of a sharp heating of the uranium (lead) shell, ablation of the shell substance occurs and a jet thrust appears, which, together with light pressure, compresses the second stage. At the same time, its volume decreases by several thousand times, and thermonuclear fuel is heated to temperatures close to the minimum for starting the reaction. The plutonium rod goes into a supercritical state, and begins nuclear reaction inside the container. The neutrons emitted by the burning plutonium rod interact with lithium-6, resulting in tritium, which interacts with deuterium.

A Warhead before explosion; the first step is at the top, the second step is at the bottom. Both components of a thermonuclear bomb.
B Explosive undermines the first stage, compressing the plutonium core to a supercritical state and initiating a fission chain reaction.
C During the splitting process in the first stage, an X-ray pulse occurs, which propagates along the inner part of the shell, penetrating through the polystyrene foam filler.
D The second stage is compressed due to ablation (evaporation) under the influence of X-rays, and the plutonium rod inside the second stage goes into a supercritical state, initiating a chain reaction, releasing a huge amount of heat.
E In the compressed and heated lithium-6 deuteride, a fusion reaction occurs, the emitted neutron flux is the initiator of the tamper splitting reaction. The fireball is expanding...

atomic weapons - a device that receives huge explosive power from the reactions of NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion.

About atomic weapons

Nuclear weapons are the most powerful weapon today, which is in service with five countries: Russia, the USA, Great Britain, France and China. There are also a number of states that are more or less successful in the development of atomic weapons, but their research is either not completed, or these countries do not have necessary means delivery of weapons to the target. India, Pakistan, North Korea, Iraq, Iran have the development of nuclear weapons at different levels, Germany, Israel, South Africa and Japan theoretically have the necessary capabilities to create nuclear weapons in a relatively short time.

It is difficult to overestimate the role of nuclear weapons. On the one hand, this is a powerful deterrent, on the other hand, it is the most effective tool for strengthening peace and preventing military conflicts between powers that possess these weapons. It has been 52 years since the first use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. Global community came close to realizing that nuclear war will inevitably lead to global ecological disaster which will make the further existence of mankind impossible. Over the years, legal mechanisms have been put in place to defuse tensions and ease the confrontation between nuclear powers. For example, many agreements were signed to reduce nuclear capability powers, the Convention on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was signed, according to which the possessor countries pledged not to transfer the technology for the production of these weapons to other countries, and the countries that do not have nuclear weapons pledged not to take steps to develop it; Finally, most recently, the superpowers agreed on a total ban on nuclear testing. It is obvious that nuclear weapons are the most important instrument that has become the regulatory symbol of an entire era in the history of international relations and in the history of mankind.

atomic weapons

NUCLEAR WEAPON, a device that derives tremendous explosive power from the reactions of ATOMIC NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion. The first nuclear weapons were used by the United States against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. These atomic bombs consisted of two stable doctritic masses of URANIUM and PLUTONIUM, which, when strongly collided, caused an excess of CRITICAL MASS, thereby provoking an uncontrolled CHAIN REACTION of atomic fission. In such explosions, a huge amount of energy and destructive radiation is released: the explosive power can be equal to the power of 200,000 tons of trinitrotoluene. The much more powerful hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear bomb), first tested in 1952, consists of an atomic bomb that, when detonated, creates a temperature high enough to cause nuclear fusion in a nearby solid layer, usually lithium deterrite. Explosive power can be equal to the power of several million tons (megatons) of trinitrotoluene. The area of destruction caused by such bombs reaches a large size: a 15 megaton bomb will explode all burning substances within 20 km. The third type of nuclear weapon, neutron bomb, is a small hydrogen bomb, also called a high-radiation weapon. It causes a weak explosion, which, however, is accompanied by an intense release of high-speed NEUTRONS. The weakness of the explosion means that the buildings are not damaged much. Neutrons, on the other hand, cause severe radiation sickness in people within a certain radius of the explosion site, and kill all those affected within a week.

Initially, an atomic bomb explosion (A) forms a fireball (1) with a temperature of millions of degrees Celsius and emits radiation (?) After a few minutes (B), the ball increases in volume and creates! high pressure(3). The fireball rises (C), sucking up dust and debris, and forms a mushroom cloud (D), As it expands in volume, the fireball creates a powerful convection current (4), emitting hot radiation (5) and forming a cloud (6), When it explodes 15 megaton bomb blast destruction is complete (7) within an 8 km radius, severe (8) within a 15 km radius and noticeable (I) within a 30 km radius Even at a distance of 20 km (10) all flammable substances explode within two days fallout continues with a radioactive dose of 300 roentgens after a bomb detonation 300 km away The attached photograph shows how a large nuclear weapon explosion on the ground creates a huge mushroom cloud of radioactive dust and debris that can reach a height of several kilometers. Dangerous dust in the air is then freely carried by the prevailing winds in any direction. Devastation covers a vast area.

Modern atomic bombs and projectiles

Radius of action

Depending on the power of the atomic charge, atomic bombs are divided into calibers: small, medium and large . To obtain energy equal to the energy of an explosion of a small-caliber atomic bomb, several thousand tons of TNT must be blown up. The TNT equivalent of a medium-caliber atomic bomb is tens of thousands, and bombs large caliber- hundreds of thousands of tons of TNT. Thermonuclear (hydrogen) weapons can have even greater power, their TNT equivalent can reach millions and even tens of millions of tons. Atomic bombs, the TNT equivalent of which is 1-50 thousand tons, are classified as tactical atomic bombs and intended for solving operational-tactical tasks. Tactical weapons also include: artillery shells with an atomic charge with a capacity of 10-15 thousand tons and atomic charges (with a capacity of about 5-20 thousand tons) for anti-aircraft guided projectiles and projectiles used to arm fighters. Atomic and hydrogen bombs with a capacity of over 50 thousand tons are classified as strategic weapons.

It should be noted that such a classification of atomic weapons is only conditional, since in reality the consequences of the use of tactical atomic weapons can be no less than those experienced by the population of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and even greater. It is now obvious that the explosion of only one hydrogen bomb is capable of causing such severe consequences over vast territories that tens of thousands of shells and bombs used in past world wars did not carry with them. And a few hydrogen bombs are enough to turn huge territories into a desert zone.

Nuclear weapons are divided into 2 main types: atomic and hydrogen (thermonuclear). In atomic weapons, the release of energy occurs due to the fission reaction of the nuclei of atoms of the heavy elements of uranium or plutonium. In hydrogen weapons, energy is released as a result of the formation (or fusion) of nuclei of helium atoms from hydrogen atoms.

thermonuclear weapons

Modern thermonuclear weapons are classified as strategic weapons that can be used by aviation to destroy the most important industrial, military facilities, large cities as civilization centers behind enemy lines. The most well-known type of thermonuclear weapons are thermonuclear (hydrogen) bombs, which can be delivered to the target by aircraft. Thermonuclear warheads can also be used to launch missiles for various purposes, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. For the first time, such a missile was tested in the USSR back in 1957; at present, the Strategic Missile Forces are armed with several types of missiles based on mobile launchers, in silo launchers, and on submarines.

Atomic bomb

The operation of thermonuclear weapons is based on the use of a thermonuclear reaction with hydrogen or its compounds. In these reactions, which proceed at ultrahigh temperatures and pressures, energy is released due to the formation of helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei, or from hydrogen and lithium nuclei. For the formation of helium, mainly heavy hydrogen is used - deuterium, the nuclei of which have an unusual structure - one proton and one neutron. When deuterium is heated to temperatures of several tens of millions of degrees, its atoms lose their electron shells during the very first collisions with other atoms. As a result, the medium turns out to consist only of protons and electrons moving independently of them. The speed of thermal motion of particles reaches such values that deuterium nuclei can approach each other and, due to the action of powerful nuclear forces, combine with each other, forming helium nuclei. The result of this process is the release of energy.

The basic scheme of the hydrogen bomb is as follows. Deuterium and tritium in the liquid state are placed in a tank with a heat-impermeable shell, which serves to keep the deuterium and tritium in a strongly cooled state for a long time (to maintain it from the liquid state of aggregation). The heat-impervious shell can contain 3 layers consisting of a hard alloy, solid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen. An atomic charge is placed near a reservoir of hydrogen isotopes. When an atomic charge is detonated, hydrogen isotopes are heated to high temperatures, conditions are created for a thermonuclear reaction to occur and an explosion of a hydrogen bomb. However, in the process of creating hydrogen bombs, it was found that it was impractical to use hydrogen isotopes, since in this case the bomb becomes too heavy (more than 60 tons), which made it impossible to even think about using such charges on strategic bombers, and especially in ballistic missiles of any range. The second problem faced by the developers of the hydrogen bomb was the radioactivity of tritium, which made it impossible to store it for a long time.

H-bomb

The first developments of this modification of a thermonuclear bomb appeared back in 1957, in the wake of US propaganda statements about the creation of some kind of “humane” thermonuclear weapon that does not cause as much harm to future generations as an ordinary thermonuclear bomb. There was some truth in the claims to "humanity". Although the destructive power of the bomb was not less, at the same time it could be detonated so that strontium-90 did not spread, which poisons for a long time in a conventional hydrogen explosion. earth's atmosphere. Everything that is within the range of such a bomb will be destroyed, but the danger to living organisms that are removed from the explosion, as well as to future generations, will decrease. However, these allegations were refuted by scientists, who recalled that during the explosions of atomic or hydrogen bombs, a large amount of radioactive dust is formed, which rises with a powerful air flow to a height of up to 30 km, and then gradually settles to the ground over a large area, infecting it. Studies by scientists show that it will take 4 to 7 years for half of this dust to fall to the ground.

Video

Nuclear weapons - weapons of mass destruction of explosive action, based on the use of fission energy of heavy nuclei of certain isotopes of uranium and plutonium, or with thermonuclear reactions synthesis of light nuclei of hydrogen isotopes of deuterium and tritium, into heavier nuclei, for example, nuclei of helium isotopes.

Warheads of missiles and torpedoes, aviation and depth charges, artillery shells and mines can be equipped with nuclear charges. By power, nuclear weapons are distinguished as ultra-small (less than 1 kt), small (1-10 kt), medium (10-100 kt), large (100-1000 kt) and extra-large (more than 1000 kt). Depending on the tasks to be solved, it is possible to use nuclear weapons in the form of underground, ground, air, underwater and surface explosions. Features of the damaging effect of nuclear weapons on the population are determined not only by the power of the ammunition and the type of explosion, but also by the type of nuclear device. Depending on the charge, there are: atomic weapon, which is based on the fission reaction; thermonuclear weapons - when using a fusion reaction; combined charges; neutron weapons.

The only fissile material found in nature in appreciable quantities is an isotope of uranium with a nucleus mass of 235 atomic units masses (uranium-235). The content of this isotope in natural uranium is only 0.7%. The rest is uranium-238. Because the Chemical properties isotopes are exactly the same, to isolate uranium-235 from natural uranium, it is necessary to carry out a rather complicated process of isotope separation. The result can be highly enriched uranium, containing about 94% uranium-235, which is suitable for use in nuclear weapons.

Fissile substances can be obtained artificially, and the least difficult from a practical point of view is the production of plutonium-239, which is formed as a result of the capture of a neutron by a uranium-238 nucleus (and the subsequent chain of radioactive decays of intermediate nuclei). A similar process can be carried out in a nuclear reactor running on natural or low enriched uranium. In the future, plutonium can be separated from the spent fuel of the reactor in the process of chemical processing of fuel, which is much simpler than the isotope separation process carried out in the production of weapons-grade uranium.

Other fissile substances can also be used to create nuclear explosive devices, for example, uranium-233 obtained by irradiating thorium-232 in a nuclear reactor. However practical use found only uranium-235 and plutonium-239, primarily because of the relative ease of obtaining these materials.

The possibility of practical use of the energy released during nuclear fission is due to the fact that the fission reaction can have a chain, self-sustaining character. In each fission event, approximately two secondary neutrons are produced, which, being captured by the nuclei of the fissile material, can cause their fission, which in turn leads to the formation of even more neutrons. When special conditions are created, the number of neutrons, and hence the number of fission events, grows from generation to generation.

The explosion of the first nuclear explosive device was carried out by the United States on July 16, 1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico. The device was a plutonium bomb that used a directed explosion to create criticality. The power of the explosion was about 20 kt. In the USSR, the explosion of the first nuclear explosive device, similar to the American one, was carried out on August 29, 1949.

In thermonuclear weapons, the energy of the explosion is generated during the fusion reactions of light nuclei, such as deuterium, tritium, which are isotopes of hydrogen or lithium. Such reactions can only occur at very high temperatures, at which kinetic energy nuclei is sufficient to bring the nuclei together at a sufficiently small distance.

The use of fusion reactions to increase the power of the explosion can be done in different ways. The first way is to place a container with deuterium or tritium (or lithium deuteride) inside a conventional nuclear device. Arising at the time of the explosion high temperatures lead to the fact that the nuclei of light elements enter into a reaction, due to which additional energy is released. Using this method, you can significantly increase the power of the explosion. At the same time, the power of such an explosive device is still limited by the finite time of expansion of the fissile material.

Another way is the creation of multi-stage explosive devices, in which, due to a special configuration of the explosive device, the energy of a conventional nuclear charge (the so-called primary charge) is used to create the necessary temperatures in a separately located "secondary" thermonuclear charge, the energy of which, in turn, can be used to detonate the third charge, etc. The first test of such a device - the Mike explosion - was carried out in the USA on November 1, 1952. In the USSR, such a device was first tested on November 22, 1955. The power of an explosive device designed in this way can be arbitrarily large. The most powerful nuclear explosion was produced precisely with the help of a multi-stage explosive device. The power of the explosion was 60 Mt, and the power of the device was used by only one third.