The position of the country in relation to the most important lines of international communications. Practical work in geography

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Goals:

• Consider the concept of international conflicts, the causes of their occurrence, the division of international conflicts.
• Consider the causes of international conflicts, their positive and negative sides.
• Consider the classification of conflicts in the modern world.
• The concept of the political and geographical position of the country.

Equipment: computer, interactive board, political map of the world, atlases.

During the classes

1. Organizational moment

2. Learning new material.

Slide 3. Consider the concept of international conflict.

An international conflict is a kind of international relations that various states enter into on the basis of conflicting interests.

An international conflict is a special, and not a routine, political relationship, since it means both objectively and subjectively the resolution of heterogeneous specific contradictions and the problem they generate in a conflict form and, in the course of its development, can give rise to international crises and the armed struggle of states.

Causes of international conflicts

• state competition;
• mismatch national interests;
• territorial claims;
• social injustice on a global scale;
• uneven distribution of natural resources in the world;
• negative perception of each other by the parties;
• personal incompatibility of leaders, etc.

slide 5, positive and negative functions international conflicts.

Positive:

• preventing stagnation in international relations;
• stimulation of creative principles in search of ways out of difficult situations;
• determining the degree of mismatch between the interests and goals of states;
• preventing larger conflicts and ensuring stability by institutionalizing low-intensity conflicts.

Negative:

• cause disorder, instability and violence;
• increase the stressful state of the psyche of the population in the participating countries;
• give rise to the possibility of ineffective political decisions.

Slide 6 Many political scientists have tried to define the conflict

K. Wright in the mid-60s defined the conflict and identified four stages: “Conflict is a certain relationship between states that can exist at all levels, to various degrees.

Broadly speaking, conflict can be divided into four stages:

1. awareness of incompatibility;

2. increasing tension;

3. pressure without application military force to resolve incompatibilities;

4. military intervention or war to impose a solution.

Slide 7. The classification of conflicts is carried out for various reasons and they are distinguished depending on:

• from the number of participants- bilateral and multilateral, interstate and intrastate
• from geographical distribution- local, regional and global,
• from flow time- short term and long term
• on the nature of the funds used- armed and unarmed,
• from reasons- territorial, economic, ethnic, religious, etc.
• possible settlement conflicts - conflicts with opposing interests, in which the gain of one side is accompanied by the loss of the other (bullet sum conflicts), and conflicts in which there is the possibility of compromises (non-zero sum conflicts).

Slide 8: The subjects of ethnic conflicts

• Ethnic groups separated by certain differences and contradictions
• National communities indigenous peoples
• National minorities

Slide 9: Causes of ethnic conflicts

• Economic determinism (N. Hachter, T. Neyer)
• Territorial-graphic
• Political
• Psychological nature

Slide 10: Stages of development of conflicts

• Stage 1 - hidden (the emergence of a conflict)
• Stage 2 - open
• Stage 3 - escalation (redistribution of power, territorial claims)
• Stage 4 - post-conflict

Slides 11, 12, Conflict Resolution

• Evasion
• fixture
• Confrontation
• Cooperation
• Compromise
• negotiation processes;
• mediation procedures;
• Arbitration;
• Reducing and stopping the supply of weapons to the parties to the conflict;
• Organization of free elections.
• The principle of separating the interests of the parties.
• The principle of mutual concessions
• The principle of "bracketing"
• The principle of de-escalation, which consists in the promotion and implementation of peace initiatives by one of the parties to the conflict
• The principle of inviolability of the borders of the participating states.

Cooperation and mutual understanding between nations is a great achievement of the peoples of each country, which must be preserved and strengthened at all costs.

Slide 13. The most large-scale conflicts of recent decades, the impact of which goes far beyond the local framework, are conflicts that arose on a religious basis.

• Conflicts caused Islamic fundamentalism , turned into political movement and using religious dogmas to establish an "Islamic order" throughout the world. A long-term war with the “infidels” is being waged in all corners of the planet with wide application terrorist methods (Algeria, Afghanistan, Indonesia, United States, Chechnya, etc.).
• Interfaith conflicts in Africa . The war in Sudan, which claimed the lives of 2 million people and forced 600 thousand to become refugees, was caused primarily by the confrontation between the authorities, who expressed the interests of the Muslim part of the population (70%), and the opposition, oriented towards pagans (25%) and Christians (5% ). Religious and ethnic conflict between Christians, Muslims and pagans in the largest country on the continent - Nigeria.
• War in the Holy Land, in which the main object of the dispute (Jerusalem) has great value not only for the direct participants in the conflict - Muslims and Jews, but also for Christians.
• Conflict between Hindus and Islamists which has arisen since the division of India into the Indian Union and Pakistan in 1947 and conceals the threat of a clash between the two nuclear powers.
• Confrontation between Serbs and Croats on a religious basis, which played a tragic role in the fate of Yugoslavia.
• Mutual extermination on ethno-religious grounds Serbs and Albanians living in Kosovo.
• Struggle per religious and political autonomy for Tibet , which began with the annexation of this territory, which was then independent, to China in 1951, and led to the death of 1.5 million people.

• The conflict does not imply confrontation on absolutely all issues. This is his very important distinguishing feature. By virtue of this, the opposing parties in the conflict can realize themselves not only as rivals, but also as partners dependent on each other. This feeling allows the parties to the conflict to realize the importance and usefulness of constructive bilateral measures aimed at blocking the mechanisms of escalation of conflict relations.
• The war, if it has begun, is a process that has gotten out of control. The only way to control this process is the most effective (in relation to the enemy) use of one's military force in order to destroy the enemy or impose certain conditions and requirements on him. But even this means is very unreliable, because the opposing sides in the war tend to act to the maximum. This desire, in turn, initiates the action of escalation forces, which gradually reduce (and often completely eliminate) any restriction in the use of military forces and means. Thus, the relative manageability of the conflict relations of the participants in a military clash, it seems, can be a stable feature in identifying a military conflict.

Slides 15 geographical position means the position of a certain country, region, locality in relation to other regions pursuing a peace-loving policy, or to centers of international tension, international unions, to regions of regional conflicts, to military bases.

Slide 16 POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF THE COUNTRY.

• General information about the country's political orientation towards present stage: participation of the country in political, military - political and economic organizations.
• Economic and political assessment of state borders

A) level economic development neighboring countries

B) belonging of neighboring countries to political blocs.

• Position regarding the main lines of communications (transport routes)
• The situation with regard to the closest centers of international and internal conflicts - the "hot spots" of the planet.

A) direct or indirect attitude of the country to regional conflicts

B) military-strategic potential and the presence of military bases abroad

C) the position of the government of the country in matters of international detente, disarmament

• General assessment of the country's political situation.
• Conclusion about the possibility of changing the political and geographical position of the country.

Students are asked to complete assignments on the topic.

4. Homework: put modern international conflicts on the contour map (sign the countries participating in the conflicts)

The place of a phenomenon (object or process) relative to other phenomena in geospace is characterized by a set of geographic relations (GR; see Section 1.3.2 for them) and is defined as geographical position or geolocation. Established GO influence the formation of the properties of newly emerging objects, and prolonged participation in specific GO leads to the appearance of secondary properties in objects. The successful location of a subject or object in a system of geographical relations can both give it additional political and economic significance, and vice versa. From a formal point of view, geolocation is assessed by two types of factors: distances (metric and topological) and configurations (directions). So, all other things being equal, a port on a river bend has competitive advantages over a neighboring one, but on a straight stretch of the same river. Being in different civil defenses, even two initially similar geographical objects will gradually begin to differ first in functions, and then in internal content. In this sense, it can be argued that, other things being equal, “political and geographical position acts as a factor that individualizes

political development of countries” [Maergois 1971, p. 43]. As a result, the researcher needs to find out how objects are “embedded”, adapted to the DL system, acquiring a set of specific features, and what specific features they “impose” environment. The geospace surrounding the object is infinitely diverse. Therefore, to analyze the geolocation, the geospace can be divided into analytically integral units (taxons, areas, polygons, districts, operational-territorial units, etc.), in relation to which the geolocation is estimated [Maergoyz 1986, p. 58-59].

The concept of geographical location is quite well developed and covered in the domestic literature, therefore, below we will dwell only on some debatable issues. So, if we take into account the different tightness and degree of influence of GO, then it seems controversial statement that the geolocation is set only by those external data with which the object is in interaction [Geographic 1988, p. 55; Rodoman 1999, p. 77]. A simple example. Let there be points that do not interact with each other A, B, C and 7). Need to route from BUT in AT entering C or 7). The choice of one of the latter will be influenced by their geographic location, which is set before the start of any interaction.

In domestic socio-geographical science, the concept of economic and geographical position(EGP). By definition, N.N. Baransky, the EGP expresses “the relationship of any place, district or city to the data lying outside it, having one or another economic significance, it does not matter whether these data are of a natural order or created in the process of history” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Many other authors expressed the same opinion [Alaev 1983, p. 192; Leizerovich 2010 and others]. Within the framework of socio-economic geography, this approach proved to be justified. However, when it is extended to political-geographical and, especially, geopolitical phenomena, we encounter limitations. Thus, the transport-geographical position can no longer be considered as a type of EGP, since it can also be evaluated in other, for example, military-geostrategic, coordinates. Therefore, only a transport EGP can be a species. To generalize different types of socially significant geolocations, it is advisable to use the concept socio-geographical position. This concept was used by I.M. Maergois in the 1970s [Maergois 1986, p. 78-79], although other authors did not support him then.

As we have already written, GO reflect not only the spatial position, but also have content content. This fully applies to the geographical location. At the same time, the limitation of GO only by external geospace appears to be unreasonable: GO not only correlates the territory of an object with outside world, but also form it "from the inside". There are two extreme points of view, equally 90

unacceptable for us. The first excludes from consideration the internal structure and characteristics of the object itself [Leizerovich 2010, p. 209]. The second one replaces the geolocation of the object with the geolocations of its internal (lower) taxa relative to each other [Bulaev, Novikov 2002, p. 80] 1 . In addition, the position of relatively integral transboundary geographic systems or areas is of great importance. And it is irrational to evaluate the geographical position only in relation to the "external" part of such a system. Such, for example, are transboundary hydrocarbon deposits or transboundary nodal economic regions.

In our opinion, definitions of geographical location should be supplemented by the relation of a place or area to inside him lying or crossing his data. Let's call it introspective 2 geographic location. Unlike functional types (such as EGP), it appears as one of the positional (formal-spatial) types of geolocation (Fig. 10) and is partially reciprocal with the traditional (extraspective) geographical location of an internal object. For example, the position of the linguistic area relative to its dialectal center and the position of this very center relative to the area. The relations themselves (distances, etc.) are formally the same, but the semantic content and inclusion in other mediated relations are different. In geopolitical history, there are many cases where it was precisely the introspective geographical location that determined the priority geographical directions of the foreign policy of states. For example, one of the reasons why modern China seeks to improve relations with the countries of Central Asia, including the creation of the SCO - the need to deprive the Xinjiang separatist movement of a possible "rear base" [Zotov 2009, p. 128]. The need to consider introspective geolocation in individual socio-geographical studies is increasingly recognized (see, for example, the definition of geocriminogenic location in [Badov 2009, p. 49]), but so far it has not been clearly formulated at the general geographical level. B.B. Rodoman, even describing the eccentricity of the country relative to the capital, does not, however, connect it with the geographical position of this country itself [Rodoman 1999, p. 152-153].

To study the EGP of large regions, a separate consideration of their parts is really necessary [Saushkin 1973, p. 143], but on the condition that this reveals the features of the EGP of the region itself - the object of study.

From lat. introspectus (intro - inside + spicere - look). The term "internal" in this case inappropriate. The other option, "enclosing" geolocation, contains undesirable restrictions and makes it difficult to contrast with other, "non-enclosing" types.

Balanced

Displaced

Boundary

Boundary Linear

/ 2nd order secant

0_ *t* (I)

Rice. ten.

geographic location:

geopolitical position. Definitions

In most domestic works on the geopolitical position, this concept is not defined. Therefore, to consider the category of geopolitical position (GSP), it is advisable to rely on more carefully developed ideas about economic-geographical (EGP) and political-geographical positions. Any definition of geographical location consists of typical semantic blocks filled with different content in different concepts. Let's designate these blocks as "variables" P (relation), P (place), b(location), 7) (data), T(time). Then any definition can be represented in the following form:

Let us take as a basis the one mentioned above for the EGP. If we transform the definition of N.N. Baransky [Baransky 1980, p. 129] in relation to political geography, we get that political-geographical position (PC) is the ratio [I] of a place [P] to outside [b] its lying data [O] that have [T] this or that political significance, - it does not matter whether these data are natural order or created in the process of history. We emphasize that “having political significance” in general, and not just “for them”, as many other authors add to the definitions [Geographic 1988, p. 341; Rodoman 1999, p. 77].

According to V.A. Dergachev, GSP is “the position of the state and interstate associations [R] in relation to the world [D] centers of power (spheres of influence) [O], including military-political blocs and conflict zones. It is determined by the combined power of material and non-material resources [R] (military-political, economic, technological and passionate) in the multidimensional communication space of the Earth” [Dergachev 2009, p. 108]. Among the shortcomings of this approach, one can note the reduction of external data only to world centers of power and spheres of influence.

Much attention is paid to the development of geopolitics categories by P.Ya. Baklanov [Baklanov 2003; Baklanov, Romanov 2008]. From his point of view, geopolitical position country (or its large region) is the geographical position [R] of the country (region) [R] in relation to [R] to other countries [?)], primarily neighboring [D], taking into account the similarities and differences in their political systems, the correlation of geopolitical potentials, the presence or absence of mutual geopolitical interests and problems [?)]” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12].

In the event that all variables do not have any specificity, including political, we get a definition of a general geographical location. And if we take into account the previously considered geoadaptation

tational approach (see Section 2.1) and geoadaptation position. Let's consider the variables separately.

Location (b). Defines spatial constraints. On this basis, several types of geopolitical position can be distinguished. In particular, extraspective and intraspective. Also, this variable can set the scale of consideration of external and internal data at the macro-meso- and microlevel. Thus, a number of authors insist on globality as an essential feature of geopolitics.

Time (T). This variable is rarely set explicitly. However, most often it is understood that the concept of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry is used “to characterize geopolitical formations ... at a certain point in time” [Kaledin 1996, p. 98]. By modifying this variable, one can also determine historical GPP and predicted, planned GSP.

Givenness (O). It expresses the characteristics of politically significant phenomena of geospace, which can be of both political and any other nature (economic, environmental, etc.). Among the variety of givens, one should especially single out the class of actual political phenomena of geospace (Oh ro c,). These are states, political borders, etc. Also, given the value of the variable b, data can be divided into external and internal.

Here it must be borne in mind that political geography and geopolitics usually takes into account different sets of these givens. N.N. Baransky notes that “the position in the sense of mathematical geography is given on a coordinate grid, the physical-geographical position is given on a physical map, the economic-geographical position is given on an economic map, the political-geographical position is given on a political map” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Accordingly, when assessing the physical and geographical position, extractive enterprises will not be taken into account, even if they change the terrain. Geopolitics, on the other hand, is more integrative: the geopolitical atlas will include physical, economic, and political-geographical maps created from a geopolitical point of view.

Attitude (I). The relations that form the GSP of a particular object can in many cases be represented as a kind of “positional multipliers” or factors of significance of external data that are essential for the subject, including resources. Thus, if an important resource is geographically inaccessible, its multiplier is zero. As availability increases, the importance of the resource itself does not increase, but the importance multiplier does. There are also such GPOs where the spatial aspect greatly gives way to the qualitative one (characteristics of the places themselves). Then the multiplier, on the contrary, is always close to the maximum. Or vice versa, the multiplier grows with the distance (see the types of GPO in section 1.5.2). Although it must be borne in mind that the actual geographical factor in the GPP is gradually changing its role. Its relative share in the definition of GSP is decreasing, but its scale and diversity are increasing, and its qualitative content is becoming more complex.

Further, it should be understood whether the geopolitical position can be set by other, non-political relations? At first glance, no. But, nevertheless, such a situation is possible in the case of mediation of relations different nature in transitive chain closely related phenomena (Fig. 11). But only if at least one link in the mediation is political. Therefore, mediated GPO can be of a complex, composite nature and is of more interest for geopolitics than for political geography. Moreover, the assessment of mediated relationships is often more important than the assessment of direct ones. However, the GPO generated in this way further acts as an equal in rights with others, as, for example, in the formation of geopolitical triangles (see section 4.4.1). It should also be noted that the length or, rather, the significance of the GPO mediation chains depends on the geopolitical potential of the subject and the role of the object. Thus, in the geopolitical position of the United States, such relations extend to almost the entire world and capture many seemingly non-political phenomena.

Geo- Geo- Geo-

BUT economic AT ecological C political

Subject

ratio _ ratio

Mediated GPO_

An object

Rice. 11. Scheme of mediated GPO of a complex nature

Place (P). This is not only a territory, but also an assessed object or subject occupying a certain place. In the general concept of geographical location, a place can also be natural (for example, a lake). In geopolitics, it is a subject political activity (RroSh).

There is another aspect. Let's start with a comparison. Does a natural or social non-economic object (place) have its EGP? There is no direct economic significance of other objects for them, but they are surrounded by economic phenomena. This example shows that the “value for them” qualification we mentioned above is redundant. THEM. Maergois even wrote that “the smaller the self-potential of the region, the clearer [its] EGP” [Maergois 1986, p. 67].

If we recognize such an EGP, then we must also recognize a similar political and geographical position, i.e. political and geographical position of natural objects and public non-political subjects. The political content of the GPO in this case can only be set by its other side - the political objects of geospace. In this interpretation, we can talk about the political and geographical position, for example, of a commercial enterprise next to the state

noah border. Or the sea. Those. we are talking about a non-political place on political map. It turns out that in the general case, for assessing the political and geographical position, the political characteristics of the subject itself and its political potential are not important, but it is considered only on the political map.

Geopolitical the situation is traditionally assessed only for political subjects ( RroSh), i.e. just for those who form and conduct geo -politics. Thus, here one can outline one of the facets of the formal delimitation of the GPP and the political and geographical position, which allows you to get away from synonymizing the two concepts. The complexity of the GPP in taking into account external data of a different nature was recognized by domestic authors already at the dawn of the “return” of geopolitics to Russia. So, in 1991 N.M. Mezhevich wrote: "... The geopolitical position is an integrating category in relation to FGP, EGP, GWP, while it is more historical than EGP and GWP..." [Mezhevich 1991, p. 102-103].

We tried to formally distinguish between the GSP and the political-geographical position according to the objects of study, but one can also outline their semantic difference. It is believed that the political and geographical position has a descriptive, ascertaining character [Mezhevich 1991, p. 103]. It is determined by historical, current and predicted GPOs. The predominant type of evaluation is placement (positional component) and dependency/independence (functional component). The GPP, on the other hand, has a clear political connotation associated with the category of geopolitical interest. Unlike the political-geographical one, it takes into account just those data that are or may be important for the subject (in this sense, the GPP is narrower than the political-geographical one). The GSP is viewed through the prism of projects, scenarios and strategies, resulting in a multi-layered and multi-layered view of the current GSP. The predominant type of assessment is relative political strength and weakness, opportunities and threats, which can be described in the matrices of geo-adaptation strategies 8?OT 3 (see paragraph 2.1.2). In this context, one can note the point of view of S.V. Kuznetsova and S.S. Lachininsky that one of the key differences between the geo-economic position and the economic-geographic one is the consideration of geo-economic risks [Kuznetsov, Lachininsky 2014, p. 109]. But such a position looks somewhat one-sided and limited, since it replaces the category of interest with a more particular concept of risk.

In this way, the geopolitical position characterizes the heterogeneity of the complete geopolitical field of the actor and is expressed in the structure of the GPO at a certain historical moment in time, including the trends in their development and the influence of some past layers of the GPO.

In the complex dynamic structure of the GSP, one should also single out a certain invariant, i.e. stable for very long periods and epochs, the “framework” of the GPP, the change of which is always an important historical milestone. Presented in the form of a complex of stable

interests, this "framework" can be interpreted as a geopolitical code (code) of the subject. Moreover, in the case of the existence of allied or patron-client relations, the induction of geopolitical codes between actors occurs, and the local code of the satellite can be built into the global code of the leader. A single code of a group subject is formed. This is due to the induction of geopolitical interests (section 1.4.2).

In close connection with the concept of GSP, several related and interrelated concepts-analogues are used. We briefly outline some of them below.

Geopolitical situation- a superposition set of geopolitical positions of all subjects in a certain part of the geospace at a certain point in time. Note that in Russian the concept of "situation" is close to the concept of "state", but, unlike the latter, refers to heterogeneous phenomena. Another interpretation is related to the fact that the "geosituation" can be defined as a dynamic set of GPOs on a "real time" scale, in contrast to the inertial "geostructure".

geopolitical situation. It can be synonymous with the GSP or, more often, the geopolitical situation. In a narrower sense, it is interpreted as a set of factors that determine the state and prospects for the development of relations between states. That is, in this interpretation, the geopolitical situation is not the GPOs themselves, but those factors of geospace with which GPOs can be established. In this sense, the phrase "geopolitical situation around the country" is legitimate.

geopolitical potential. An unambiguous approach to determining the potential has not yet been developed either in geography or in geopolitics. It was often equated with a combination of various resources, with geopolitical power, or with the advantage of a political and geographical position. According to P.Ya. Baklanov, “this is the degree of both the existing and possible potential influence of one country on others, primarily neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. 13].

geopolitical power, in turn, implies not only the potential, the strength of the subject himself, but also his ability to achieve a certain goal in the external space (etymologically - from "might", "power"). Those. it is relative to external givens. In any case, the geopolitical potential is part of the characteristics of the GSP on the part of the subject.

Valuation principles and the importance of neighborhood

Based on the foregoing, it can be argued that in order to describe the GSP, it is necessary to consider not so much absolute as relative indicators, both 1) in external and 2) in internal contexts. In the first case, the geopolitical potential of the subject as a whole or some parameter of the potential (for example, GDP) is assessed in the context of some parameters of neighbors, centers of power and the world in the whole.

scrap. In the second one, an external parameter is estimated (for example, the GDP of neighboring countries) in the context of parameters or factors of internal geospace. At the same time, it must be emphasized that even relative indicators do not yet mean the actual estimates GPP. Thus, the ratio of the population of some territories describes only the geodemographic situation. This parameter characterizes the GSP only when it is included in the complex political characteristics of the geopolitical subject and its surrounding conditions, in the context of political threats and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case it is possible to speak, in particular, of the demographic GSP.

For a quantitative comparison of similar parameters at geopolitical boundaries, the concept of " geopolitical gradient. For example, the demographic/economic geopolitical gradient on the US-Mexico border, the Warsaw Pact and NATO. In an extended sense, it is applied to the measurement of balances also of fields that do not border HP. There are, however, other options for naming such relationships. Thus, a group of domestic authors proposes to use the term "geopolitical distance" [Kefeli, Malafeev 2013, p. 170]. In our opinion, such a term is inappropriate. This is about the same if the geographical distance (distance = distance) between mountains is measured by the difference in their heights. But geographical relations are an integral part of geopolitical relations. Among all the estimated parameters, various kinds of objectively identified and quantitatively measured links and relationships between countries and regions are of particular importance. As rightly noted by R.F. Turovsky, “otherwise, geopolitics can only be reduced to abstract philosophizing and projecting” [Turovsky 1999, p. 49]. In this sense, the actual GSP should be distinguished from various geopolitical projects and mythologies.

When describing various GPOs, we encounter a certain duality arising from their own nature. On the one hand, it is required to describe the relative quantitative and qualitative parameters of countries, regions, territories, and on the other hand, to give them a relative geospatial certainty. As a result, we get a kind of two-dimensional GPP matrix "parameter x place". Thus, when characterizing demographic indicators, political regimes, geopolitical disputes, natural phenomena etc. (rows of the matrix), they are divided into geospatial sections (unequal columns of the matrix), tied to absolute geographic coordinates. The cells of such a matrix are, in fact, a reflection of a number of geopolitical fields or ideas about them.

The geopolitical position, due to its integrality, not only depends on other types of geographical position (EGP, etc.), but also influences them, and through them - on various internal characteristics country or its region, on their geopolitical potential. T.I. Pototskaya, for example, considers such an impact on the example of the Western region of Russia. In the model she proposed (Fig. 12), the leading component of the influence of not only the GLP, but also the EGP is the political and geographical position [Pototskaya 1997, p. 13].

Consider some of the many possible evaluation parameters. P.Ya. Baklanov believes that “based on ... the idea of ​​the geopolitical position, its assessment for a particular country consists of the following stages: assessment of the neighborhood of other countries with this one, identification of immediate neighbors - 1st, 2nd order, etc.; assessment of the similarities and differences in the political systems of neighboring countries, primarily neighbors of the 1st order, with the political system of a given country; assessment of the geopolitical potentials of a given country and its neighbors, assessment of the ratio of these geopolitical potentials; identification and evaluation of mutual geopolitical interests of a given country and its neighbors of various orders; identification and assessment of geopolitical problems existing between a given country and its neighbors” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. On the whole, one can apparently agree with this approach. However, further concretization reveals some contradictions and ambiguities.

Rice. 12.

Indeed, an extremely important issue for geopolitics remains the assessment geographic neighborhood. It occupies one of the central places in geopolitical relations and models, introducing a significant share of geographic content into geopolitics even in the modern conditions of a “shrinking”, globalizing world. Moreover, the adjacent territories act as "conductors" of links with distant global centers of power. True, the main attention is paid to the assessment of the neighborhood at the regional and local levels of research, especially for GPOs. types M-G-M and M-M-M (see paragraph 1.5.2). Neighbor countries of the 1st and 2nd orders are neighboring geopolitical regions of the 1st and 2nd orders. THEM. Maergois wrote about neighboring geographic macro-regions identified in the same way. Accordingly, allocate

There are regional both EGP and GPP. Maergois also noted the special position of second-order doubly neighbors [Maergois 1986, p. 80, 82, 111]. B.B. Rodoman considers neighboring geopolitical regions to be a kind of nuclear geographic zonality [Rodoman 1999, p. 58]. Very specific is the insular position of a country that does not have first-order neighbors at all.

P.Ya. Baklanov suggests that “in terms of military defense, it is apparently better to have fewer neighboring countries of the 1st order. However, for the development of international economic, political, cultural ties, it is more profitable to have more neighboring countries of the 1st order” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. But let's take an extreme case. How to assess the situation if this, let's say the only, neighbor is an enemy, and the country itself is an enclave? It turns out that such a GPP, contrary to the thesis, is extremely unprofitable. The case of economic valuation is also ambiguous: many small neighbors create barriers to trade due to customs barriers. To overcome them, associations like the EU are being created. A large number of neighbors is also disadvantageous from an environmental point of view [Pototskaya 1997, p. 130].

The role of neighbors of the 2nd and higher orders depends not only on the degree of neighborhood, but also on their relative position and remoteness: a 3rd order neighbor can be quite close, while a 2nd one can be thousands of kilometers away, in a different geographical region ( e.g. Macedonia and North Korea regarding Ukraine). That's why we should talk about the neighborhood of countries of the 2nd and higher orders, not only in the topological sense, but also as a distance measure of proximity[cm. Maergois 1986, p. 68, 80]. In the second case, however, the "normative" measure of closeness can be set either subjectively or tied to other objective parameters. Highest value distance measure has for island countries that do not even have maritime neighbors.

In general, it can be argued that the more diverse neighbors of the first and second orders, the greater the variety of close regional GPOs, the more opportunities for geopolitical maneuver, the less significant threats from individual neighbors, but at the same time the less stability and sustainability of the GPO, the greater the variety of potential threats and the necessary diplomatic efforts in the region . This dependence is objective in itself, but which combination of GPO is preferable is a matter of specific policy in real life. geopolitical environment. In the general case, based on the designated structure of geo political relations, there is a tendency to consider fragmentation of actual or potentially negative and integration of positive and potentially positive geopolitical fields of the neighboring region as beneficial. This is also expressed in the estimate of the number of corresponding neighbors. About the same, but regardless of the neighboring region, we wrote in detail in the previous section (see paragraph 2.3.2). In the neighboring region, as the most tense geopolitical field, this trend is especially pronounced. Thus, Israel, as stated by its ambassador to the United States, since 2011 has been interested in overthrowing the B. Assad regime in Syria in order to break (fragmentation) the Shiite arc "Beirut-Damascus-Tehran", even if new mode would have turned out to be no less hostile [Ketoi 2013].

Depending on the location of the fields involved in fragmentation or integration, two extreme cases are distinguished. Integration of neighbors of the same order or fragmentation of a large GP field into neighbors of different orders is interpreted as the formation of "arcs", "cordons", "segments", "shells", "belts", "buffers", "zones", etc. The reverse cases are perceived as "corridors", "vectors", "sectors" or "axes". The intersection of "shells" and "sectors" forms special areas - zone-sector facets or trapezoids [Rodoman 1999, p. 70, 136]. The combination of both structures forms, respectively, "long zones/belts" and "wide corridors/sectors". However, such spatial forms can have different purposes. Thus, political geography distinguishes countries with “corridors”, but, for example, in Namibia, the “corridor” joined the territory as a communication sector (Caprivi Strip), and in Afghanistan - as a cordon isolating Russia from India (Wakhan Corridor). From all of the above in this and the previous sections, an unambiguous conclusion suggests itself: it is impossible to give an a priori assessment of the neighborhood in isolation from a specific and very diverse geopolitical context. The latter also contains many complicating factors or GPOs, such as international and moral obligations, a system of geopolitical "balances", historical memory, the configuration of borders, trade and cultural ties, lines of communication.

main parameters

Next, we briefly outline some of the parameters by which a country's GSP can be assessed. Many publications are devoted to their more detailed consideration [see: Pototskaya 1997; Geopolitical position 2000; Baklanov, Romanov 2008 and others]. The entire set of parameters should be conditionally grouped into several functional blocks. However, each parameter can, and often should, be considered in conjunction with related parameters of other blocks. In this case, a three-dimensional matrix of the form "parameter X parameter X place" will be obtained.

In regional studies, it is customary to begin the study of a territory with a description and assessment of its physical and geographical characteristics. However, for our case, to be consistent, this approach is not suitable. Indeed, for such an analysis, the grid of state or geopolitical boundaries must already be set. But it's not on the physical map. The situation is similar with the assessment of the economic space, information about which is initially grouped precisely by countries. As a result, it turns out that the characterization of the GSP should begin with a description of the political and geographical location. The territory of the country, accordingly, is not a natural parameter. Having set the coordinate system in this way, the remaining blocks can be opened already in different

sequence, depending on the tasks and accents.

I. Political-geographical and strategic parameters.

First, geolocations and configurations of the borders of geopolitical formations, historical stability and variability of borders, degrees of neighborhood, the country's place in terms of the total area of ​​​​territory in the world, etc. are determined. All this determines the geospatial base for further comparative characteristics in terms of profitability.

On this basis, the structure of foreign political relations should be considered. Their most obvious indicator is direct contacts between geopolitical subjects. V.A. Kolosov

and R.F. Turovsky is considered the key indicator for the analysis of the geopolitical position of the country is precisely the geographically linked statistics of state visits. It is sensitive to changes in the country's foreign policy [Kolosov, Turovsky 2000]. In this case, visits to the country, from the country and their balance (“balance”) are considered. It is important to emphasize here that it is not the visits that form the geopolitical situation, but this situation itself is reflected in the statistics of visits available to an external observer. But it is important to understand that this indicator does not “capture” the state of negative, conflicting GPOs.

Many other parameters of this block can be combined into the following groups:

• political regimes and their complementarity to each other (including the representativeness of representative bodies of power);
• treaties, alliances and counter-alliances (including an assessment of countries-“balances” and “cordons”);
• heterogeneity of actors and territorial disputes (including irredentist movements);
• spheres of influence of centers of power;
• geopolitical images (including the nature of the media, representations of elites, identity);
• military potential and military-strategic position (including: arms trade, conflicts near borders, border configuration factor for land, naval and air operations).

The choice of certain parameters to characterize the geopolitical position depends on the ideas about their role at a certain historical moment or era, as well as on the purpose of such a characterization.

the contrast of the ethnic, cultural and political spaces "fitting" into them. A good example is the region of the South Caucasus. Therefore, the first parameter of this block, which is usually paid attention to, is the correspondence or inconsistency of geopolitical boundaries and natural boundaries. Many authors, especially non-geographers, argue that as the technosphere develops, society's dependence on natural environment generally weakens. But this is only partly true, because the development of technology, allowing society to overcome some restrictions, imposes new ones on it. For example, the need for hitherto unseen resources (in ancient world there could be no competition, for example, for deposits of gas and uranium).

Next, we consider the correlation of natural conditions, and above all - territorial resources. Of course, the very territory of the subject, as we saw above, refers to political parameters. But it is heterogeneous, and therefore it should be evaluated natural features. These include the following areas: favorable for life on natural conditions suitable for agriculture, forest, shelf, sea territorial waters, etc. Important parameters are indicators of the relative endowment with natural resources by their types and, consequently, the complementarity of the natural resource potentials of countries and regions. Ecological and geographical position is essential. Finally, a special parameter of the GSP is the attitude towards specially protected natural areas and water areas, especially those under international control.

• geographical location and topology of transport / communication routes, nodes and infrastructure at the borders of the subject and in the region as a whole (for example, the density of the road network);
• transport unity of the territory of the country/alliance and transport exclaves;
• congestion of routes, assessment of incoming and outgoing flows (including the number of telephone connections);
• inclusion in the global communications system and the role of transit communications, the degree of dependence on external transit territories;
• development of advanced means of communication and their geography.

IV. Geodemographic parameters.

In economic terms, “demogeographic position is the position regarding places of excess and shortage of labor resources, as well as places of departure and entry of migrants” [Maergoyz 1986, p. 62]. Geopolitics is also interested in other aspects. First of all, this is the ratio of the total population of countries. We note here an interesting circumstance for general geopolitics: in many Eastern cultures, counting the people of their community, especially by name, was considered unacceptable and dangerous from a mystical point of view.

Population trends (even larger than their absolute values) are often more objective geopolitical indicators, even compared to arbitrary reports of gross domestic product (GDP) trends, investment, and opinion polls. Demographic trends reflect the real medium-term state of communities. It would be appropriate to mention here that in 1976 the French sociologist E. Todd was the first to predict the collapse of the USSR, focusing on the negative dynamics of demographic indicators (such as a decrease in life expectancy, an increase in infant mortality and the number of suicides).

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• docking and correlation of settlement systems and their supporting frames in neighboring countries and regions;
• the value and dynamics of demographic indicators (including the mobilization potential), their ratio;
• assessment of migration processes;
• types of population reproduction.

are so complex and multidirectional that it is possible to single out a through “basis” only at the philosophical level. The vulgarization of these ideas, similar to what was sometimes observed in the USSR, leads to economic determinism. Many states in history have repeatedly gone to economic losses for the sake of increasing political prestige and influence, for the sake of "honor of the flag" and "power projection". Also, interethnic relations and conflicts do not always have an economic background.

It should also be taken into account that GDP, the trade balance and other consolidated monetary indicators can greatly distort ideas about the real geopolitical situation and create the illusion of accuracy in cross-country comparisons [Karabehn 2014]. Thus, the US trade balance with China turns out to be large and negative in a summary assessment, but a detailed analysis of mutual relations, including trade in components and intellectual product, the picture is quite different. In our opinion, it is more realistic to compare the volumes of production and services in physical terms and component by component. In the era of the information society, there is no longer any need to fit any analysis to summary indicators alone. Moreover, these indicators themselves, like GDP, were developed for the industrial XX century, and in the XXI century. They don't "work" the way they were supposed to.

In addition, in the economic block, one can also consider the economic significance of parameters from other sections. For example, the foreign economic programs of parliamentary parties in neighboring countries, the impact of demographic processes on labor resources, etc.

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• indicators of the size of economies, including gross and per capita;
• correlation and complementarity of territorial structures of the economy;
• degree of self-sufficiency, including energy supply;
• scientific and technological development;
• foreign trade and investment, dependence on foreign markets and resources, the control of the latter by friendly or hostile political forces;
• the ratio of the economic influence of the actor and third countries on any country in a neighboring or remote region;
• socio-economic indicators, including the class structure of societies.

the value of external and internal territories. So, for the French, Alsace and Algeria had different values. The second, unlike the first, was not considered a genuine part of France. It is important to trace the possible influence of the geopolitical position of the country on national character and the historical identity of the people. I.A. Kostetskaya, for example, notes such an influence on the example South Korea[Kostetskaya 2000].

Other parameters include: mutual “historical grievances” and their significance in election campaigns, the cultivation of images of the enemy, tribalism, educational and scientific migrations, ethnic parties, minorities and diasporas, ethnic policy, educational policy (foreign universities, religious schools etc.), the number of religious groups, etc. Apparently, some integral indicators can also be attributed to this series, such as the Human Development Index (HDI) calculated by the UN, which reflects the standard of living, literacy, education and life expectancy. In general, the cultural aspect of the GSP is of great importance for the formation of "soft power" and the reformatting of the GSP itself. Thus, during the collapse of the colonial empire (1960s), French President Charles de Gaulle successfully embodied the concept of francophonie (a community of French-speaking countries). French became the basis of French influence in the former colonies of Tropical Africa.

In contrast to the time of another 100, and even more so 200 years ago, image GPOs are of great importance. Many of them can be considered as “myths about the country” (one’s own and the other) in the system of national historical myths or stereotypes, and as a “cultural radiation” of the country [Geopolitical situation... 2000, p. 19, 10]. And as the quintessence of various cultural aspects, a certain multifaceted “project of the future” is imprinted in the mass consciousness and traditions of a certain community. The cultural and geopolitical code (code) of the country is closely connected with this "project" - its original geopolitical DNA. Here it is important to take into account the degree of compatibility or conflict potential of the "projects of the future" of different interacting communities.

noah evaluation of the GSP. For example, when assessing national capabilities (CINC) or the "status" of countries. We will mention these models later (see Section 4.2.2, Section 4.4.2).

• - central, remote; 12 - coinciding, combined; 13- intermediate: equidistant and axial, symmetrical; 14 - remote, isolated; 15 - centering, covering; 21 - eccentric, deep, peripheral; 23 - intermediate, displaced, asymmetric, in a particular case - angular; 24 - close, in the field of influence; 25 - eccentric, covering; 31 - border, marginal; 32 - transboundary, joint, transitional; 34 - neighboring, adjacent, on-site; 35 - delimiting, joining; 41 - border l-th order; 42 - trans-areal (-boundary) of the n-th order; 43 - neighbor / adjacent l-th order; 45 - delimiting l-th order; 51 - dissecting, crossing; 52 - crossing; 54 - crossing (black box model); 55 - crossed, transit, nodal
• Natural geographic parameters. In the concepts of "hard" geographical determinism, they were given a priority policy-forming role. Their influence is really great, but it consists in imposing certain incentives and restrictions on public life. In particular, the contrasting landscape and mountainous terrain contribute to increased complexity, 102
• Transport and communication parameters. FROM The natural and geographical features of the territory are closely related to the transport and geographical position. This becomes obvious if we turn to the development of transport routes since ancient times. It is themselves natural objects(rivers, passes, etc.) became the main lines of communication. Therefore, the transport situation should not be included entirely in the sphere of the economy, as is sometimes proposed. Almost all representatives of classical geopolitics attached a huge role to the location of countries relative to lines of communication. At present, it can be confidently asserted that the transport-geographical or, in the broader sense, the communication-geographical position affects most of the components of the geopolitical position: military-strategic, political, cultural, economic, environmental, demographic, and others. Are being considered different kinds transport, wired networks (including fiber optic backbones), radio and space communications, information flows in the virtual space. At the next stage, the actual degree of use of the existing transport and communication potential, the possibility of its increase and the threats existing for it are assessed.
• Economic and geographical parameters. These characteristics are essential for the evaluation of the GSP. In Marxist and neo-Marxist literature, it is precisely economic relations, phenomena and processes that are ultimately considered as the basis for the development of all other manifestations of social life. However, the links in which economic phenomena are involved, 104
• Ethno-civilizational and cultural parameters. The key characteristics are the positions of the geopolitical subject on the ethnolinguistic and historical maps. From this position, the localization of ethnic groups, superethnoi and superethnic systems, the complementarity of neighboring ethnic groups (according to L.N. Gumilyov) is determined. The historical map reveals a difference in cultural and symbolic
• Integral geopolitical parameters. Some characteristics that summarize different parameters from the above can be separated into a separate group. This, for example, is the complex geopolitical zoning of the region and the interpretation of the GSP from the point of view of some integral global concept (for example, regarding the Heartland of H. Mackinder, the pan-regions of K. Haushofer, the geopolitical regions of S. Cohen, the civilizational platforms of V. Tsymbursky, etc. ). It is possible to use integral quantitative indicators (indices) for the complex. Partial provisions are published in [Elatskov 2012a].

"Ethnic Conflicts"- Selection of a hero, close to the child. Presentation of culture Modeling Self-knowledge Creative Protective Therapeutic. The goals of the psychological fairy tale are: We place the hero in a problem situation similar to the real one. The use of various psychotherapeutic methods in fairy tale therapy. Developing. Increasing the level of cohesion, mutual understanding and coordination of actions in the group.

"Armed conflict"- Version of Abkhazia. The units of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia entered the territory of Chechnya. Russian Federation. Russian version. Rising tension. The losses of the parties and the victims of the war. Armed conflict in Abkhazia. Side forces. Conclusion Russian troops from Georgia. Armed conflicts involving the Russian Federation over the past 20 years.

"Interpersonal Conflicts"- "I HAVE RIGHTS" Respect for human rights. Stages of development of interpersonal conflict. The difficult financial situation of the family. Hitting below the belt (use of intimate knowledge about a partner). Cause. value conflicts. You need to be calm, confident, but not arrogant. The result is win/win and both parties will be satisfied with the process.

"Interethnic conflicts in Russia"- Theoretical object. The nature of the relationship. Residence of many nationalities in the country. The attitude of the population to detailed coverage of interethnic conflicts. Poll data. The nature of the attitude of the population to multinationality. Consequences of interethnic and intercultural conflicts. Interethnic conflicts in Russia.

"Regional Conflicts"- Great Britain. regional conflicts. economic conflicts. Features of regional conflicts. Basque country. Serbia. ethnic conflicts. 1975-1989 - Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict. Latin America- current armed conflicts. Asia - current armed conflicts. Denmark. Belgium. Korean War.

"Conflict in interpersonal relationships" - Adaptation. Scene. The reasons conflict behavior. Cooperation. Mediation. Negotiation. Types of conflicts. Personal behavior in conflict. Building a cluster. How to successfully resolve conflicts. Conflict. Arbitration. terms of the conflict. The structure of the conflict. Science "Conflictology". Targets and goals.

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