A fundamentally important feature of the social division of Han society was a high level of social mobility. Even a slave could, under favorable circumstances, count on the fact that the master would set him free and thereby open the way for him to move up the steps of the social hierarchy. In conditions when nobles were not born, but became, wealth made it possible to achieve a high legal status. The history of Han society knows examples when a former slave during his life made the whole way of climbing the social levels up to the possession of the coveted highest ranks. On the other hand, the law, according to which the relatives of the criminal were turned into state slaves, meant the possibility for representatives of the nobility to suddenly find themselves at the very bottom of the social pyramid.
At the same time, a high level of vertical social mobility contributed to the formation of general ethnic norms of culture and, thereby, the consolidation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese, while the existence at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The system of social ranks of the Zhou type, on the contrary, was a brake on the way to complete the process of formation of the ancient Chinese ethnos.

From a property point of view, the free were divided into three main categories. The richest, who possessed property worth more than a million coins, belonged to the so-called "big families", wealthy members of society (more than 100 thousand coins) - to "average families", and small owners (more than 10 thousand coins) - to "small". The “poor” included those whose property was estimated at less than 10 thousand coins, i.e., those who did not have sufficient means of subsistence (100 mu of land - about 16 hectares - considered in Han time necessary for the subsistence level of a family, cost an average of 10 thousand coins).

Documents from the Han period that have come down to our time show that the "middle families" who had several hundred mu of land, as a rule, had slaves. However, calculations indicate a well-known discrepancy between the number of slaves and the amount of land owned by one or another landowner. This can only be explained by the fact that the use of slave labor was not the only form of exploitation used in Han society. Indeed, the sources also report other forms of private property exploitation, such as hired labor and rental relations. Apparently, the relatively limited use of slave labor in the Han Empire is explained by the insufficiency of internal sources of slavery and - as a consequence of this - high prices for slaves. An adult slave cost about ten times more than a horse. Considerations of the profitability of the economy forced the landowner to resort to hiring workers or to renting out part of the land. It can be assumed that it was the lease relations that were the leading form of exploitation in the Han time.

When studying the social structure of the Chinese population, it must be taken into account that the society of this country is still in a state of transition. In the late 1970s, under Deng Xiaoping, the state began to implement a whole range of reforms, the last stage of which fell on the 1990s. These transformations led to the formation of a fairly developed market, the emergence various forms property and some reduction in ideological oppression in public life.

Society has changed with the economy. The emergence of capitalist-style enterprises led to the emergence of classes of businessmen and wage workers. And the weakening of censorship caused an increase in the number of intelligentsia. Another important consequence of the reforms was social mobility. The opportunities opened up began to be actively used by the inhabitants of the countryside, who, under Mao Zedong, were tied to their native villages.

However, the reforms that went against China's usual way of life gave rise to a number of serious problems that still remain unresolved. The country continues to operate conflicting command-administrative and market economies. The Chinese have lost a number of former moral values, property stratification has intensified. In connection with the emergence of the population's right to entrepreneurial activity and the formation of new production areas, new groups began to form in society. These social strata that appeared in the post-reform period have not yet fully formed a sense of their own identity, a certain social status and a strong self-consciousness.

The main categories of Chinese society

Among the main classes Chinese society include the following:

• Officials. From the time of Mao Zedong to the present day, cadre workers have occupied an important place in the social structure of China. The state bureaucracy is huge and clumsy, but the number of civil servants is increasing every year.
• Big businessmen. Remarkably, the vast majority big businessmen China came not from small and medium-sized businesses, but from bureaucracy.
• Military. China has the largest military in the world this moment there are almost 2.5 million people in active service). Military science in China is considered very prestigious.
• Hired workers employed in state enterprises and in the sphere of large business. The number of people belonging to this class increased significantly in the post-reform period after the emergence of new private enterprises.
• Representatives of small and medium businesses. The market reforms of the 1990s enabled many Chinese to enter private enterprise. In general, small enterprises are established in rural areas or are associated with the transportation of finished goods.
• Peasantry. It is considered the least socially protected category of the population. However, the position of the peasant may be different, depending on the province where he lives, and some other factors.
• Intelligentsia. Under Mao, intellectual labor was despised. This attitude was especially pronounced in the era of the “cultural revolution”, when a wave of repressions swept across the country, directed, among other things, against the intelligentsia. However, after Deng Xiaoping's reforms, this class began to revive.

Social stratification in the Chinese village

Today, China remains a predominantly agricultural country. The level of urbanization in China is less than 45%. Therefore, the village has its own complex social structure, which should be given Special attention. Today, the following population groups live in the Chinese village:

• peasant farmers (more than 60% of all villagers);
• seasonal workers;
• managers of rural collective enterprises;
• individual entrepreneurs;
• village officials;
• workers not directly involved in the production of agricultural products (doctors, teachers, technicians, builders);
• housewives.

Compared with the pre-reform period, the current situation of the villagers has improved significantly. This is evidenced by such indicators as: the growth of life expectancy, the scope of construction, the acquisition of the latest agricultural equipment. This is due, firstly, to the opportunity that has opened up for rural residents to move to cities and earn money there, supplying families with money left in the villages. Secondly, with the collapse of the people's communes, which hampered the development of private initiative. And, thirdly, with the spread of such a production organization as a family contract.

Until the 1970s, China's planned economy did not allow the peasantry to engage in any commercial activity. But in the course of the reforms, a project was developed that allowed each peasant household to become an independent working unit. In a matter of years, 90% of households have passed into the status of family contracts. The transformations were immediately followed by an increase in production and an increase in the well-being of the rural population. Economic success at the same time meant an increase in the prestige of peasant labor and the complication of the social structure of rural society. Family detachments, operating as separate enterprises, began to attract hired workers to work. Over time, larger collective enterprises began to spring up in the village. For the proper functioning of such complex organizations, of course, a class of managers was required, as well as a layer of highly qualified specialists in the technical, veterinary and agricultural fields. And during the 1990-2000s, these classes gradually took shape.

Over the past 40 years, Chinese society has been undergoing a transformation. Obviously, this process will continue for some time and will lead to profound structural changes.

In the fifty years that have passed since the communists came to power, Chinese society has undergone a number of diverse changes. Among them is the transformation of its social structure carried out by the regime: for example, in the 1950s, landowners, capitalists and small entrepreneurs were destroyed “as a class” (however, the economic transformations of the 1980s and 1990s contributed to the revival of private entrepreneurship). In this chapter, we will first consider the main and most characteristic features of the environment in which China is pursuing its policy - an environment that has not undergone fundamental transformations, but has changed (if at all) only in the percentage of its constituent elements.
The first characteristic of China is its large population. In 1949, when the communists took power, it was 540 million, and now it has reached 1.2 billion people, and the country continues to hold the leading place in the world in this indicator. As in the 1950s, most of the population lives in rural areas, although in recent years the ratio has begun to change more rapidly: if at the beginning of the 1950s about 85% of the population lived in villages
citizens, and by 1980 their number had dropped to only 82%, then the main economic transformations that have taken place over the past 15 years have also led to significant demographic changes. The actual easing of restrictions on movement around the country allowed unemployed peasants to find work in cities. Industrialization and urban growth have also contributed to the change: as of the end of 1998, only 68% of Chinese live in rural areas. An ever-increasing percentage of the urban population is employed in industry, even on a part-time basis. Prior to the start of economic reforms (1980), state-owned enterprises dominated Chinese industry. Today, the most dynamic industrial sector is urban and rural industrial enterprises, collectively owned and operated. local authorities.
Second salient feature China - his geographical position. China is the third largest in the world in terms of land area (after Russia and Canada), but its population is concentrated mainly in the eastern part, which occupies about one third of the area. This is because only a quarter of all land is arable. Advances in agricultural mechanization and advanced technology have not been able to solve the massive land shortage. Population growth and the reduction of cultivated areas exacerbate this problem. The Chinese leaders made great efforts to keep the tracts of land suitable for cultivation, but the process of reduction continued. This is explained by a number of reasons: 1) decollectivization and a return to individual peasant farms have led to the fact that the land on the borders (between) allotments is not used; 2) in the era of relative liberalization that came after the death of Mao Zedong, the old, traditional Chinese practice was resumed: the dead are buried in the ground, and not cremated; 3) the increase in well-being leads to the fact that the peasants build themselves more spacious dwellings. It can be expected that the problem of supplying food to China's vast population will become larger and more acute: as the Chinese become more prosperous, their diet begins to include more meat and less rice.
The third feature of China should be recognized as the multi-ethnic nature of its population. Although almost 92% of the citizens are actually Chinese (Han), there are 55 officially recognized national minorities in the country, the number of which ranges from a few thousand to more than 15 million people. Although minorities make up a small percentage of the population, they live in lands (commonly referred to as "national autonomous regions") covering more than 60% of the territory and located in strategically important border areas. Among them are Tibet (bordering India) and Xin
jiang (bordering the three republics that were formerly part of the USSR), where for decades there has been an almost constant “fermentation”. China is forced to keep a significant contingent of armed forces in these regions, designed to suppress separatist encroachments.
And finally, the last thing: the Chinese (Han) use a single language when writing, which for twenty centuries has served as a factor of consolidation and a criterion of self-identification. In the presence of a common Chinese literary language, there are many different dialects, which creates certain difficulties in communicating their speakers among themselves. The state language - the so-called "Mandarin", which is based on the Beijing dialect - was introduced by the communist regime through the education system and the media.

More on Chinese Society:

1. Forms of ownership of the means of production and the class structure of society in the People's Republic of China.
2. Chapter 6 After the Great Game: The Tibetan Question in Soviet-German, Soviet-Chinese and Russian-Chinese Relations

T.A. BYCHKOVA

Tomsk, 2003

TOMSK STATE UNIVERSITY

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

Department of Modern and Contemporary History and International Relations,

Department of World Politics

T.A. BYCHKOVA

CULTURE OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES IN CHINA AND JAPAN

Textbook for a special course of lectures

Tomsk University Press, 2002

Bychkova T.A. Culture of traditional societies of China and Japan. Textbook for a special course of lectures. Tomsk: Tomsk University Press. 2001. 63 p.

The textbook is intended for students of the specialty “ International relationships” Faculty of History of Tomsk University.

Editor: Professor, Doctor of Historical Sciences V.P. Zinoviev

Reviewer: Doctor of Political Sciences, Professor at MGIMO(U)

Voskresensky A.D.

(Soros Foundation). Russia

©- Bychkova T.A.

Preface 4

Introduction 4
I. TRADITIONAL CULTURE OF CHINA 5 Traditional Chinese cosmological system 5 Personality in Chinese tradition 7
The personality of the ruler in Chinese tradition 7

Junzi, xiaozhen, zhen 9

^ Junzi - a person who knows 10
Junzi - a man of morality 11
Junzi - Man of Duty 12

Junzi relationship to wealth 12

Junzi - man of culture 13

Taoist personality 14

Chan Buddhism and Chinese Culture 14
Traditional Chinese Thinking 17
^ Emotional world Chinese 19

Fate in the traditional interpretation 20

Good and Evil in Chinese Tradition 21

Traditional Values ​​of Chinese Society 21
Social Justice 24
National character of the Chinese 25
Chinese prose and poetry 26
II^ . TRADITIONAL CULTURE OF JAPAN 31

Borrowing Tradition 31

The worldview of the Japanese 32

The role of Buddhism in the spiritual life and work of the Japanese 33
Japanese contextual thinking 36 Correlation between material and spiritual values ​​37
Japanese Artistic Thinking 38

^ Japanese prose and poetry 39

Conclusion 46

Foreword

In contemporary international relations, all greater value acquire sociocultural factors. For this reason, in the training of international specialists, a country-specific aspect, including the study of the culture and mentality of the peoples of the largest countries of the world, should occupy a greater place than before. These, of course, include China and Japan, which are part of the Asia-Pacific region, where, according to many analysts, the centers of political and economic activity are gradually moving modern world. The ancient societies of this part of the Earth managed to avoid the tragic conflict between tradition and modernization that is characteristic of the Islamic world.

The mentality of the Chinese and Japanese, which is different from Europeans, left its mark on the nature of their diplomacy, so it is advisable to give future specialists in the field of international relations systematized knowledge of the cultural identity of these peoples.

The present tutorial is a summary of a special course of lectures given to students of the Department of International Relations of the Faculty of History. The course of lectures, designed for 20 hours, is intended for students of 3-4 courses in the specialization Diplomacy, World Politics. In an extended version (up to 32 hours) it can be read as a specialization course "China" for students studying in the specialty "Regional Studies".

Introduction

Some researchers believe that in the 21st century there will be a paradigm shift: instead of technocentrism, cultural centrism will come, that is, new system values, another accent of a person's life orientations. The place of the cult of boundless consumerism will be taken by the cult of reasonable self-restraint, modesty of needs. The needs of the soul will prevail over the needs of the body. Thus, we are talking about an alternative way of life. Such an alternative will arise on the paths of correlation of "Western" (technogenic) and "Eastern" (traditional) worldview orientations. Man will understand that the laws and logic of Nature as a “living whole” cannot be further violated aggressively and with impunity.

The ideas of co-evolution of man and nature, the inextricable connection between science and morality, self-restraint and self-improvement are the ideas of Eastern cultures. This explains the steadily growing interest in them.
The author of this development did not set herself the task of showing the comprehensive development of the cultural tradition in China and Japan - this is impossible and unnecessary, since there is a huge literature that explores its various aspects. The purpose of the author is to provide the reader with key terms, concepts, to equip the reader with an understanding of the fundamentals, the foundation on which the cultural tradition of China and Japan rests, i.e. to give an initial idea of ​​the diverse phenomenon called "Confucian civilization".
There are hundreds of definitions of what "culture", "civilization", "tradition" is. It is important to keep in mind that the original meaning of the term "culture" is "cultivation". A person cultivates the environment around him, at the same time creating and improving his mental world. Our focus will be on the spiritual culture of the Chinese and Japanese. Tradition, according to the original meaning of the word, is something that is passed down from person to person, from generation to generation. These are by no means frozen norms and ideas, this is an unfinished value, open to the future. The whole outlook of the Chinese is, in fact, traditional.

The impressive impact of Chinese culture on those who want to touch it and learn at least its basics lies, according to its deep connoisseur V.V. Malyavin, that the root of this culture is “in impeccable trust in the power of life itself, at the same time childishly naive and infinitely wise. Instinct, enlightened by consciousness, and consciousness reconciled with instinct - this is the alpha and omega of Chinese wisdom, the secret of the extraordinary vitality of China's heritage even today.

Chinese civilization, often referred to as Confucian, is autochthonous, i.e. arose autonomously and independently of external borrowings, in the fifth - second millennium BC. The established tradition has never been interrupted, despite many centuries of foreign dominions, when conquerors sat on the throne. China as a dominant country has created a whole center of culture in the region Far East: in Japan, Korea, countries of the South Seas (SEA). Hieroglyphic writing, Confucianism, Taoism spread here. A specific Chan Buddhism emerged from China. The imperial regime - as a component of China's political culture - was accepted here and lasted for many centuries. Chinese ethics, aesthetics, many types of art have become the subject of imitation and borrowing.

Japanese culture has been developing for one and a half millennia under the strong influence of Chinese culture, but in the process of borrowing foreign teachings and traditions, the Japanese gradually created their own, unique and original cultural tradition, which gave grounds to some researchers to speak of a separate “Japanese civilization”. The originality of Japanese culture and the beginning of alienation from everything Chinese began to manifest itself noticeably in the period new history by the middle of the 18th century.

The term "traditional society", "traditional China" refers to China from the third century to 1912 (the height of the Xinhai Revolution, the end of the monarchical system of government and the establishment of the republic), when all the traditions in the socio-economic, political, cultural fields were clearly identified and their succession has assumed a stable character. In Japan, a traditional society existed until the middle of the 19th century, before the “discovery” of Japan for the Western world by the Americans.

^ I. TRADITIONAL CULTURE OF CHINA
^ Traditional Chinese cosmological system

The traditional cosmological theory makes it possible to get an idea of ​​the "Chinese" picture of the World. We cannot judge culture without having an idea of ​​the traditional model of the world that underlies it and which is present in any kind of human activity. Cosmogenesis, according to Chinese ideas, went through the following stages: the initial chaos was divided into yin-qi and yang-qi. Yin is raw, dark, heavy, feminine. Yang is a solid, light, light, masculine principle. The heavy and cloudy yin pneuma descended and formed the Earth, while the light and pure yang pneuma rose up and formed the Sky. The circulation of yang and yin began, the exchange of pneuma, which, in various combinations with each other, formed everything that exists in the world - “ten thousand things”. The Chinese saw the interaction of yin and yang in all phenomena and events of the world. The ideal harmonious state of these two principles of the universe is imprinted on the famous emblem of the Great Limit - the main scheme-formula of the Universe. Yin and yang were considered as equally necessary and complementary beginnings: "The movement, then the rest - they are rooted in each other", "Peace reaches the limit, and movement appears, Movement reaches the limit, and peace appears." There can be no excess of yang and yin, since the Whole is not destroyed, there is a Great Limit. “In the extreme Limit, cold freezes, heat burns. It is necessary to turn back in time in order to act in unison with Nature, not to go against her. From this arose the law of the Middle, of balance. Yin - yang are not independent substances, they are a form of existence, or state, of qi substance. Qi is life energy or life force that comes from space. The world is physically filled with it, and it energetically charges all things and beings, thus granting them the fact of being. Among the "beings and things" a man appears. Heaven and Earth are considered the parents of Man. A triad arises: Heaven (space) - Earth - Man.

A person is considered as a being that has absorbed the purest and most perfect essence of yin and yang in their complete harmony, as if he unites Heaven and Earth in himself. Each person is a small world, a microcosm, therefore, in the Chinese cultural tradition, he is considered a cosmic principle, equally powerful and equivalent to Heaven and Earth. The person in the triad occupies a central place. This is the spiritual element of the cosmological system. Xunzi wrote in the third century BC: “Fire and water have qi, but not life. Trees and herbs have life, but not knowledge. Consciousness is inherent in birds and animals, but Duty-Justice is not inherent. Qi, life, consciousness, and, moreover, Duty-Justice are inherent in man, which is why he is the most precious thing in the Middle Kingdom. A person, in accordance with this system, carries out a heavenly plan on Earth: through him, qi is purified, all the connections of the world intersect in him. Heaven and Earth were of interest to the Chinese not in their own right, but only in their relation to Man (the key word here is relation). Man's mission was to protect the Integrity of the World, the boundless, endless mosaic of being, he must allow all things to be what they are, not to disturb the rhythm of the Universe, the Whole, a single biosocial organism. A person should treat Heaven and Earth as parents - harmonize relations with them, forgetting about his "I".

The highest principle of the world - Tao (the Way) was understood as an all-generating, endless Transformation of the world, without beginning or end, an invisible "spring", breathing, the rhythm of the Universe, an unknown partner in the dialogue between Man and Cosmos. This is the beginning of all beginnings, the basis of all things. Everything is born from the Tao and everything goes into the Tao. But this is not a god, not a supernatural force, since the Tao is natural, although incomprehensible. "Man follows Earth, Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows Tao, and Tao follows itself." There is a Heavenly Tao, there is a human Tao. A Tao-man is a synonym for a sage who managed to embark on the Path, catch the rhythm of the Universe and live in harmony with the cosmos.

A person received from the cosmos the good, bright energy "de", which was interpreted as a life-giving force. It was de ruler, de noble husband, de ordinary person. The amount of this energy is different for different people, it can increase or decrease, the vitality and stamina of a person depends on this: “even a commoner can be an emperor if he has a lot of de”.

Special mention should be made of the relationship between Heaven and man. The Chinese formulated them like this: "The sky is high, but hears the voice of a small person." A person can win over Heaven by observing ethical standards, virtuous behavior, but he can also anger Heaven, which is able to punish unrighteous behavior: will make you wait. And now the winds and rains do not begin at the right time, the sweet rain does not irrigate the earth, the hoarfrost and snow are out of season. Cold and hot not when it should, Yin and yang out of order, four seasons out of time replace each other. There is a decline in morals. Hearts harden like those of animals, the thirst for profit grows, and this causes even greater signs. There is only one way out for a person in such times: “doing good deeds with bad omens - there will be no misfortune.”

Society was considered part of nature, the cosmos, it was not seen as existing on its own. A single system - Man - World - Nature - is subject to the same laws of evolution. An individual, and together with him the whole society, ideally should have tried to achieve complete unity with the cosmic principles, complete "one-bodyness" with the universe. “There is me and the world. What should I do in this world and how to relate to it” - that is the main question that the Chinese had to answer.

^ Personality in Chinese tradition

Domestic sinologists, exploring the role, place, functions of the individual in society, rely mainly on the most important early texts "Lunyu" ("Conversations and Judgments") - according to legend, the recording of Confucius's statements by his students, as well as the Taoist text "Daodejing" ("Book about Tao and Te").

Confucius said that there are no well-trodden paths on the Great Path, the walker is lonely and in danger. At the same time, he argued, "it is not the path that can expand a person, but a person can expand the path." He highly valued Man and his potential for self-improvement. It is not enough to be born a man, you must also give birth to a man in yourself. Confucianism is a doctrine, first of all, about the science of governing the state. The teachings of Confucius largely determined the formation of the thinking and national character of the Chinese. Chinese thought has never asked the question: what is a man? She was only interested in what is the relation of a person to the world and how his talents can be used. Most of all, Confucius was worried and occupied with the question - who, what people should govern the state. The personality of the ruler and the human qualities of the people around him, from the point of view of Confucianism, should be in the spotlight. Let us dwell on this in more detail, since it touches upon the problem of the political culture of traditional China.

^ Personality of the ruler in Chinese tradition

The ruler, according to the Confucian tradition, was personally responsible for the preservation and optimal functioning of the entire society. He was called the "son of Heaven", "the father of the people." The figure of the monarch was considered by traditional Chinese culture as a very essential element of the universe. The monarch was a human intermediary between Heaven and Earth. Te of the ruler could accumulate in the dynasty, from generation to generation, because the whole clan "worked" for him. Te could dry up with a negligent attitude to their duties, and this led to the fall of the dynasty. Therefore, the ruler's task was to rigorously accumulate and preserve de. To do this, he had to be able to "read letters from heaven", i.e. understand the will of Heaven. The emperor receives a mandate from Heaven to take the throne, and in case of poor governance, the people have the right to depose him. Mozi, a Chinese philosopher who lived at the turn of the 5th - 4th centuries, an ardent opponent of Confucianism, attacked Confucius for his desire to limit the power of the ruler. The idea of ​​Confucius about the right of the people to depose the ruler was developed by his follower Mengzi, who believed that rulers who were hardened in their vices should be expelled and even killed, and the people had the right to revolt against an unvirtuous ruler. In practice, this method of overthrowing the ruler was adopted by the Chinese bureaucracy. Since the will of Heaven, expressed through various natural phenomena, could comprehend and explain to the people only Confucian-educated officials, their role in political life countries has grown significantly. In fact, the ruler fell under the control of his dignitaries. When determining the role of Confucianism in the formation of China's political culture, it should be taken into account that it has gone through several stages in its development, absorbing new ideas and new practices.

In the IV - III centuries BC. legalism had a strong influence on the development of Chinese statehood and the evolution of Confucianism. Two various models state administration - Confucius and Shang Yang (the founder of legalism) - appeared almost simultaneously: management through rules (li) and management through laws (fa), more precisely - through law. Legists absolutized the power of the ruler and advocated the creation of a powerful state that dominates its neighbors. They are characterized by the priority of pragmatism in politics, and the Chinese bureaucracy adopted pragmatism, turning it into one of the components of political culture. Shang Yang borrowed the principle of equal opportunities from Mozi, proposing to allow people from any class, regardless of knowledge, to administrative positions (compare with the principle of Confucius - to allow only educated people to power). The only criterion for officials was loyalty to the ruler. Unlike Confucius and Mencius, who preached humane methods rule based on moral influence, the legalists insisted on the use of violence, the method of rewards and punishments, on the concentration of all levers of economic power in the hands of the state. The ruler should strive for unlimited power. Politics, from the point of view of legalists, is incompatible with morality. In this field of activity, treachery, deceit and strength have always been placed above philanthropy, mercy and duty.

Legist concepts had a significant impact on the formation of orthodox Confucianism and the bureaucratic system of government, which functioned in China without any significant changes from the end of the 1st millennium BC. up to the beginning of the twentieth century. L.S. Perelomov, a deep connoisseur of Confucianism, notes: “Mengzi and legalists, Mozi, Laozi were quoted, but Confucius always remained at the center of all antiquity, because his judgments were always perceived as the truth” (L.S. Perelomov. Confucianism and legalism in the political history of China. M., 1981. S. 218).

The main principle of government was considered the Taoist principle of "non-action" (wuwei), the meaning of which was not to interfere, not to oppose the laws of Nature, to catch the rhythm of the breath of Tao: "Heaven and Earth are inactive and do everything." In practice, it looked like this: “If I do not act, the people will be in self-change. If I am calm, the people will correct themselves. If I remain inactive, the people become rich.” Laozi said: “The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists. Somewhat worse is the ruler who requires the people to love and exalt him. Even worse is the ruler whom the people fear, and worse than all those rulers whom the people despise. The management of the state was equated in the Chinese tradition with the management of the water flow: no effort is needed to make the water flow where the river itself tends. Woe to anyone who tries to block her path. To follow Nature does not mean to infringe on one's freedom, but, on the contrary, means to become free. The one who is calm and silent rules. The highest wisdom is to follow the circumstances, to be capable of non-action, non-accomplishment, which meant right activity. In other words, everything will be done by itself, as a result natural course lawful events.

This principle is not only Taoist, it was also guided by the legalists, meaning by non-action the desire for a high quality of management, in the sense of facilitating management. The principle of wuwei in the Taoist interpretation had nothing to do with the Legist demands for a centralized bureaucratic government, an exemplary administration. It was a repudiation of the Legalist cult of administration and law, of Confucian ethics and politics. “And it was precisely this denial of administration, the denial of power, the call for a practical escape from the hated social fetters that fettered a free person subsequently had a huge impact on the ideological principles of the Taoist sects, which led peasant uprisings more than once throughout the long Chinese history” (L.S. Vasiliev. Cults, Religions, Traditions in China, Moscow, 2001, p. 230).

The ruler and his associates must share both good and bad with the people: “If the people are in abundance, how can the ruler be lacking? If the people do not have enough, then how can the ruler have enough? The main tasks of the ruler were: to provide the people with food, maintain the army and - to win the trust of the people. You can give up, as Confucius said, weapons, even food, but without trust there is no foundation for the state. To gain the trust of the people, the ruler should improve himself, correct his shortcomings. If he "is not able to improve himself, then how can he correct the behavior of others?"

The canonical book "Daodejing" contains a lot of recommendations to the ruler, here are some of them. “Punishments and fines are not enough to change morals, executions and murders cannot stop evil, Only where the transformation of the spirit is honored, perfect particles of jing become spirit. After all, the cry is not heard further than 100 steps, while the will is able to spread to 1000 li. On how to learn the art of ruling: “Those who wanted to convey the bright de of the ancient Celestial Empire, first learned to rule their country. Those who wanted to rule their country, first established order in their families. Those who wanted to establish order in their families first learned to manage themselves. Those who wanted to control themselves had first corrected their hearts. He who corrected his heart, first made his thoughts sincere. He who wanted to make his thoughts sincere, first developed his mind. The development of the mind depends on the comprehension of things.

^ Junzi, xiaozhen, zhen

In the minds of the Chinese, the essence of man could not be separated from his social nature. Personality in Chinese culture- this is not an individual, it is what it is for others, social ties and relationships - component her being.

The Confucian tradition divided people into several categories: junzi or noble men, xiaozhen or low people, i.e. small people and zhen (literally a person). Ren is a mass of people, which morally and culturally stands between junzi and xiaozhen, i.e. These are ordinary, average people. The division between junzi and xiaoren was especially emphasized in order to show the radical differences between these categories of the population. The watershed was not so much along the social as along the moral line. “Junzi thinks about the truth, xiaozhen thinks about his own good. Junzi thinks about how not to break the path, and xiaozhen thinks about how to benefit. Junzi makes demands on himself, a low person - on others. Small people like to unite - for their own benefit. Junzi does not ally with anyone, but serves the common good. It is not collective, but universal. Small - collective, but not universal. Junzi keeps himself strict, does not enter into disputes, lives in harmony with everyone, but does not collude, does not follow others. Junzi follows the Middle, but Xiaozhen violates it.”

Xiaozhen are people who are unable to learn, unwilling to learn. They do not shine with virtues, they are vulgar and selfish. Due to their ignorance, they constantly violate the correct rhythm of yang and yin, thereby violating the harmony of the World. Because of this, all sorts of troubles begin. Xiaozhen create an artificial world of human society, which loses its natural rhythm, and this is fraught with great trouble for the human race. But this is the majority of the population, these are commoners, ordinary people, real people, they are the bulk of the population, which produces everything, works day and night. That is why the tops should take care of them, and the mission of junzi is to purify the biosphere with noble deeds, enrich human society with qi energy particles, and encourage people to self-improvement. A small person is unrestrained, arrogant, easily arrogant, unable to live in harmony with other people, he is a coward.

A true person is a junzi and almost everyone can become one: “Only the smartest and most stupid cannot change”, the rest - “from the Son of Heaven to a commoner” could try to change and become noble people. To become junzi, one had to dedicate one's life to getting on the Way (Dao) and cultivating oneself throughout one's life. To comprehend the Tao means to embark on the Path of knowing the truth. Somewhere at the end of a difficult journey called life, the truth may be revealed to a person. “The teacher said: “If you learn the Tao at dawn, then you can die at sunset.”

According to Confucius, the ruler had to gather "noble men" around him. Junzi should have offered his services to the ruler. He was supposed to be an intermediary between the ruler and the people, prompting the ruler to properly take care of the welfare of the state and subjects. “When the movement of the forces of the universe is at the stage of ascent, absolutely wise and enlightened sovereigns will certainly appear. When they appear, wise and faithful dignitaries will certainly appear. They converge without looking for each other. They become close without knowing each other."

Confucius' mandate was: a great dignitary is one who serves with the help of his Tao way and stops serving when it becomes impossible. Leaving the service was considered synonymous with integrity and inner purity. The poet Tao Yuanming (4th-5th centuries) wrote:

"I'll tear off this hat

And I will return to my native villages

You can't wrap me around

Fetters of profitable places and ranks!

I will grow the truth in my heart

Under thatched roof

And I can myself

To be called a man worthy"

Junzi did not aspire and even resisted becoming a functional bureaucrat, he tried to keep a distance between himself and the state machine, he wanted to be not only and not so much an official, but a philosopher and writer, a free artist, a bearer of Confucian ethics. In the foreground for him was the task of remaining a morally perfect person. He did not want and could not turn into a soulless bureaucrat, he tried to preserve his spiritual world. Ethical and political functions were combined with labor, very rarely a sage and a politician merged into one. The dilemma of "getting into power" or "getting out of power" in its dramatic nature can be equated to the Hamletian question "to be or not to be."

Confucius' order to noble men is curious: “Do not go where there are riots. Do not live where there is confusion. If the Celestial Empire follows the Tao, be in sight; if not, hide. If a country follows the Tao, it is a shame to be poor and not in honor. If a country does not follow the Tao, it is a shame to be rich and honored.” Junzi, according to Confucius, should not be upset that he is not used in the service of troubled times, he'd better retire to fulfill his main function- “order the Celestial Empire”, do good deeds. Leaving the service was for junzi a return to himself, to nature, to space, to the ideal, to doing what he loved.

Junzi's ideal was to be a hermit and practice his favorite art form. All his life he lived in search of ways of self-realization. Man in the Chinese tradition, according to V.V. Malyavin, eternally flowing, in constant search.

Junzi, as an ideal and real person at the same time, differed from the rest of the masses by a number of properties. Let's take a closer look at it.

^ Junzi is a man of knowledge

Confucius believed that a noble man, deprived of ren and wen, is no longer junzi. Ren and wen, according to a deep connoisseur of Confucianism, Professor L.S. Perelomov, these are the two most important concepts of the teachings of Confucius. The term jen is translated in different ways: benevolence, virtue, philanthropy, the human principle in a person, humanity. Junzi had to meet all the requirements of a ren wearer. He had to be philanthropic, sincere, honest, devoted state affairs, i.e. ruler. And he had to have wen. The term wen meant spiritual culture. In Lunyuye, wen is what a person acquires in the process of learning, and each person should strive to master the spiritual culture of their ancestors. At the same time, Confucius warned about the danger of excessive enthusiasm for wen: “When zhi (properties of nature itself, natural instincts) prevails in a person, savagery is obtained, but when wen (education) prevails, only learning is obtained”, i. one becomes a scribe. A person, therefore, must be able to combine natural properties and acquired knowledge: “That's when the natural properties human nature, and the acquired culture in a person are combined, it turns out junzi.

A noble husband had to be, first of all, an educated person. Education in traditional Chinese society was only humanitarian and was based on the study and memorization of the classical texts of canonical books: Shijing (Book of Songs), Yijing (Book of Changes), Lunyu, Daodejing and others. The Chinese did not receive special knowledge. The main science was the transformation of an ordinary person into a perfect husband, and self-knowledge was considered the main process of cognition: “A perfect husband, without going beyond the threshold, can contain all “10,000 things” in his consciousness and, knowing himself, cognize Heaven.” People may have different attitudes to the need to know the Tao: “A person of the highest learning, having learned about the Tao, strives for its realization. A person of average learning, having learned about the Tao, either observes it, or violates it. A man of inferior learning makes him laugh. Therefore, there is a saying… who is at the height of the Tao is like a deluded one, a person of the highest virtue is like a simple person, a great enlightened one is like a despised one, boundless virtue is like its lack, the spread of virtue is like its plundering, the true truth is like its absence.”

Confucius said: “Knowing is good. It is better to love knowledge. The best thing is to get the joy of recognition. Junzi must "silently absorb and accumulate knowledge, tirelessly study, and tirelessly teach others, passing on the accumulated knowledge to them." The following statements of Confucius also made us think: “Teaching without reflection is in vain, but reflection without teaching is dangerous”, “It is harmful to get involved in extremes”. Only the person himself can change himself, moving towards the perfection and harmony of the World. The good of man is the greatest value and purpose of education.

A person should cultivate himself in order to avoid extremes in behavior: “He who stands on tiptoe will not stand. Those who spread their legs wide apart cannot walk. Whoever exalts himself does not inspire confidence. He who exposes himself to the light does not shine. Those who boast of skill do not achieve success. He who exalts himself is not recognized. For one who abides in the Tao, all this is an empty chore. These are the ones that everyone hates. Therefore, he who has embarked on the Path does not do this.”

The science of self-improvement was passed on from teacher to student, while observing the rule: "The perfect sage adheres to non-action and teaches without words." In the process of learning, it was impossible to push, force the student, prevent him from understanding everything himself and correctly embarking on the Path. Everyone follows their own Tao, lives their own life and must naturally, independently come to the correct understanding of their own path of self-improvement, without any violence.

^ Junzi is a man of morality

In Chinese traditional society, panmoralism dominated, i.e. moral norms replaced the norms of law. To observe LI meant to observe three thousand rules of conduct and three hundred kinds of ceremonies. The ritual was observed by all subjects, regardless of their class affiliation.

The Junzi were called not only to be exemplary bearers of morality, but also to observe special norms as the elite of society. They were supposed to put public interests above personal ones: “A noble husband first suffers from the troubles of the Celestial Empire, and then rejoices in her joys.” He had to take care not to "lose face". To do this, it was necessary to observe two rules: do not speak badly about others and take everything bad at your own expense. Laozi used to say: “Who knows the measure, knows no shame. Whoever knows how to stop in time will not be in danger.” The face is an expression of social status, and it could be lost against one's will. It was the fear of losing face that gave rise in the Chinese to that petty scrupulousness in matters of etiquette, which Europeans have always been surprised at. It was impossible to allow ridicule at oneself, especially in the presence of witnesses. Therefore, junzi never entered into conflicts, avoided disputes and showdowns, and kept his distance. Noble men helped each other to "keep face" and avoid getting into dubious situations. If someone did "lose face", he had the right to take revenge on the offender after some time by killing his child or wife - and there was no punishment for this.

^ Junzi - Man of Duty

Without cultivating a sense of Duty, a noble husband could become dangerous to society. “Junzi, who has courage but lacks a sense of duty, becomes a rebel. A low man, possessing courage, but devoid of a sense of duty, becomes a robber. Thus, the stability of society, its more or less harmonious state, depended on the education of a sense of duty. Any person in traditional China repaid his debts to his parents, family, state all his life. With junzi, as a standard for the rest, this feeling should have been expressed especially emphasized.

^ Junzi relationship to wealth

“Wealth and nobility is what all people love. If they are received in the wrong way, then junzi does not accept them. Poverty and ignorance is what all people hate. If it is not possible to get rid of them in the right way, then the junzi are not freed from them.”

“Correct” was wealth that was inherited from parents, or that came to a person without deceit and fraud (recall that the estate of merchants occupied the last, fourth step of the social hierarchy and was despised from the bottom of the heart by the majority of the population). In the Chinese tradition, as L.S. Vasiliev, from time to time there were persecutions of those who got too rich, and in official texts there are incessant complaints about the fact that the rich have bred too much, and the poor do not have land to stick an awl.

Junzi had to renounce low material interests: "Junzi does not eat for satiety and does not live for peace." Junzi was supposed to be silverless. Overcoming selfishness with the help of the will gave noble men indestructible stamina: “A great man is one who does not indulge in excesses in wealth and nobility, who does not change his principles in poverty and ignorance and cannot be bent by threats and military force". The attitude of junzi to xiaozhen is characteristic, for whom wealth and nobility were the formula of happiness: they called them "small stinking rats."

The classic standard for Confucius was his favorite student Yan Hui - who had little, little about

History and SID

Ancient China. The specifics of the social structure Introduction Ancient Chinese civilization developed in the V-III millennia BC. e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Yellow River basin was the main territory for the formation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese...

Ancient China. The specifics of the social structure

Introduction

ancient Chinese civilization that developed in the VIII millennium BC. e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Huang He basin was the main territory for the formation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese, one of the centers of the early world civilizations.

The state structure of China had features of despotism. All power belonged to the emperor. The administrative apparatus was based on the principle of centralized management. The social structure of China had a rather complex system. All its inhabitants were considered vassals of the emperor, but each estate was distinguished by its own peculiarities of behavior, rights and duties.

Since its inception, Chinese society has begun to acquire uniqueness and, in fact, individuality among neighboring and distant states.It was the specifics of the social structure that I took as the basis of my essay. It is quite difficult to consider the centuries-old history in detail, so I will explore the social structure of the main periods of China and conclude with a general thematic summary.

Key periods:

1. Shang (Yin) period - 1812 centuries BC;
   
2. Zhou period - 12th c. BC. - 221;
   
3. The period of strengthening of the kingdom of Qin - 246 BC - 207 BC;
   
4. Han period (206220 BC)

Problem : Changing the specifics of the social structure of Ancient China over the main time points.

Tasks:

1. Studying the social structure at these stages
2. Comparison of social structures that existed in different periods
3. Summing up the general development of the social structure of Ancient China.

The social structure of the Shang (Yin) period - 1812 centuries. BC

The most ancient period of Chinese history is the period of the state of Shang-Yin. According to traditional Chinese chronology, this era usually refers to the XVIII-XII centuries. BC e.

The remnants of the tribal system existed in China for a very long time - tribal groups continued to exist in China for millennia, which contributed to the transition of the tribal rank by inheritance in certain tribal groups and that the peculiar "positions" of the chiefs of the clans were inherited in certain tribal groups.

As for the custom of blood feud, it persisted in China until the Confucian era. confucius spoke

“The one whose father or mother was killed should sleep on straw, having a shield instead of a pillow. He must firmly resolve not to live under the same sky with the murderer. If he meets him in the market or at court, then he should not go for his weapon, but should immediately fight with him.

Not less than importance had a large patriarchal family. Its main features were: the dominance of husband and father, the enslavement of women, aggravated by polygamy, a pronounced cult of ancestors.

The ancient council of elders, which existed in the Yin era, also dates back to ancient times, which has preserved significant remnants of the tribal system. The Council of Elders existed under the king and consisted of ancestors and tribal leaders. Perhaps the power of the council of elders was great and allowed itself to limit the power of the king in some respects. It is very possible that this ancient organization later developed into a tribal aristocracy and, relying on large wealth, significant political power, this aristocracy eventually formed the ruling class of slave owners.

The process of class stratification that took place in the depths of rural communities, the development of trade and war led to the emergence of slavery and the aggravation of class contradictions. Thus, the Shan-Yin era should be considered the time of the emergence of the most ancient class slave-owning society.

In Shang society, the difference between the ruling elites with their environment (administrative apparatus, artisans, warriors, servants) and the productive peasant masses is visibly presented.

The zone centered in the capital was under the direct control of the ruler - Van and the Shang Central Administration. Wang and his entourage lived in the center of the zone, there was also a place for the dwelling of soldiers, officials, artisans and servants. Palaces and workshops, barns and warehouses, barracks and fields were located in the capital. In work on large fields Van and his servants often took part, and the harvest was intended both for ritual and cult needs, and for replenishing government barns.

The vast territory of regional possessions was controlled by the representatives of the Shan Wang, that is, his relatives and close associates. These territories were often subjected to raids by neighboring barbarian tribes, thereby enclosing the capital, led by the bath, from raids from outside.

All residents of this state had to faithfully serve the bath, take part in hostilities, and also present gifts, trophies, especially prisoners, who were most often sacrificed to Van's ancestors at the next calendar date of sacrifices. The practice of inheriting the position of the ruler - Van was still in the process of formation. The transfer of power from father to son was not immediately established in this society, the throne passed from brother to brother and from uncle to nephew.

The supreme sovereignty and sacred holiness of the Shan ruler - Van were above all for all the Shans.

The social structure of the Zhou period - 12th century. BC. - 221 BC

There was a time when the Zhou tribes entered the realm political influence Yin (Shang) as a subordinate territory. The strengthening of the Chou people was marked by the fact that the military clashes between Yin and Zhou took a turn in the direction of the latter.

Gradually, a powerful coalition of Western tribes was formed, led by the Zhou tribe. Over time, the Zhou people adopted the culture and way of life of the Yin state. The Zhou learned from the Yin how to make weapons and other combat items from bronze, chariots, etc.

After the final defeat of the Yin people, the Chou people granted the nobility (from the Yin bath) land ownership along with their population. The leaders of the Yin tribes were not touched, thus remaining to occupy their posts. In general, the Zhou conquest did not cause fundamental changes in the system of administration of the territories subordinated to the Wang.

The entire free population of Zhou was divided into five social groups, which were located in relation to each other according to the principle of hierarchy (in ancient China it was more clearly expressed than in other ancient Eastern societies). Zhou baths occupied the highest level of the hierarchy, as it was customary to say “the only one among people”, they were despotic rulers (I speak in the plural, because during this period there were quite a few of them, but the essence of the unlimited power of the ruler did not change. The next layer was Zhuhou , the rulers of hereditary possessions, were undeniably an aristocracy. Average rank is Dafu , heads of tribal groups, which in their totality constituted the population of the Zhuhou hereditary possession. Fourth group shea , chapters large families, which were part of the above tribal group. Last group - commoners.
The specificity of this or that rank was in the material benefits that this person could use. First of all, the amounts of food and drink, the cut of clothes, the number of livestock and slaves are different. “During the life of a person, differences are observed in headdress, clothing, the number of fields and the size of the dwelling; after death in the size of the inner and outer coffin, shroud and grave pit ”Strict rules were established regarding the decoration of the dwelling, something that common people should not allow themselves. The same applied to food: “It was believed that the wang could eat the meat of an ox, a ram and a pig, zhuhou only beef, dafu pork, shi fish, and common people did not have the right to eat meat at all.Social differences were also reflected in the vocabulary of the ancient Chinese language to denote the same concept, there were different words used depending on the speaker's belonging to a certain rank.

A person's belonging to the highest social groups was established according to the principle of kinship. The eldest son inherited the rank of his father, and all other sons descended one step below. But this rule did not affect the layer of commoners, because it was impossible to go lower.

As for land ownership, Wang was the supreme owner of the entire land area. But the land was cultivated by commoners. Why?

The landowning structure, as well as the social one, has its own hierarchy, each layer grants land to the one below it.On this basis, the following conclusion can be drawn: private property as such did not exist in Zhou society.

The social structure of the kingdom of Qin - 246 BC - 207 BC

Until the 4th century BC. we know little about the Qin kingdom. At that time, little was mentioned about her, because she almost did not fight between the kingdoms.

Due to the loss of land fertility, the Qin kingdom carried out the creation of an irrigation system, thereby significantly increasing its agricultural production.

Under King Xiao Gong (361338 BC), important land use reforms were carried out:

1. Pledge and purchase of land legalized
2. The custom of blood feud was forbidden.
3. Restrictions on the size of land holdings have been abolished.

This is what led to the undermining of the rural community. Shang Yang issued laws regarding slaves as land labor. He adopted many reforms in the military field of the state: capturing the enemy raising the rank of a warrior, i.e. the right to land and slaves.

The old hereditary nobility was deprived of all privileges and removed from power. Only military holders of ranks were considered full-fledged free citizens, it was forbidden by law to enslave them. But over time, the rank could be bought or exchanged. Such changes entailed the features of the military-bureaucratic despotism of the state.

The state of Qin turned into the strongest military power and went on the offensive against neighboring countries. It expanded its states at the expense of other possessions. The first "emperor" - "shihuangdi" - Qin Shi Huangdi, ascended the throne of the Chinese warrior. It was believed that he was the "Son of Heaven" and his power became even more deified than under the rulers of the Vans.

This difficult period in Chinese history is called the most cruel. Endless wars, conquests, the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China, the construction of which lasted ten years and cost the empire incredible hardships and loss of life.

Qin Shi Huangdi introduced new cruel orders into the state system. No citizen had the right to call himself Wei, Yan, Qin. Everyone is equal from nobles to commoners. The emperor established a single name for the entire population - “black-headed”, without sparing anyone, he even lowered his sons to the lowest rank, turning them into ordinary people. The empire was dominated by the military-bureaucratic nobility, mainly from among the new rich big businessmen and merchants. The purchase of positions and ranks of nobility was legalized. The emperor converted family members of the criminal in three generations into slaves, as well as families connected by mutual responsibility, so that entire groups of villages passed into slavery.

During this period, there was a catastrophic impoverishment of the farmers, the seizure of property from the peasants, the introduction of large taxes on land even in the layers of the aristocracy, the state was depleted.

But after the death of Qin Shi Huangdi, everything led to civil war- the uprisings united not only the enslaved masses, the poor from the communal peasants, but representatives of the ruling class, mainly from the former noble families, were added to them. kingdoms People managed to gain freedom.

This ends the time of slave-owning Ancient China,

replaced by feudal society.

The social structure of the Han period (206220 BC)

The growth of large private land ownership, the rise of handicraft production, the developmenttrade and monetary relations accelerated the decomposition of the community and the development of slaveholding relations. There were two main forms of slavery in ancient China, public and private.

The main source of state slavery was the enslavement of convicts. The authorities very, often resorted to punishment to increase the gratuitous labor force (the enslaved had their faces tattooed with a green line around their eyes)

The most widespread was private slavery, the main source of which was debt slavery. The impoverished community members, clinging to their patches of land, were forced to give their sons into slavery, if only to somehow retain their arable allotment, the possession of which made them full members of the community.

In the empires of Qin and Han in China, the slave trade flourished. The number of private slaves served as a measure of wealth. Large slave owners had hundreds and thousands of slaves. It was considered especially honorable to receive slaves as a gift from the emperor, but only the closest dignitaries were awarded this honor. The scope of slave labor was quite extensive. The state used slaves in the ore and salt mines, in handicraft workshops and in various hard jobs. A significant number of slaves were kept in the palaces as servants. However, most of all slave labor was used in private households. In developing industries such as handicrafts and trade, slaves were the main labor force.

In the social structure, such layers as farmers are very firmly establishedpeasants, merchants, military stratum of the population, aristocracy. Formally, of all categories of the population, only officials and holders of the ranks of nobility were exempted from duties.

As for the aforementioned feudal society, it already appeared in China in the first centuries of our era in connection with the economic and political strengthening of large private landowners and the emergence of a privately dependent small peasant economy. New social categories of direct producers appeared, called binke and butqu.

In the Han Empire, the bureaucratic stratum gained considerable strength. Significant changes have taken place in the status of the bureaucracy. Representatives of various social strata, mainly from the most prosperous part of society, who occupied administrative posts during the Qin Empire, tried in every possible way to consolidate their position, to preserve for their family or patronymic the preemptive right to fill official positions.

Little by little, the country was getting out of slaveholding dependence, which led to the formation of politics and economics. The Chinese united state, since the time of our era, has been considered one of the largest and most powerful countries.

Conclusion

Having studied the features of the social system of each of the selected periods, I can draw the following conclusion. The first three periods are considered the hardest time in the formation of the Chinese state, endless wars, policy restructuring within the state brought drastic changes in the social structure.

The system of a slave-owning society did not, in essence, move the state forward. Ancient China was treading water, not entering the world stage.

During the birth of Chinese civilization, only the conception of social structures took place, information is available only about the power position of Wang, the next period of the Zhou society carries the stratification of the population into ranks, the difference between which was clearly expressed, during the Qin period the whole social structure, due to the emergence of a new cruel emperor who subjugated the Chinese lands. The beginning of the Han Dynasty is the restoration of the system, after the Qin period, the system of the slave structure was strengthened, the slaves were criminals, traitors, debtors, the poor, some peasants. A huge number of the Chinese population was enslaved. But already by the beginning of our era, a certain restructuring took place, which gave rise to the feudal principle of structure.

Feudalism - a type of agrarian society in which land ownership is conditioned by military or other service, in a feudal society there is a hierarchy of political power based on contractual rights and obligations, usually with a monarch at the head, unfree peasants cultivate the land as serfs.

Bibliography

1. "History of the Whale". alternative history. Tutorial.Author L.S. Vasiliev
2. "Forms of Social Organization of the Ancient Chinese".Author Kryukov M.V.
3. Educational-methodical complex on the history of the ancient world. Author Denisov V.I.
4. www .wikipedia.org/wiki/History of China

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