The social structure of Chinese society. Traditional society: definition

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China and the documents of the Communist Party of China (CCP) operate with large socio-structural communities as the most significant for Chinese society and for managing it: such concepts familiar to socialist "constitutionalism" as classes, workers, peasants, intelligentsia, peoples are used. Thus, in the introduction to the Constitution it is written that "in the cause of socialist construction it is necessary to rely on the workers, peasants and intelligentsia ...". Indeed, during the period when the ideals of the “big cauldron” and “iron bowl” dominated, the needs of the population were leveled and their interests were artificially maintained homogenous, classes acted as the most socially significant structures of Chinese society.

The economic reform stimulated awareness of the specificity of the interests of various strata and groups. Sociological studies show that representatives of various segments of the population increasingly identify themselves not with any class, but with other sociocultural communities: young people are becoming more and more clearly aware of their specific interests, ethno-confessional communities are being formed, personnel specialists, employees of the state apparatus, teachers are increasingly writing about the transformation of the intelligentsia into the most progressive social force. Due to the huge population of the PRC, each of these communities is equal in size to the population of a large European state.

Unemployment is a real and acute social problem in the PRC. And although according to the second and fourth parts of Art. 42 of the Constitution, “the state creates conditions for employment in various ways, improves protection and working conditions, and also, on the basis of the development of production, increases wages and the material well-being of workers”, and in addition, “carries out the necessary labor training of citizens before they are put to work”, implementation The state of these constitutional duties in China (as, indeed, in many other countries) is still very far from complete.

According to Art. 43 of the Constitution, the state improves the conditions for rest and health promotion of workers, establishes for workers and employees working time and vacation system. In the labor legislation of the People's Republic of China, working hours and the vacation system are indeed regulated, and the improvement of conditions for recreation and health promotion is a task that can hardly ever be considered completed. This is a typical “material guarantee”, for the results of which no one can ask anyone.

In Art. 44 and 45 of the Constitution formulated the tasks of the state, and sometimes society in the field of social security. Thus, the state, in accordance with the law, establishes the procedure for the retirement of workers and employees, despite the fact that "the state and society provide for pensioners." The state is entrusted with the task of developing social insurance, public assistance and medical and sanitary services, the state and society must provide for disabled military personnel, provide material assistance to the families of fallen heroes, provide benefits to the families of military personnel, help the blind, deaf, dumb and other citizens with disabilities in finding a job, obtaining funds for a living, receiving education.

Despite the vast predominance of the main ethnic group Han (as the Chinese call themselves) in the population of China, the country is still among the multinational, especially since sometimes, with a relatively low percentage of the population, the number of individual peoples is many millions of people who sometimes live on vast territories. In the area of interethnic relations, especially during the period of the “cultural revolution”, many crimes were committed related to forced sinicization. Therefore, the Constitution could not ignore this problem. In Art. 4 formulated the basic principles of the national policy of the state: equality of nationalities, the prohibition of national discrimination and oppression, actions that undermine the cohesion of nationalities, freedom to use and develop the national language and writing, preserve and change mores and customs; state guarantee of the legitimate rights and interests of small nationalities, assistance to their areas of residence in accelerating the pace of economic and cultural development, regional autonomy in areas of their compact residence.

Part one Art. 49 obliges the state to protect marriage, family, motherhood and childhood, and the second part of Art. 46 - to ensure the comprehensive moral, mental and physical development of youth, adolescents and children. In Art. 48 states that women enjoy equal rights with men in all areas of political, economic, cultural, social and family life, and the state protects the rights and interests of women, provides them with equal pay for equal work with men, educates and promotes cadre workers from among women. To what extent this is being implemented can be seen at least from the fact that in the leadership of the country for half a century after the victory of the communists in the civil war there were no and no women, with the exception of Jiang Qing, who came to the fore during the "cultural revolution". "due to the fact that she was the wife of the leader of the PRC, Mao Zedong.

In Art. 9 (part two) and 26, special attention is paid to the environmental protection activities of the state and its health improvement activities environment. Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries: Textbook: In 4 vols. T. 4. Part Special: countries of America and Asia / Ed. ed. prof. B. A. Strashun. - M .: Publishing house NORMA ( Publishing Group NORMA - INFRA * M), 2001.S. 435

The Constitution of the PRC contains many norms traditional for a socialist state, and yet the constitutional model of the economy of a socialist state in the PRC has a modernized character.

The constitutions of the socialist countries, as a rule, contained a description of the socialist economic system, or the socialist economic system. This characterization (depending on the assessment by the corresponding communist party of the stage at which the country was) was given in two versions: in the first version, the socialist economy was spoken of as a fait accompli, while the second version of the constitutional characterization of the economic system reflected the transition to a socialist economy. The wording of the PRC Constitution combines both approaches. On the one hand, the first part of Art. Article 6 of the Constitution reads: "The basis of the socialist economic system of the People's Republic of China is socialist public ownership of the means of production, that is, public property and the collective property of the working masses." From this provision, we can conclude that the socialist economic system has already taken shape. However, the new, third, part of the same article echoes the provision contained in the introduction about the country’s long stay at the initial stage of socialism and establishes: “At the initial stage of socialism, the state supports an economic system in which public property dominates and other forms of property develop in parallel, but adheres to a system in which distribution according to work dominates while coexisting with other modes of distribution. The inconsistency of these provisions reflects the course of the CCP to move away from the traditional for the socialist countries forcing the development of socialist relations to their well-known conservation at the achieved level for an indefinite time, combined with the development of market relations.

Since efforts are being made in China to form a market sphere for the functioning of state enterprises and other business entities, the question of the relationship between the plan and the market has been reflected at the constitutional level. Until March 1993 Art. Article 15 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states: “The state, on the basis of socialist property, conducts a planned economy. With the help of comprehensively balanced economic plans and the auxiliary role of market regulation, the state guarantees proportional, harmonious development National economy". Until the XIV Congress of the Communist Party of China (1992), market socialism like the Yugoslav model was declared unacceptable for China, but starting from the XIV Congress, party documents already speak of a socialist market economy. According to the Chinese author Zuo Changqing, the main features new system socialist market economy are reduced to the following: distribution of resources using the market mechanism; independence of economic enterprises; clear definition of property rights; creation of a market for factors of production; indirect macroeconomic control of the government; development of legislation regulating economic activity.

The socialist nature of the Chinese economy is manifested, according to Chinese economists, primarily in the dominance of state property in the national economy of the country and the leading role of the principle of distribution according to work. At the same time, the wording of the Constitution also makes it possible to emphasize the market nature of the transformations, "allows for various interpretations, its interpretation may vary depending on the objectives of the economic policy of the Chinese leadership and the practical needs of the reform."

The political setting of the CCP to create a socialist market economy received constitutional formalization. Article 15 of the Constitution, as amended in 1993, reads: “The State implements a socialist market economy. The state strengthens legislative activity in the field of economy, improves macroregulation. The state, in accordance with the law, prohibits any organization or individual from disturbing the economic order of society.

The peculiarity of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China lies in the fact that it regulates such a seemingly private institution of the economy as a family contract. Part one Art. 8 of the Constitution as amended in 1999 establishes: “Rural collective economic organizations carry out a two-level economic system, the basis of which is a family contract. In the countryside, various forms of cooperative economy in the form of production, supply and marketing, credit, consumer and other forms of cooperation represent the socialist sector of the economy, based on the system of collective property of the working masses.

There is also another feature of the Constitution - the admission of foreign capital.

In accordance with the socialist tradition in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China great attention paid to the regulation of economic policy and economic-but-organizational activities of the state. The Constitution provides for or follows from it such goals of the state's economic policy as: improvement of macroregulation (Article 15); strengthening of legislative activity in the field of economics (art. 15); ensuring the integrity of the economic system of society (prohibition of its violation - art. 15); protection of various forms of ownership (Art. 11, 12, 13); rational distribution of means of accumulation and consumption (Article 14); improvement of economic management and enterprise management systems (art. 14); increasing productivity and improving the organization of labor (Article 14).

In addition, the Constitution reflects the state's economic strategy for using the achievements of science and technology, creating conditions for their development (Article 14).

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China also establishes the basis for the competence of state bodies in the economic sphere.

The political system of the People's Republic of China is notable for its considerable originality.

First, by virtue of its socialist nature, it includes specific institutions that are typical for socialist countries (the Communist Party, the People's Front, etc.), both the state and various formal public formations function and interact under the leadership of the CCP.

Secondly, in the PRC, there is a specific interweaving of formal and informal institutions, while the formal significance of individual institutions of the political system, including those officially promoted, as a rule, does not coincide with the real one. For example, formally issues of national security fall within the competence of a specially created NPC state body - the Central Military Council. It is known, and in the People's Republic of China this is considered quite a consequence of the peculiarities of a socialist state, that in practice the decisions of this body are preceded by the decisions of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee. Acceptance analysis specific solutions allows sinologists to assume that national security policy is determined by a small group of senior military, party and retired figures, and members of the Politburo act as advisers to these powerful politicians.

In China, such a very peculiar power structure is also preserved, as a formally non-existent, almost never gathering together, but quite real "Areopagus of patriarchs" of the CPC (less than 10 people). Most of them are over 80 and some are over 90 years old and do not hold government or party posts, but those who officially hold leadership positions in the CCP and the PRC consider their opinion and consult with them, moreover, without their consent. it is impossible to make important political decisions in the party and the state.

Thirdly, the functioning of the political system is greatly influenced by the phenomenon of personal connections (“guan xi”). This leading internal mechanism of the PRC political system is rooted in the distant past of the Chinese traditional culture. It is quite difficult, and often impossible, to analyze and identify its impact on the functioning of the political system due to a number of reasons, including the closeness of Chinese society. However, it is necessary to keep it in mind, since the action of all institutions is carried out mainly through “guan xi”, and not in the European sense, but it is not difficult for the Russian reader to understand this Chirkin V.E. Constitutional law of foreign countries. Textbook.- M.: Jurist, 2000. S. 390.

From a formal point of view, the political system of the PRC includes institutions of various levels and significance: the CCP, others political parties and formally non-political organizations, the state and the popular front.

The party system of the PRC consists of 9 parties: the CCP and the so-called democratic parties. The CPC is characterized in the documents as the "ruling party" and the democratic parties as "parties participating in political life."

The Chinese Communist Party is defined in Chinese literature as the vanguard of the working class, the spokesman for the interests of the country's multinational people, and the leading force in building socialism in the PRC. This is also reflected in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. The introduction to the PRC Constitution emphasizes the special importance of the CPC: firstly, the success of socialism became possible only thanks to the leadership of society by the CCP, and secondly, the leadership of "the peoples of all nationalities of China" is entrusted to the CPC in the future. In its activities, the CPC is guided by Marxism-Leninism, the ideas of Mao Zedong and the theory of Deng Xiaoping. The main task of the party is now recognized as "socialist modernization" and the transformation of China into a "socialist state with a highly developed culture and democracy." The phenomenon of the CPC, which retained its position in the conditions when most of the former socialist countries abandoned the socialist path of development, and the communist parties were removed from power, is to a certain extent explained not only by the specific conditions of China, but also by the tactics of the CPC leadership, which demonstrated a flexible approach to Marxism-Leninism, was able to abandon a number of dogmatic provisions (on the incompatibility of socialism and the market, on the class struggle as a decisive link, etc.) and transformed the ideological and theoretical platform of the CPC by using traditional Confucian values ​​and the ideas of national patriotism.

The structure of the CPC is built on the basis of a traditional scheme for communist parties and at the same time takes into account Chinese specifics. The most important elements of the structure of the CPC are: the National Congress of the CPC, central committee(CC) CPC, its Politburo, Military Council, Central Commission of Advisors, Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, Secretariat and General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee.

The political system of the PRC is characterized by a close intertwining of the functions of the CPC and the state. True, as in our time, in the PRC, the task was set to distinguish between party and state functions, but this is understood primarily as the abolition of political groups of ministries and departments and the transfer of party committees of enterprises and institutions to the subordination of territorial party bodies. As for the practice of developing the CCP's political guidelines that are binding on the entire society, as well as combining leadership positions in the upper echelons of power with membership in the Politburo and other governing bodies of the CPC, it remains. That is why the development of, for example, five-year plans is carried out first of all in the CPC Central Committee, and only then they are adopted by the NPC. An example of this kind is the adoption at the 5th plenum of the CPC Central Committee in September 1995 of the “Proposals of the CPC Central Committee on the development of the 9th five-year plan and long-term goals until 2010 of economic and social development countries”, which defined all the main points of the documents adopted later (in March 1996) at the 4th session of the National People's Congress (NPC) - the Ninth Five-Year Plan and China's Economic and Social Development Program until 2010.

The official Chinese literature emphasizes mainly the ideological and political nature of the leadership of the CCP. "Having concentrated the will of the Chinese people, the party develops its position and political guidelines, which then, according to the legal procedure, on the basis of the decision of the NPC, become the laws and decisions of the state." Thus, the decisions made are presented as the quintessence of the aspirations of the people, which the CCP captures and formulates. The party leadership is striving to stop any attempts to downplay the role of the CCP. In the report of the CPC Central Committee at the XIV Congress of the CPC (October 1992), it was noted that "any views and actions that cast doubt on its leading role, contribute to downplaying or denying its significance as a ruling party are fundamentally erroneous and extremely harmful."

Scientific studies, especially by Western Sinologists, highlight the fact that the leading role of the CPC is based not only and not so much on its authority, but on its undivided leadership of the Armed Forces. It is in the organs of the CPC that the real supreme power in the country is concentrated at all levels of government.

"The feature and advantage of China's political system" in official Chinese documents is the existence of 8 small democratic parties. They are: Chinese Kuomintang Revolutionary Committee, Chinese Democratic League, China Association for Democratic National Development, China Association for the Promotion of Democracy, Peasant Workers' Democratic Party of China, Zhongguo Zhigongdang (Pursuit of Justice Party), Jiusan Society (September 3rd Society) , Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League.

These parties are organizationally independent: each has its own charter, elected bodies, its own social base and press organ. "However, this independence is purely formal, since they all recognize the leadership of the CCP, carry out its policy and carry out its directives." Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries: Textbook: In 4 vols. T. 4. Part Special: countries of America and Asia / Ed. ed. prof. B. A. Strashun .- M .: Publishing house NORMA (Publishing group NORMA - INFRA * M), 2001. S. 437

With regard to these parties, a course is being pursued for "long-term existence and mutual control, frank expression of one's opinions to each other and readiness to share glory and shame." The main forms of interaction between the CPC and democratic parties are: meetings in the CPC Central Committee with the participation of representatives of democratic parties (moreover, meetings must be held before the plenums of the CPC Central Committee and CPC congresses, convening sessions of the NPC and the CPPCC), cooperation within the CPPCC, a special department of the CPC Central Committee (department of unified front) and his local authorities supervise the activities of democratic parties. In addition, the PRC retains the permission to have dual membership (in the CCP and the Democratic Party). More than 25,000 representatives of democratic parties are deputies of the National People's Congress and local people's congresses, occupy leading positions in government bodies, but, "as a rule, the leaders of these parties are appointed to secondary roles in leadership, to the positions of deputy ministers, deputy chairmen of the people's governments, etc.”

In Chinese literature, there is a certain revitalization of the activities of democratic parties after a long break, the resumption of convocations of congresses. But this still does not mean a real multi-party system, since it is impossible to talk about their real participation in the exercise of political power. The phantom of a multi-party system lends considerable originality to China's political system. The documents of the 14th Congress of the Communist Party of China emphasized that it is necessary to take into account the specifics of China, which excludes "a multi-party system and Western-style parliamentarism."

The established "system of multi-party cooperation and political consultations under the leadership of the CCP" is officially regarded as "a feature and advantage of China's political system." In foreign literature, as in Russian, special attention is paid to the actual one-party system and the absence of real political pluralism, i.e., the opposition. It has been noted in the Russian literature that modern China there is practically no broad social base for the opposition. Despite the obvious contradictions between socio-economic pluralism and the CCP's political monopoly, they should not be exaggerated. The one-party political mechanism still retains the ability to ensure the development of the country and the continuation of transformations, including the implementation of democratic advances in the political field.”

In the PRC, the issue of reforming the political system is topical. The question of the need to democratize the social system, overcome bureaucracy and lawlessness, eliminate feudal remnants, abandon the traditional life-long tenure in leadership positions, and promote talented youth was raised as early as the 13th Congress of the CCP. However, the well-known student speeches and the negative experience of a number of post-socialist countries led the Chinese leadership to the idea of ​​a gradual and phased implementation political reform while not allowing the weakening of the leading role of the CPC and its monopoly in power. The CPC is regarded as the guarantor of stability, and maintaining stability as one of the most important tasks of the state and society. China's official literature emphasizes that without order it is impossible to carry out a reform program: “In the event of any turmoil or disaster, the people's right to existence will inevitably be threatened. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure stability in the country, to continue to follow a line that has proven itself to be effective "Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries: Textbook: In 4 vols. Vol. 4. Part Special: countries of America and Asia / Ed. ed. prof. B. A. Strashun .- M .: Publishing house NORMA (Publishing group NORMA - INFRA * M), 2001.S. 438

The society of ancient China had a complex structure. The upper class consisted of jun-tzu, that is, the children of the noble, the aristocracy. Junzi included members of the imperial family, courtiers, and dignitaries. They were free from taxes, duties and corporal punishment. Numerous and strictly hierarchized class was made up of cheng - officials. Chinese officials were not exempt from corporal punishment; they were subjected to periodic public flogging, which had a preventive character. Officialdom in China was characterized by openness; citizens and peasants who had received education and passed tests had access to it. In the Han era, the practice of passing exams for official positions was established. Next to the numerous officials were shi - scientists. They served in libraries, archives, taught in schools. From the 2nd century BC, academies began to emerge, bringing together the most prominent scientists. In 125 BC, the State Academy - Guo-xue was established. It included bo-shi: academicians and professors. They were members of the imperial councils, acted as referents on the most important state issues, and participated in taking exams for bureaucratic positions. Bo-shi were not subject to corporal punishment. There were also priests of si and bu, but, unlike other countries of the East, they did not form a separate class in China, but were part of the shi.

The basis of society was the farmers - nun. They carried the main duties, paid taxes, performed military service, performed public works on the construction of an irrigation system, canals, roads, cities, etc. There was a system of 9 fields: 8 were provided to farmers, heads of families, and the 9th field, the central one, was the state ; it was cultivated jointly by farmers and everything produced on it belonged to the state. The farmers stood outside education, which was considered superfluous for them. However, the most gifted children of farmers, who had a natural ability to learn, could get an education, pass an exam for rank and change their social position. In ancient China, unlike other countries, slavery did not develop.

Specificity social relations in China was largely determined by the state of the family. Throughout ancient history a large patriarchal family dominated there. Its head was considered to be the grandfather, whose authority was indisputable. Polygamy persisted. The emperor must have had a harem. The imperial harem could reach several thousand women. The minimum for the son of Heaven was 1 empress, 3 senior wives, 9 wives of the second rank, 81 concubines. The status of a wife rose after the birth of a son; she could become an empress and even a regent. Such was the Empress Lü-Hou, who ruled from 188-180 BC. In an ordinary Chinese family, polygamy and the existence of concubines were also allowed. The traditions of the Chinese "Domostroy" began to assert themselves since the time of Kung Fu Tzu, or Confucius (551-479 BC). Marriage began to be considered the moral duty of a "noble husband." Violation of the order of family life and marital fidelity began to be regarded as a threat to public and state order. The spouses had to live in separate rooms, use individual utensils; they could not show their intimacy in public. Bright clothes and jewelry were reprehensible for girls and befitted only for married women. Wives were not entitled to family property. Remarriage was allowed only after the death of the husband, but it was condemned in public opinion. The wife could complain to the court in case of her husband's abuse.

The territory of China was divided into two parts: the western mountainous and the flat eastern, which was called the Great Plain of China. This determined the features of the development of these regions. In ancient China, there were no autonomous city-states and civil-temple communities, which was the difference between the economies of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.

The socio-economic life of China was completely controlled by the state apparatus. It developed under the influence of original ideological systems, was mobile, since it was built on a clan basis. There were no insurmountable social obstacles between the clans, the transition from one social group to another was carried out automatically. The socio-political activity of the population, brought up on the Confucian idea, according to which everyone is the blacksmith of his own happiness, was very high.

The mountains of Tibet, the vast dead desert of the Gobi and the countless nomadic peoples and tribes that surrounded China in a wide strip, reliably isolated the ancient Chinese from the rest of the civilized world. The Chinese managed to break out of this environment only at the end of their ancient history.

The first state formation in the territory of ancient China was the state Shap-Yin (XVIII century to AD). In Shan-Ying China, communal landownership with a system of mutual assistance dominated, and communal lands were provided for individual use by individual families. Public fields were cultivated collectively with state implements by all community members (in the form of state duty) or peasants assigned to this land. During this period, property and social stratification occurs in society, rich and noble families stand out. Shan-ing van (possessor) already separated himself from the people, although his power was still nominal.

The inhabitants of Shan-Yinu settled in the floodplains, and the basis of the economy was agriculture, which was based on natural irrigation of land. The Shan Yingqi learned to divert excess water from the fields, grew millet, chumiza, and various horticultural crops. Irrigated agriculture appeared much later. The achievements of Shan Yin include the famous Chinese sericulture, bronze metallurgy, pottery, woodworking, construction, bone and stone carving.

Developed and trade mainly exchange. Grain, leather, silk, bronze items served as trade equivalents.

After the decline of Shan-Yin, in its place in the XII century. to n.e. a new public entity emerged Zhou Li, which in its history had two stages - Western Zhou (XII-VIII centuries BC), and Eastern Zhou (VIII-III centuries AD) The name of Western or Eastern Zhou depended on where the capital moved States - to the east or to the west.

The social structure of the Chinese state of Zhou was characterized by system of hereditary ranks, which finally took shape in the X-IX centuries. to n.e. there were five:

King (van);

aristocratic princes;

clan chiefs;

petty know;

Commoners (ordinary members of a patriarchal family).

It was the last rank that kept the Zhou society through its work. The rank structure became the basis for the hierarchical nature of land ownership. The tsar granted estates to the aristocratic princes in hereditary possession. Those, in turn, provided land to the chiefs of the clans, the petty nobility. So, the land in China did not belong to one person, the ownership of it was divided between different social strata, the system of land use was based on conditional land use.

Chinese ranks were quite mobile, the transition from one to another was carried out automatically thanks to the original system of rank inheritance. In China, only the eldest sons inherited the parental rank, other children should be of a lower rank.

Compared with Shan-Yin, the government apparatus was more clearly formed in Zhou. At the head of the government was an assistant to the king, to whom the officials who headed the main

departments:

1) supervision of the economic life of the country;

2) leadership of troops;

3) management of the entire land fund and irrigation system of the country.

4) management of courts;

5) management of the royal palace and estates;

6) organization of a religious cult

Period V-IV. Art. to n.e. (day Eastern Zhou) was characterized by important socio-economic reforms. He began reforms at the turn of the IV century. to n.e. King (Wang) Shang Yang, and continued by his followers Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of Ancient China, and others. The reforms carried out led to significant shifts in the development of Ancient China.

Thanks to the reforms of Shang Yang, the objective process of the destruction of the agricultural community accelerated and there was legalization of private ownership of land. The system of hereditary ranks was abolished, family property was distributed among all children. Further ranks granted by the king for services to the state. By dividing the kingdom into counties, which were led by royal officials, and the counties into fives and dozens, bound by mutual responsibility, Shang Yang destroyed the system of hereditary possessions. This strengthened the power of the king and significantly strengthened the state. The replacement of the crop tax with the land tax ensured sustainable profits for the state.

Qin Shi Huang divided the empire into 36 districts, and the districts themselves into counties, parishes and mud(before mud there were about 10 families). From all over the country, 120,000 aristocratic families were resettled in the capital (Sanyan metropolitan area), with their replacement on the ground by the emperor's officials, who were endowed with administrative, fiscal, judicial and police functions. Officials significantly limited communal self-government, although the community itself, as a tax unit, was preserved and controlled each other. The state currency was unified, a unified system of measures and weights was proposed, a system of standards was developed, and a unified Chinese letter was developed.

It was drawn up land Registry and forcibly resettled tens of thousands of peasant families to raise the virgin lands. The emperor became the supreme owner of the land and the distributor of water for irrigating the fields. He also monopolized the production and marketing of salt and iron, and controlled grain prices. It was during this period that the Great Wall of China was built. its length was 3400 km, the width of the wall was 5 m, and the height was up to 12 m. 25 thousand towers were built into the wall.

As a result of this agrarian policy (hereditary property, the transfer of ownership of virgin land, the introduction of a land tax), the property and social stratification of the peasantry accelerated. However, taxation did not lead to the transformation of the communal land fund into royal property, and the peasants into royal slaves. The rural community with its organs of self-government defended its autonomous prana.

Thus, the Zhou reforms significantly strengthened the centralized state power, and made the power of the emperor almost unlimited.

The traditional basis of the Zhou economy was agriculture, moreover, the population has already mastered the crop rotation, the system of spring and winter crops. The inhabitants of Zhou were also engaged in horticulture, and from industrial crops they grew hemp, mulberry, and chestnuts. They paid a lot of attention to animal husbandry, especially horse breeding. Over time, the nature of Chinese animal husbandry changed, animals were no longer bred for sacrifice in temples, but as draft power and for food. Dairy farming in China almost did not develop.

During the Eastern Zhou period, large forest areas were cleared for arable land and a transition was made to Irrigated agriculture. In III Art. to n.e. built three large irrigation systems, so perfect that they serve the Chinese to this day. Thanks to irrigation, as well as the emergence of private ownership of land and the land tax, the productivity of Chinese agriculture greatly increased, which contributed to the general economic prosperity of the country.

Significant development has been achieved mining and crafts. Among crafts metallurgy flourished. Ore mining and coal mining, which was used in workshops and forges, enjoyed great success. It was widely practiced to boil salt in special boilers and extract it from sea water. The Chinese were the first to use natural gas as a fuel for evaporating salt. It was also used for heating, delivered by bamboo pipelines over a fairly long distance.

The invention of silk thread technology in China gave impetus to a sharp increase in the level of Zhou weaving. Chinese craftsmen invented a loom that worked with a water wheel and could weave 32 threads at the same time. Over time, China became the world's silk monopoly, as it kept secret the technology for the production of silk threads and weaving. Only in the Middle Ages was it possible to smuggle caterpillars to Byzantium silkworm. The Chinese were also the first to make fabric from asbestos that did not burn in flames. it was used to make wicks before lamps.

Played an important role trade which was controlled by the state.

At the same time, the socio-economic situation in the Zhou country remained difficult. Taxes grew (for the period of Qin Shi Huang - 20-30 times), the bulk of the peasants were in poverty and left their land allotments, which went to the rural elite. Increased hard labor duties on the state. A significant part of the peasants, not wanting to pay high taxes (sometimes they reached 2/3 of the harvest), Went into a more profitable trade. The proportion of slave labor in social production increased. Debt slavery in China was condemned by the then morality. That's why slaves - they are mostly prisoners of war and criminals. Slaves were also bought and traded.

In II Art. to n.e. Zhou was replaced by a new state formation - Han (Western and Eastern), which lasted until the middle of the 3rd century. not. Per day Western Han the state course changed dramatically, becoming more democratic and liberal. The emperor granted freedom to those who sold themselves into slavery, reduced the size of the land tax by 20 times, presented the people with protected forests, parks and reservoirs of the Pinsk house. The bloody tsinsk legislation was abolished. It was during the era of the Han Dynasty that an attempt was first made to replace metal money with treasury notes. During the period of devastation of the treasury as a result of wars, the emperor oude began to produce banknotes from the skin of a rare white deer, which essentially meant the issue of paper money.

To weaken the power of officials and corruption, a competitive examination for a bureaucratic position was introduced. For this, the first Chinese educational institutions were opened.

It is the army of the emperor oude in 104 AD was laid the first corridor in the history of ancient China in distant Western countries, which was called the Great Silk Road. As a result, there has been a significant increase in trade. Chinese caravans delivered goods to Central Asia, from here - to Syria and the Roman Empire. In the East, the Chinese traded with Korea, the states of the Indochinese Peninsula. The Chinese delivered silk, iron, nickel, precious metals, handicrafts to other countries. Precious metals and gems, carpets, horses, camels, copper, corals, woolen products, glass and the like were imported to China. Thanks to the Great Silk Road, alfalfa, grapes, pomegranate, saffron, and walnut appeared in China. VI Art. to n.e. China began to grow tea. At first, tea leaves were used as medicine. Later, it became the most popular drink on all continents, bringing large incomes to the Chinese treasury.

Foreign trade was an important source income the state treasury, and the developed layer of the merchant class.

Every Chinese city has markets, strictly divided into quarters by type of goods. The state regulated the quality and prices goods. Special officials were responsible for the organization and control of the work of the markets. Market trade succumbed government fees.

continued to develop crafts. At the beginning of our era, the Chinese had already begun to use bellows, which were powered by water engines, to produce iron. Craftsmen made clay molds for metal casting. The Chinese also skillfully made lacquerware made of wood and silk, which were considered luxury items.

Ancient China eras Zhou Han made a revolution in the laying of communications. Not a single state of the Ancient World knew such a scale of construction of roads, canals and dams. If at the end of III century. to n.e. the total length of state roads was approximately 6500 km, then by 200 AD. it has grown to 32 thousand km. Irrigation facilities were also built at a rapid pace, which were erected not only for irrigation and flood protection, but also as transport routes. Back in the 5th century. to n.e. The Huang He and Yangtze rivers were connected by a 400 km long canal. In III Art. to n.e. a 200-kilometer canal was dug through a mountain barrier, which connected the north and south of the country. It became the beginning of a continuous waterway with a length of 2 thousand km. In 70 AD construction of the Grand Canal began. It encircled the entire East China, and its length exceeded 1,700 km with a width of up to 30 m and a depth of up to 9 m.

In ancient China, a significant level reached natural science knowledge. At the beginning of our era, the compass was invented in China, the first globe was constructed, which reproduced the movement of celestial bodies, as well as the world's oldest seismograph prototype. The ancient Chinese used the water clock, invented gunpowder, much earlier than the Europeans learned how to force air into a smelting furnace for steel production, invented a wheelbarrow on a wheel, a winnowing machine for grain, a chain pump with shovels or ladles for raising earth or water, a rudder for a ship, and the like. Significant achievements were medicine, astronomy and other sciences.

AT recent decades socio-economic development Eastern Han slowed down. Peasant lands were forcibly transferred to the wealthy nobility, and the peasants themselves fell into feudal dependence. The capital acquired by speculation and usury was not invested in the sphere of production, but in competition in wastefulness with the royal house. The economy began to decline Anti-market sentiments grew in society, the government was sought to curtail, even liquidate, monetary circulation, which he did at the beginning of the PI century, "abolishing" the coin. The state treasury was impoverished. In 220, China broke up into three independent kingdoms: Wei(in the north), YU(in the west) and B (in the southeast and east). The country entered the Middle Ages disunited and abandoned.

When studying the social structure of the Chinese population, it must be taken into account that the society of this country is still in a state of transition. In the late 1970s, under Deng Xiaoping, the state began to implement a whole range of reforms, the last stage of which fell on the 1990s. These transformations led to the formation of a fairly developed market, the emergence of various forms of ownership and some reduction in ideological oppression in public life.

Society has changed with the economy. The emergence of capitalist-style enterprises led to the emergence of classes of businessmen and wage workers. And the weakening of censorship caused an increase in the number of intelligentsia. Another important consequence of the reforms was social mobility. The opportunities opened up began to be actively used by the inhabitants of the countryside, who, under Mao Zedong, were tied to their native villages.

However, the reforms that went against China's usual way of life gave rise to a number of serious problems that still remain unresolved. The country continues to operate conflicting command-administrative and market economies. The Chinese have lost a number of former moral values, property stratification has intensified. In connection with the emergence of the population's right to entrepreneurial activity and the formation of new production areas, new groups began to form in society. These social strata that appeared in the post-reform period have not yet fully formed a sense of their own identity, a certain social status and a strong self-consciousness.

The main categories of Chinese society

The main classes of Chinese society include the following:

• Officials. From the time of Mao Zedong to the present day, cadre workers have occupied an important place in the social structure of China. The state bureaucracy is huge and clumsy, but the number of civil servants is increasing every year.
• Big businessmen. Remarkably, the vast majority big businessmen China came not from small and medium-sized businesses, but from bureaucracy.
• Military. China has the largest military in the world this moment there are almost 2.5 million people in active service). Military science in China is considered very prestigious.
• Hired workers employed in state enterprises and in the sphere of large business. The number of people belonging to this class increased significantly in the post-reform period after the emergence of new private enterprises.
• Representatives of small and medium businesses. The market reforms of the 1990s enabled many Chinese to enter private enterprise. In general, small enterprises are established in rural areas or are associated with the transportation of finished goods.
• Peasantry. It is considered the least socially protected category of the population. However, the position of the peasant may be different, depending on the province where he lives, and some other factors.
• Intelligentsia. Under Mao, intellectual labor was despised. This attitude was especially pronounced in the era of the “cultural revolution”, when a wave of repressions swept across the country, directed, among other things, against the intelligentsia. However, after Deng Xiaoping's reforms, this class began to revive.

Social stratification in the Chinese village

Today, China remains a predominantly agricultural country. The level of urbanization in China is less than 45%. Therefore, the village has its own complex social structure, which should be given special attention. Today, the following population groups live in the Chinese village:

• peasant farmers (more than 60% of all villagers);
• seasonal workers;
• managers of rural collective enterprises;
• individual entrepreneurs;
• village officials;
• workers not directly involved in the production of agricultural products (doctors, teachers, technicians, builders);
• housewives.

Compared with the pre-reform period, the current situation of the villagers has improved significantly. This is evidenced by such indicators as: the growth of life expectancy, the scope of construction, the acquisition of the latest agricultural equipment. This is due, firstly, to the opportunity that has opened up for rural residents to move to cities and earn money there, supplying families with money left in the villages. Secondly, with the collapse of the people's communes, which hampered the development of private initiative. And, thirdly, with the spread of such a production organization as a family contract.

Until the 1970s, China's planned economy did not allow the peasantry to engage in any commercial activity. But in the course of the reforms, a project was developed that allowed each peasant household to become an independent working unit. In a matter of years, 90% of households have passed into the status of family contracts. The transformations were immediately followed by an increase in production and an increase in the well-being of the rural population. Economic success at the same time meant an increase in the prestige of peasant labor and the complication of the social structure of rural society. Family detachments, operating as separate enterprises, began to attract hired workers to work. Over time, larger collective enterprises began to spring up in the village. For the proper functioning of such complex organizations, of course, a class of managers was required, as well as a layer of highly qualified specialists in the technical, veterinary and agricultural fields. And during the 1990-2000s, these classes gradually took shape.

Over the past 40 years, Chinese society has been undergoing a transformation. Obviously, this process will continue for some time and will lead to profound structural changes.

Society is a complex natural-historical structure, the elements of which are people. Their connections and relationships are determined by a certain social status, the functions and roles they perform, the norms and values ​​generally accepted in this system, as well as their individual qualities. Society is usually divided into three types: traditional, industrial and post-industrial. Each of them has its own distinctive features and functions.

This article will consider a traditional society (definition, characteristics, foundations, examples, etc.).

What it is?

To the modern man of the industrial age, new to history and social sciences, it may not be clear what a "traditional society" is. The definition of this concept will be discussed below.

Operates on the basis of traditional values. Often it is perceived as tribal, primitive and backward feudal. It is a society with an agrarian structure, with sedentary structures and with methods of social and cultural regulation based on traditions. It is believed that most of its history, mankind was at this stage.

The traditional society, the definition of which is considered in this article, is a collection of groups of people who are at different stages of development and do not have a mature industrial complex. The determining factor in the development of such social units is agriculture.

Characteristics of a traditional society

For traditional society the following features are characteristic:

1. Low production rates that meet the needs of people at a minimum level.
2. Large energy intensity.
3. Non-acceptance of innovations.
4. Strict regulation and control of people's behavior, social structures, institutions, customs.
5. As a rule, in a traditional society, any manifestation of individual freedom is prohibited.
6. Social formations consecrated by traditions are considered unshakable - even the thought of their possible changes is perceived as criminal.

The traditional society is considered agrarian, as it is based on agriculture. Its functioning depends on growing crops with a plow and draft animals. Thus, the same plot of land could be cultivated several times, resulting in permanent settlements.

The traditional society is also characterized by the predominant use of manual labor, the extensive absence of market forms of trade (the predominance of exchange and redistribution). This led to the enrichment of individuals or classes.

Forms of ownership in such structures, as a rule, are collective. Any manifestations of individualism are not perceived and denied by society, and are also considered dangerous, as they violate established order and traditional balance. There are no impetuses to the development of science and culture, so extensive technologies are used in all areas.

Political structure

The political sphere in such a society is characterized by authoritarian power, which is inherited. This is explained by the fact that only in this way can traditions be maintained for a long time. The system of government in such a society was quite primitive (the hereditary power was in the hands of the elders). The people had virtually no influence on politics.

Often there is an idea about the divine origin of the person in whose hands the power was. In this regard, politics is in fact completely subordinated to religion and is carried out only according to sacred prescriptions. The combination of secular and spiritual power made possible the ever greater subordination of people to the state. This, in turn, strengthened the stability of the traditional type of society.

social relations

In the sphere of social relations, the following features of a traditional society can be distinguished:

1. Patriarchal device.
2. The main purpose of the functioning of such a society is to maintain human life and avoid its extinction as a species.
3. Low level
4. Traditional society is characterized by division into estates. Each of them played a different social role.

5. Evaluation of the individual in terms of the place that people occupy in the hierarchical structure.
6. A person does not feel like an individual, he considers only his belonging to a certain group or community.

spiritual realm

In the spiritual sphere, traditional society is characterized by deep religiosity and moral attitudes instilled from childhood. Certain rituals and dogmas were an integral part of human life. Writing in traditional society as such did not exist. That is why all legends and traditions were transmitted orally.

Relationship with nature and the environment

The influence of traditional society on nature was primitive and insignificant. This was explained low-waste production represented by cattle breeding and agriculture. Also, in some societies, there were certain religious rules that condemned the pollution of nature.

In relation to the outside world, it was closed. The traditional society by all means protected itself from intrusions from the outside and any external influence. As a result, man perceived life as static and unchanging. Qualitative changes in such societies took place very slowly, and revolutionary changes were perceived extremely painfully.

Traditional and industrial society: differences

Industrial society arose in the 18th century, as a result primarily in England and France.

Some of its distinguishing features should be highlighted.
1. Creation of a large machine production.
2. Standardization of parts and assemblies of different mechanisms. This made mass production possible.
3. Another important distinguishing feature- urbanization (the growth of cities and the resettlement of a significant part of the population on their territory).
4. Division of labor and its specialization.

Traditional and industrial society have significant differences. The first is characterized by a natural division of labor. Traditional values ​​and a patriarchal structure prevail here, there is no mass production.

It is also necessary to highlight the post-industrial society. The traditional, in contrast, aims at prey natural resources rather than collecting and storing information.

Examples of Traditional Society: China

Vivid examples of a traditional type of society can be found in the East in the Middle Ages and modern times. Among them, India, China, Japan, the Ottoman Empire should be singled out.

China has had a strong state power since ancient times. By the nature of evolution, this society is cyclical. China is characterized by a constant alternation of several eras (development, crisis, social explosion). It should also be noted the unity of the spiritual and religious authorities in this country. According to tradition, the emperor received the so-called "Mandate of Heaven" - divine permission to rule.

Japan

The development of Japan in the Middle Ages and in also allows us to say that there was a traditional society, the definition of which is considered in this article. The entire population of the Land of the Rising Sun was divided into 4 estates. The first is the samurai, daimyo and shogun (personified the highest secular power). They occupied a privileged position and had the right to bear arms. The second estate - the peasants who owned the land as a hereditary holding. The third is artisans and the fourth is merchants. It should be noted that trading in Japan was considered an unworthy business. It is also worth highlighting the strict regulation of each of the estates.

Unlike other traditional Eastern countries, in Japan there was no unity of the supreme secular and spiritual power. The first was personified by the shogun. Most of the land and great power were in his hands. Japan also had an emperor (tenno). He was the personification of spiritual power.

India

Vivid examples of a traditional type of society can be found in India throughout the history of the country. The Mughal Empire, located on the Hindustan Peninsula, was based on a military fief and caste system. The supreme ruler - the padishah - was the main owner of all the land in the state. Indian society was strictly divided into castes, whose life was strictly regulated by laws and sacred regulations.