Ore minerals definition. Minerals: Iron ores

General characteristics of minerals

First of all, rocks and minerals that are used in the economy of countries are called minerals.

According to their physical condition, they can be:

• solid - coal, salt, ore, marble, etc.;
• liquid - oil, mineral water;
• gaseous - combustible gas, helium, methane.

When their use is taken as a basis, then they distinguish:

• fuels - coal, oil, peat;
• ore - ores of rocks, including metal;
• non-metallic - gravel, clay, sand, etc.

A separate group is represented by precious and ornamental stones.

Minerals were formed in different ways and by origin they are igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, the distribution of which in the earth's interior obeys certain patterns.

Folded regions are usually characterized by igneous, i.e. ore minerals. This circumstance is due to the fact that they are formed from magma and hot aqueous solutions released from it.

Magma rises from the bowels of the earth through cracks in the earth's crust and freezes in them at various depths.

Also, ore minerals can also be formed from erupted magma-lava, which cools relatively quickly. Magma intrudes, as a rule, during active tectonic movements, therefore, ore minerals are associated with the folded regions of the planet.

Ores can also be formed on platform plains, but in this case they are confined to the lower tier of the platform. On platforms, ore minerals are associated with shields, i.e. with platform foundation outcrops to the surface or in those places where the sedimentary cover does not differ in thickness, and the foundation comes close to the surface.

An example of such a field is the Kursk magnetic anomaly in Russia and the Krivoy Rog basin in Ukraine.

Remark 1

In general, an ore is a mineral aggregate from which metal or metal compounds can be extracted by technological means.

Metal ores are associated with areas of active mountain building, but the presence of mountains does not mean the presence of rich deposits. The third part of Europe, for example, is occupied by mountains, but there are very few large ore deposits.

Based on the field of application, ore minerals are divided into groups - ferrous metal ores, non-ferrous metal ores, precious metal ores and radioactive metals.

Such an ore mineral as iron ore is the basis for the production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, rolled products. The largest iron ore reserves are concentrated in the USA, India, China, Brazil, and Canada.

There are separate large deposits in Kazakhstan, France, Sweden, Ukraine, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Australia, Liberia, Malaysia, North African countries.

In Russia, there are large reserves of iron ore, in addition to KMA, in the Urals, the Kola Peninsula, in Karelia, and in Siberia.

Ferrous metal ores

Among ferrous metal ores, iron ores are the most demanded and used in industry.

Minerals such as hematite, magnetite, limonite, siderite, chamosite and thuringite are the main iron-bearing rocks.

The extraction of iron ore in the world exceeds 1 billion tons. China is the largest iron ore producer with 250 million tons, while Russia produces 78 million tons. The United States and India produce 60 million tons each, Ukraine - 45 million tons.

Iron ore is mined in the United States in the Lake Superior region and in the state of Michigan.

In Russia, the largest iron ore basin is the KMA, whose deposits are estimated at 200-210 billion tons, or 50% of the planet's reserves. The field covers the Kursk, Belgorod, Oryol regions.

For the production of alloyed steel and cast iron, manganese is used as an alloying additive to give them strength and hardness.

World Industrial Reserves manganese ores concentrated in Ukraine - 42.2%. There are manganese ores in Kazakhstan, South Africa, Gabon, Australia, China, and Russia.

A large amount of manganese is also produced in Brazil and India.

In order for steel not to rust, to be heat-resistant and acid-resistant, chromium is needed, one of the main components of ferrous metal ores.

Specialists suggest that out of the world reserves of this ore, 15.3 billion tons of high-grade chromite ore falls on South Africa - 79%. In small quantities, chromium is found in Kazakhstan, India, Turkey, a fairly large deposit of this ore is located in Armenia. A small field is being developed in Russia in the Urals.

Remark 2

The rarest of the ferrous metals is vanadium. It is used for the production of grade iron and grade steel. Vanadium is very important for the aerospace industry because its addition provides high performance titanium alloys.

In the production of sulfuric acid, vanadium is used as a catalyst. AT pure form it is absent, and vanadium is found in the composition of titanomagnetite ores, sometimes found in phosphorites, uranium-bearing sandstones and siltstones. True, its concentration is not more than 2%.

Sometimes even significant amounts of vanadium can be found in bauxites, brown coals, bituminous shales and sands. When extracting the main components from mineral raw materials, vanadium is obtained as a by-product.

According to the recorded reserves of this ore, the leaders are South Africa, Australia and Russia, and its main producers are South Africa, the USA, Russia, and Finland.

Ores of non-ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals are represented by two groups:

1. light, these include aluminum, magnesium, titanium;
2. heavy ones are copper, zinc, lead, nickel, cobalt.

Of all the non-ferrous metals, aluminum is the most common in the earth's crust.

Among his physical properties such as low density, high thermal conductivity, ductility, electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance. This metal lends itself well to forging, stamping, rolling, drawing. It can be easily welded.

The feedstock for metallic aluminum is alumina, which is obtained by processing bauxite and nepheline ores.

There are bauxite reserves in Guinea, Brazil, Australia, and Russia ranks 9th in terms of them.

Russian bauxite reserves are concentrated in the Belgorod and Sverdlovsk regions, as well as in the Komi Republic. Russian bauxites are of low quality. Nepheline ores occur on the Kola Peninsula. In terms of alumina production, Russia ranks 6th in the world. All alumina is produced from domestic raw materials.

Titanium was discovered in 1791. Its distinctive characteristics are its high strength and corrosion resistance. For industry, the main type of titanium ores are coastal-marine placers. Such large placers are known in Russia, Australia, India, Brazil, New Zealand, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka.

Alluvial deposits of titanium are complex and contain zirconium.

Light non-ferrous metals include magnesium, which has been used in industry relatively recently. During the war years, most of it went to the production of incendiary shells, bombs, and flares.

Raw materials for the production of magnesium are confined to many regions of the planet. Magnesium is found in dolomite, carnallite, bischofite, cainite and other rocks that are widely distributed in nature.

The US accounts for about 41% of the world's production of magnesium metal and 12% of its compounds.

In addition to the United States, Turkey and North Korea are major producers of metallic magnesium. Magnesium compounds are produced by Russia, China, North Korea, Austria, Greece, Turkey.

Among heavy non-ferrous metals, copper stands out, which is a plastic element of a golden-pink hue, covered with an oxygen film in the open air.

A distinctive feature of copper is its high antibacterial properties. In alloys with nickel, tin, gold, zinc, it is used in industry.

After Chile and the USA, Russia ranks third in the world in terms of copper reserves.

In addition to native copper, the raw materials for its production are chalcopyrite and bornite. Copper deposits are distributed in the USA - the Rocky Mountains, in the Canadian Shield and the provinces of Quebec, Ontario in Canada, in Chile and Peru, in the copper belt of Zambia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia.

The main and major producers of this metal are Chile and the USA, as well as Canada, Indonesia, Peru, Australia, Poland, Zambia, and Russia.

Zinc was first obtained from calamine and is essentially zinc carbonate ZnCO2. Today, zinc is obtained from sulfide ores, the most important of which is zinc blende and marmatite.

Zinc ore is mined in Canada, the USA, Russia, Australia, Mexico, central Africa, Kazakhstan, Japan and other countries.

Major producers of zinc ore - Japan and the United States, they are also its major importers.

Known since antiquity, nickel, when added to steel, increases its viscosity, elasticity, and anticorrosion properties.

For the first time, metallic cobalt was obtained in 1735. Today it is used for the production of superhard alloys.

The raw material for lead is its main ore mineral galena. Lead ores are mined in many countries, and its leading producers are Australia, China, Peru, Canada.

Lead is mined in Kazakhstan, Russia, Mexico, Sweden, South Africa, and Morocco. There are large deposits of lead in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Azerbaijan.

In Russia, lead deposits are concentrated in Altai, Transbaikalia, Yakutia, Primorye, and the North Caucasus.

There are many natural deposits of substances important to humans. These are resources that are exhaustible and should be conserved. Without their development and production, many aspects of people's lives would be extremely difficult.

Minerals and their properties are the object and subject of study of mining geology. The results obtained by her are used in the future for the processing and production of many things.

Minerals and their properties

What are generally called minerals? These are rocks or mineral structures that are of great economic importance and are widely used in industry.

Their diversity is great, so the properties for each species are specific. There are several main options for the accumulation of the considered substances in nature:

• placers;
• layers;
• veins;
• rods;
• nests.

If we talk about the general distribution of fossils, then we can distinguish:

• provinces;
• districts;
• pools;
• Place of Birth.

Minerals and their properties depend on the specific type of raw material. This is what determines the scope of their use by humans, as well as the method of extraction and processing.

Types of minerals

There is more than one classification of the considered raw materials. So, if the basis is based on the signs of the state of aggregation, then such varieties are distinguished.

1. Mineral solid. Examples: marble, salt, granite, metallic ores, non-metallic.
2. Liquid - underground mineral waters and oil.
3. Gas - natural gas, helium.

If the division into types is based on the use of minerals, then the classification takes the following form.

1. combustible. Examples: oil, combustible coal, methane and others.
2. Ore or igneous. Examples: all metal-containing ores, as well as asbestos and graphite.
3. Nonmetallic. Examples: all raw materials that do not contain metals (clay, sand, chalk, gravel and others), as well as various salts.
4. Gemstones. Examples: precious and semi-precious, as well as (diamonds, sapphires, rubies, emeralds, jasper, chalcedony, opal, carnelian and others).

According to the diversity presented, it is obvious that minerals and their properties are a whole world that is being explored by a huge number of geologists and miners.

Main deposits

Various minerals are distributed throughout the planet quite evenly according to geological features. After all, a significant part of them is formed due to platform movements and tectonic eruptions. There are several main continents that are richest in almost all types of raw materials. It:

• North and South America.
• Eurasia.
• Africa.

All countries that are located in the designated territories widely use minerals and their properties. In the same areas where there is no raw material, there are export deliveries.

In general, of course, it is difficult to determine the general plan of deposits mineral resources. After all, it all depends on the specific type of raw material. One of the most expensive are precious (containing noble metals) minerals. Gold, for example, is found everywhere except in Europe (of the continents listed above plus Australia). It is valued very highly, and its extraction is one of the most common occurrences in mining.

Eurasia is the richest in combustible resources. Mountain minerals (talc, barite, kaolin, limestones, quartzites, apatites, salts) are distributed almost everywhere in large quantities.

Mining

Various methods are used to extract minerals and prepare them for use.

1. Open path. The necessary raw materials are extracted directly from the quarries. Over time, this leads to the formation of extensive ravines, therefore, it is not sparing for nature.
2. The mine method is more correct, but expensive.
3. Fountain method of pumping oil.
4. pumping method.
5. Geotechnological methods of ore processing.

The development of mineral deposits is an important and necessary process, however, leading to very deplorable consequences. After all, resources are finite. Therefore, in recent years, special emphasis has been placed not on large volumes of extraction of mineral resources, but on their more correct and rational use by man.

Ore (igneous) rocks

This group includes the most important and largest minerals in terms of production. An ore is such a formation of a mineral nature that contains a large amount of one or another desired metal (another component).

Places of extraction and processing of such raw materials are called mines. Igneous rocks can be classified into four groups:

• colored;
• noble;
• non-metallic components.

Let us give examples of some ore mineral resources.

1. Iron.
2. Nickel.
3. Argentite.
4. Cassiterite.
5. Beryl.
6. Bornite.
7. Chalcopyrite.
8. Uraninite.
9. Asbestos.
10. Graphite and others.

Gold is an ore mineral

There are among the ore and special minerals. Gold, for example. Its production has been relevant since ancient times, because it has always been highly valued by people. Today, gold is mined and laundered in almost every country in whose territory there are at least small deposits of it.

In nature, gold occurs in the form of native particles. The largest ingot was found in Australia weighing almost 70 kg layer. Often, due to the weathering of deposits and their erosion, placers are formed in the form of sand grains from this precious metal.

It is extracted from such mixtures by washing and sifting. In general, these are not too common and voluminous minerals in terms of content. That is why gold is called a precious and noble metal.

The centers for the extraction of this ore mineral are:

• Russia.
• Canada.
• South Africa.
• Australia.

fossil fuels

This group includes such mineral resources as:

• brown coal;
• oil;
• gas (methane, helium);
• coal.

The use of minerals of this kind is a fuel and raw material for the production of various chemical compounds and substances.

Coal is such a fossil that lies at a relatively shallow depth in wide layers. Its quantity is limited in one particular deposit. Therefore, having exhausted one pool, people move to another. In general, coal contains up to 97% pure carbon. It was formed historically, as a result of the death and compaction of plant organic remains. These processes lasted millions of years, so now there are a huge amount of coal reserves all over the planet.

Oil is also called liquid gold, which emphasizes how important it is as a mineral resource. After all, this is the main source of high-quality combustible fuel, as well as its various components - the basis, the raw material for chemical syntheses. The leaders in oil production are such countries as:

• Russia.
• Algeria;
• Mexico.
• Indonesia.
• Venezuela.
• Libya.

Which is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, it is also an important industrial fuel. It belongs to the cheapest raw material, therefore it is used on a particularly large scale. Leading countries in production - Russia and Saudi Arabia.

Non-metallic or non-metallic species

This group includes such minerals and rocks as:

• clay;
• sand;
• pebbles;
• gravel;
• crushed stone;
• talc;
• kaolin;
• barite;
• graphite;
• diamonds;
• quartz;
• apatite;
• phosphorite and others.

All varieties can be combined into several groups according to the area of ​​\u200b\u200buse.

1. Mining and chemical minerals.
2. Metallurgical raw materials.
3. Technical crystals.
4. Construction Materials.

Gemstones are often included in this group as well. The areas of use of minerals of non-metallic nature are multifaceted and extensive. These are agriculture (fertilizers), construction (materials), glass-making, jewelry, engineering, general chemical production, paint production, and so on.

Introduction

1. Ore minerals

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Over the past 200 years, the demand for metals has increased so much that already in the 21st century, the reserves of ores of some metals, especially strategically important for industry, may be exhausted.

Some metals, such as gold, are often found in pure form, but most are smelted from ore. Ore - a mineral formation containing any metal or several metals in concentrations at which it is economically feasible to extract them. Sometimes it can be non-metallic minerals.

Gold was perhaps the first metal that attracted the attention of primitive people with its beauty and brilliance. There is evidence that copper began to be obtained from malachite (a low-melting green mineral) about 7,000 years ago.

Although commercial oil extraction first began in the second half of the nineteenth century, for centuries oil has been extracted by people who lived in different parts of the world where oil seeped to the surface. In Russia, the first written mention of obtaining oil appeared in the sixteenth century. Travelers described how the tribes living along the banks of the Ukhta River in the north of the Timan-Pechora region collected oil from the surface of the river and used it for medical purposes and as oils and lubricants. Oil collected from the Ukhta River was first delivered to Moscow in 1597.

In 1702, Tsar Peter the Great issued a decree on the establishment of the first regular Russian newspaper Vedomosti. In the first issue of the newspaper, an article was published about how oil was discovered on the Sok River in the Volga region, and in later issues there was information about oil shows in other regions of Russia. In 1745, Fyodor Pryadunov received permission to start oil production from the bottom of the Ukhta River. Pryadunov also built a primitive oil refinery and supplied some products to Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Coal mining began almost simultaneously with oil extraction, although coal has also been known to people since time immemorial.

1. Ore minerals

Many ores were formed during the cooling of magma (molten mass of the deep zones of the Earth). In the process of its cooling, the minerals crystallize (harden) in a certain order. Some heavy minerals, such as chromite (chromium ore), separate and settle at the bottom of the magma, where they are deposited in a separate layer. Then feldspar, quartz and mica form rocks, such as granite.

The concentration of the remaining liquid increases. Part of it is pressed into the cracks of the new rock, forming large deposits in them - pegmatites. Other substances are deposited in the voids of the surrounding rock. Finally, only liquids, called hydrothermal solutions, remain. These solutions, often rich in liquid elements, can flow over long distances, forming the so-called solidification when solidified. veins.

Secondary deposits of minerals are formed under the influence of rivers, seas and wind, which together destroy soils and rocks, sometimes carry them over considerable distances and deposit them, usually in river deltas or relief depressions. Mineral particles are concentrated here, which then, being cemented, turn into sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone.

Sometimes iron accumulates among these rocks, getting there from the water and forming iron ores. In the tropics, intense rains break down rocks containing aluminosilicates by chemically attacking them. The silicates washed out by them form rocks rich in bauxites (aluminum ores). Acid rain also dissolves other metals, which are then deposited again in the upper layers of the lithosphere, sometimes being exposed on the surface.

Once upon a time, the search for metals depended on chance. But in our time, scientific methods and modern search equipment are used in geological exploration. Geological maps are compiled, often using satellite photographs. Geologists, deciphering these maps and images, receive the necessary information about the rocks and their structure. Sometimes chemicals found in the soil, water, and plants provide clues to the location of minerals. Geophysical methods are used for the same purposes. By measuring even the weakest electromagnetic and gravitational response signals of rocks with special instruments, scientists can determine the content of ore deposits in rocks.

Having discovered a deposit, prospectors drill wells to determine the size and quality of ore deposits and determine the economic feasibility of their development.

There are three ways to extract ore deposits, "Gam, where the ore comes to the surface or is located near it, it is mined by an open (quarry) method. When the ore is found at the bottom of a river or lake, mining is done using dredges. And the most expensive type of mining - construction of underground mines.

About 80 metals are currently used in industry. Some of them are quite widespread, but many are rare. Copper, for example, makes up 0.007% of the earth's crust, tin - 0.004%, lead - 0.0016%, uranium - 0.0004%, silver -0.000001% and gold - only 0.0000005%.

Once rich deposits will be exhausted too quickly. A little time will pass, and many metals will be rare and expensive. Therefore, in our time, the task of recycling scrap metal is acute.

According to experts, half of the iron and a third of the aluminum used by industry is already obtained from scrap. Recycling and reuse reduces pollution and saves the energy needed to smelt metals from ores and refine them. It takes only a twentieth of the energy to produce a tonne of aluminum from scrap as it takes to smelt the ore and process the same amount.

2. Coal

Coal is considered the most unusual rock for two reasons. Firstly, it is formed from organic material - once living tissue - and, secondly, unlike other rocks, it can burn and release heat.

Coal was the main fuel during the industrial revolution and played an important role in the development of many countries. It consists of carbon (hence its black color) and combustible gases - hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Part of the carbon and hydrogen form a hydrocarbon, which is also the basis of oil and natural gas.

Most of the coal deposits were formed 360-286 million years ago, and there was so much of it that geologists called this period the Carboniferous. The source of coal deposits were prehistoric rainforests that grew in swampy areas and differed from modern ones. Most of them consisted of giant tree ferns, as well as large horsetails and a number of smaller plants.

Dying tree ferns and other vegetation crumbled into swamps. There was very little oxygen in the swamp water, which accelerates the process of decomposition of organic material by bacteria, so slowly decaying trees turned into peat - the first stage of coal formation. In the process of peat formation, methane, or swamp gas, was released.

Peat, compacted, turned into coal. From a layer of peat 10-15 m thick, a thin (about 1 m) layer of coal is formed. The first stage of compaction took place in the ancient swamps, as more and more new layers of decaying vegetation appeared, under the mass of which the lower layers were compressed.

During the Carboniferous period, the uplift of the earth's crust took place, as a result of which sand and silt deposits accumulated on top of the leaves of plants. Subsequently, layers of soil and peat were buried under sea waters, and then again came to the surface.

Other swamps were formed, where new deposits of peat appeared. This process, called cyclic sedimentation, has been repeated many times. In coal regions there are a number of coal seams located one above the other, separated by layers sedimentary rocks. The thickness of these layers varies from a few millimeters to many meters.

There are three main types of fossil coal. The degree of its change in comparison with the original peat determines the level of its metamorphism (or coalification).

Lignite, which is also called brown coal, has changed the least. It contains the least amount of carbon (about 30%), and when it is burned, it produces a lot of smoke and little heat.

The most common and heat-intensive is bituminous coal, which is characterized by a wide variety of varieties. Usually, in the seams of this coal, dull and glossy interlayers alternate. The lyantsevity interlayers were formed from the remains of trees, while the dull ones were formed from smaller vegetation. Bituminous coal contains a soft substance resembling charcoal; It's what gets our hands dirty.

Anthracite highest degree metamorphism. It is 98% carbon and has high hardness and purity. It is difficult to ignite, but when burned, it produces a very hot flame with little smoke.

Coal is mainly used as a fuel. Until recently, a significant part of it was burned to heat houses. Today, coal is mainly used to generate electricity or in industrial processes. However, before the start of large-scale natural gas production, many countries received gas from coal. This method is still used in countries without gas fields.

The production of coal gas is associated with the production of coke, a smokeless fuel needed to smelt iron ore. Coke is produced by heating coal in sealed ovens where it does not burn due to the lack of oxygen. However, the heat displaces ammonia, coal tar, gas and light oils, leaving only a solid. This is coke.

Coal serves as a raw material for various products. Ammonia, coal tar and light oils from the production of coke are used to make paints, antiseptics, medicines, detergents, perfumes, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides and household chemicals. From coal, you can even get a sugar substitute - saccharin.

Of all fossil fuels, coal is the largest on earth. Its explored reserves will last more than 200 years at the current rate of consumption, and the number of undiscovered deposits, according to many experts, is 15 times higher than the known reserves. Two thirds of the explored coal reserves are concentrated in three countries: 30% - in the USA, 25% - in Russia and other CIS states and 10% - in China. The rest is mainly in Australia, Canada. Germany, India, Poland, South Africa and the UK.

In South America, only four states have significant coal deposits - in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Colombia. Much of the continent's coal deposits lie deep beneath tropical forests. Only 8 out of 52 African countries produce coal - South Africa, Zimbabwe, as well as Algeria, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Sometimes coal comes to the surface on the slopes of hills or on the banks of rivers. This is probably how the Chinese first discovered it about 3,000 years ago. As soon as they found

coal, the top soil was removed, and then tunnels were dug in the coal seams deep into the earth. Today, geologists are engaged in the search for coal deposits. They know where coal can be deposited: mainly where there are rocks of the Carboniferous period. Aerial and satellite imagery helps identify promising areas.

The next step is seismic exploration. By using explosives and other means, geologists send shock waves deep into the earth. Sensitive seismic receivers (geophones) pick up the echoes of these shock waves after they are reflected from the layers of underground rock. different breeds have different reflection strengths, so the analysis of reflections allows you to determine the types of rocks, their structure and depth of occurrence.

To accurately locate coal seams and determine their depth, it is necessary to drill wells. The resulting cores (cylindrical samples) of the rock are studied and analyzed.

Another exploration method is logging. It was developed primarily to search for oil and natural gas deposits. In this case, a number of devices are introduced into the well to determine the nature of the rock. The logging tool is lowered into the well and then raised at a certain speed. The sensitive instruments of the probe determine the porosity and radioactivity of rocks, detect faults (gaps between different rock layers), as well as the electrical resistivity of rocks - that is, their electrical conductivity.

The thickness of coal seams can vary from a few centimeters to several meters. Regardless of this, two main methods of its extraction are used: open pit (quarry) and mine development. Open pit mining is done when the coal is close to the surface. This method is often used in Australia and the USA, as well as in the extraction of lignite in Eastern Europe. In most quarries in England, coal is mined at a depth of about 33 m. The deepest is in Germany - 325 m.

Quarry development disfigures the area. First, the upper layers of soil and rocks are removed, which are piled up around the workings. Such an embankment serves as a soundproofing screen and closes an unsightly picture from prying eyes.

The coal is then extracted using giant excavators. The largest excavator in England is the Big Geordie dragline with a capacity of 3000 tons. Its bucket (which can accommodate two ordinary cars) rakes up to 100 tons of rock at a time.

The bucket capacity of the Big Mask (Ohio, USA) is 10,000 tons. And the largest bucket-wheel excavator with a capacity of 13,000 tons extracts lignite in the Gambach quarry in Germany. After the extraction of all profitable coal reserves, the soil is recultivated and the mining area is improved.

Underground mining is the main method of coal mining in the UK and continental Europe. It is also used to mine 40% of coal in the US and over 50% in Australia.

Many seams of coal occur at very great depths. The deepest mine in England goes into the depths of the earth by more than 1300 m. You can get to the layers at such a depth along a vertical mine shaft. The miners go down to the place of work by a lift - it also delivers coal to the surface. Underground horizontal workings (faces) can stretch for several kilometers, so electric trolleys transport workers and coal between the face and the elevator shaft.

Where there is access to coal from the side of the slope, they dig an inclined mine shaft - an adit. Here, the miners are transported in trolleys, and the coal is fed outside by a conveyor.

There are two main ways to sink a deep mine. The old method, still most commonly used in the US, is called room and pillar development. Here, miners make a series of drifts in the coal seams, leaving pillars (pillars) of coal to support the vault. Only part of the coal can be mined in this way.

Longwall mining, or longwall mining, is the main method of coal mining in Europe, and is increasingly being used in the United States. In this case, two parallel tunnels are dug at a distance of about 20 m from each other. Miners ply between the tunnels, hewing lava. As the face advances, the vault collapses behind the miners. So you can extract up to 90% of coal reserves.

Coal mining is life-threatening, and despite strict security measures, hundreds of miners die underground each year. Yes, and burning coal is fraught with environmental consequences and leads to many diseases. Contact with hydrocarbons can lead to skin cancer, and the smoke and gases emitted by burning coal can cause cancer and emphysema.

Coal gases also contain sulfur compounds that cause acid rain. As a result, vegetation is damaged, fish and other representatives of aquatic fauna die, and buildings are destroyed.

Carbon dioxide is one of the main products of coal combustion. It refers to gases that are the cause of the "greenhouse effect *: heat is absorbed by the atmosphere, I do not go into outer space, which results in global warming climate.

For all the challenges and the ongoing search for clean energy sources, coal is far more abundant than the cheaper fuels of oil and natural gas. It is possible that new technologies will make it profitable to develop deposits that are considered unprofitable today.

With existing methods, the extraction of only 12% of the explored world coal reserves is economically justified. One of the methods effective use coal - burning it to produce gas. The other provides for obtaining oil from it, given the depletion of oil natural reserves.

3. Oil

Oil is the basis of modern industry and civilization. She was and remains the cause of many international conflicts, and its widespread use causes serious damage environment.

By its composition, oil is a complex mixture of compounds, among which hydrocarbons predominate. It occurs in several forms - liquid oil, natural gas and a thick fraction of substances called asphaltenes or bitumens. Oil is an organic substance formed from the remains of living matter, plants and animals. Therefore, oil, natural gas, and coal of the same origin are classified as fossil fuels.

The processes that resulted in the formation of oil proceeded for millions of years. For example, most of the oil in the northern and central North Sea was formed from the remains of single-celled algae and bacteria that were deposited in the silt on seabed during the entire Jurassic period (144-213 million years ago). These remains rotted and slowly turned into oil under the influence of temperature and pressure, while silt and mineral sediments under the influence of the same factors were compressed into layers of rocks.

Oil droplets seeped upward through pores or cracks in the rocks until they encountered harder layers that prevented their further progress. Oil accumulated in places that geologists call "traps." The formation of gas took place in deeper layers. Geologists believe that in the deposits of the southern part northern hemisphere it began in the Carboniferous period (300-286 million years ago), when coal seams of the remains of dead plants began to form in the swamps. The coal layers then sank and were under a layer of rocks. Under the influence of the internal heat of the Earth, gas began to be released at a depth of about 4 km. Then he moved up through the pores and faults in the rocks until he fell into the "trap".

The great advantage of oil is that it is cleaner and cheaper than coal and is easier to transport than gas. Oil has many applications. It is sometimes referred to as "Black Gold" because it provides about half of the energy consumed worldwide today. Without it, most of the transport would stop, factories, factories, systems would stop working. central heating etc.

Crude oil is used to produce various different types liquid fuels: gasoline of various degrees of purity, diesel and aviation fuel. Also, oils and lubricants that ensure the operation of machines and mechanisms, asphalt road surfaces and a huge number of compounds used in the chemical industry are not obtained from them. Substances derived from petroleum are used in the cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paint and varnish industries, as well as in the production of fertilizers, explosives, synthetic fibers, inks, insecticides, plastics and rubber, which is used to make car tires.

Oil and natural gas deposits have been found on every continent, as well as on the continental shelves. Some of them are actively developed, others are mothballed. The assessment of how long oil reserves will last includes two factors - the volume of known deposits, the development of which is economically viable from the point of view of modern technology, and the level of production in current year. The global oil reserves in 1989 were estimated 41 years ahead, based on the level of production in 1988. However, with an increase in proven reserves, changes in the intensity of production and the introduction of new technologies, the estimate also changes.

The largest oil reserves are concentrated in the countries of the Middle East (about 65% of the world). In the late 1980s Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and United United Arab Emirates(UAE) had proven oil reserves for more than 100 years at the level of production in 1988.

At the end of 1989, Saudi Arabia, which has 25% of the world's deposits, had reserves that would last for 90 years at the level of production in 1988. Discovery of new deposits in this country in 1990 extended this period by more than 50 years.

In the late 1980s, the 15 republics that made up the Soviet Union were leaders in oil production (18% of the world). Among them, Russia occupied and continues to occupy the first place, although oil is also produced in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The United States, which ranks second in the world in terms of oil production, together with Canada in 1990 owned about 1 6% world production. They were followed by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Mexico, China, Venezuela, Iraq and Britain. The volume of oil production is increased or decreased depending on demand. Thus, the recession of the world economy in the early 1990s. led to a sharp decline in oil consumption. The leading place in natural gas production also belongs to the republics of the former Soviet Union, in particular Russia. They are followed by the USA, Holland and Canada. Other major gas producing countries are Britain, Mexico, Norway and Romania.

Thanks to the widespread use of oil, its production has increased from 10 million barrels (158.988 dm 3) per day in the 1950s. to 65 million barrels in 1990, and over these 40 years oil has become the main source of fuel and raw materials in the world. In some countries, oil products were so cheap that oil was often used unacceptably wastefully.

Developed countries often use their own oil reserves, and as demand grows, they are forced to import the missing amount. The world's major oil exporters are a few developing countries that are rapidly making large profits from oil production and exports to developed countries. Some developing countries are channeling oil revenues to solve social problems - building schools, hospitals and improving living standards in general. Others invest their "petrodollars" in large high-tech projects - for example, the construction of expensive desalination plants sea ​​water in Saudi Arabia or the creation of the “Great Man-Made River*” in Libya, through which water from underground reservoirs located under the Sahara desert will be pumped to a densely populated coast mediterranean sea. Oil policy

Oil began to play a key role in international relations. In 1967, the oil states of the Middle East were able to provide massive assistance to their Arab allies in Egypt, Syria and Jordan during their war with Israel.

The developing oil states began to exercise ever greater political influence in the world through the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC was created in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates later joined.

In 1973, when Egypt and Syria launched a six-day war against Israel, OPEC skyrocketed oil prices. A number of countries have agreed to jointly regulate oil exports in order to have leverage in their hands to put pressure on the United States and other countries that supported Israel.

Since the mid 1970s. most oil-producing countries in the Middle East sought to establish through OPEC a "New Economic Order" that would give developing states more weight in international relations.

OPEC's policy has put many oil-importing countries in a difficult position, creating a shortage of fuel and giving rise to inflationary processes. But in the early 1980s. developed countries increased their own oil production. This, along with a general economic downturn, led to lower demand for imported oil and lower prices. However, while OPEC was short-lived, many Middle Eastern governments gained a sense of self-confidence.

Oil became the cause of new conflicts. In 1990, Iraq claimed that Kuwait was extracting oil belonging to Iraq, and that since Kuwait's exports exceeded the quota set by OPEC, this led to a decrease in world prices. As a result, in August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, but already in 1991 it was expelled from there by UN troops. During the Gulf War, Iraq poured huge amounts of oil into its waters and set fire to more than half of all oil rigs in Kuwait. Black clouds of smoke eclipsed the sun for several months until the fire was put out. Emissions to the sea

Emissions of oil into the sea occur during the washing of tankers, during accidents on offshore oil platforms and during its transportation by supertankers. On the surface of the water, a thin film spreads the so-called. oil slick, which leads to the mass death of seabirds, animals and fish.

When the Exxon Valdez oil tanker hit an underwater reef in Alaska's Prince William Sound in 1989, about 240,000 barrels of oil spilled into the sea, polluting 1,600 km coastline, including the coast of three national parks and five nature reserves. Exxon undertook an unprecedented cleanup operation, but by then the environment had already suffered irreparable damage. But much worse and larger, although not so noticeable, is the pollution of the ocean that occurs when oil products are discharged into rivers or directly into the sea from coastal industrial enterprises.

The use of gasoline as a fuel leads to severe air pollution in many large cities. The exhaust gases of vehicles and other installations running on liquid fuel contain toxic compounds - carbon monoxide, products of incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, lead. Some of them are under the influence sunlight form compounds that cause smog, which still hangs over many capitals of the world today - for example, Mexico City. Nitrogen oxides, when interacting with water droplets in clouds, lead to acid rain, polluting lakes and rivers and leading to the death of forests. In many countries, measures have already been or are being taken to reduce harmful emissions into the atmosphere. This includes the use of unleaded (lead-free) gasoline, and the equipment of cars with catalysts that turn harmful exhaust gases into harmless ones. However, the ever-increasing consumption of oil and oil products reduces the effectiveness of these measures.

Despite the discovery of new deposits and technologies, it is clear that fossil fuels will ever be exhausted, and that oil, in particular, is used up much faster than its natural renewal. Moreover, even though oil prices are rising and people are spending it more economically, the demand for petroleum products continues to grow.

However, the overall picture is not as bleak as it might seem at first glance. Experts have found that the proven oil reserves are only a third of the existing ones. With the advent of new technologies, a significant increase in usable oil reserves will become possible.

In the early 1990s American scientists have developed the technology of chemical displacement. Oil is washed out of the rock with the help of surface-active substances (surfactants). Previously, this method did not find practical application due to the high cost of surfactants. Now, however, scientists have said they have found a cheap solution to the problem using waste from the pulp and paper industry. They believe that this method will increase the potential oil reserves in the US by more than six times.

Another additional source of oil is tar sands, which are rocks impregnated with thick oil. Rocks called oil shale are also suitable for use. They are rich in kerogen, from which oil can be obtained.

Conclusion

The extraction of ore minerals, as well as coal and oil, is the basis for the development modern world. But they are gradually exhausted, especially oil and coal, which threatens developed countries with a global energy crisis.

However, the only promising solution to the problem of the energy crisis as a consequence of the depletion of fossil fuels is the development of alternative energy sources. Until then, it is necessary to rationally spend and carefully protect existing reserves.

Based on this, the main requirements for the protection of subsoil are (Article 23 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Subsoil"):

Compliance with the procedure for providing subsoil resources established by law and preventing unauthorized use;

Ensuring the completeness of geological study, rational, integrated use and protection of subsoil;

Carrying out advanced geological study of the subsoil, providing a reliable assessment of the mineral reserves or properties of the subsoil plot provided for purposes not related to the extraction of minerals;

Ensuring the most complete extraction of reserves of the main and jointly occurring minerals and associated components, as well as reliable accounting of their reserves extracted and left in the bowels;

Protection of mineral deposits from flooding, flooding, fires and other factors that reduce the quality of minerals and the industrial value of deposits;

Prevention of subsoil pollution during work related to subsoil use (underground storage of oil, gas, disposal of hazardous substances and waste, wastewater discharge);

Prevention of accumulation of industrial and household waste on

Bibliography

1. Ananiev V.P., Potapov A.D. Fundamentals of geology, mineralogy and petrography. - M.: Higher school, 2008. - 400 p.

2. Eromolov V.A., Popova G.B., Moseikin V.V., Larichev L.N., Kharitonenko G.N. Deposits of minerals. Geology. - Publishing House of the Moscow State Mining University. - M.: 2007. - 576 p.

3. Norman J. Hine. Geology, exploration, drilling and oil production. - M.: Olimp-Business, 2008. - 752 p.

4. Tatarinov P.M. Conditions for the formation of deposits of ore and non-metallic minerals. - M.: State scientific and technical publishing house of literature on geology and protection of mineral resources. - M.: 1963. - 370 p.

Remember which minerals are ore What is the origin of ore minerals?

DISTRIBUTION OF ORE RESOURCES. Minerals and rocks containing various metals lie in the bowels of Ukraine - from aluminum and iron, which are the most common in the earth's crust, to rare elements that occur only occasionally or are scattered in small quantities as impurities with other minerals. Reserves of some ores have no commercial value. And in terms of reserves of iron, manganese, titanium and uranium ores, Ukraine ranks first among European countries. These ores are mined in large volumes. Our state provides for its own needs and sells ore mineral resources to other countries. Ukraine also has significant reserves of mercury ores (2nd place in Europe).

Most ore deposits are associated with the rocks of the Ukrainian shield, as well as the ancient (Donetsk) and young (Carpathian) folded regions (Fig. 77

ORES OF FERROUS METALS. Ukraine is a unique country in the world in terms of reserves and deposits of iron and manganese ores, from which ferrous metals (cast iron, steel) are smelted. The largest deposits these fossils are located side by side - within the limits of Dnepropetrovsk and neighboring regions.

The total reserves of iron ore amount to more than 27 billion tons. The Krivoy Rog iron ore basin (Krivbass) is the main mining region in Ukraine and one of the largest in the world (Fig. 76). It includes a number of deposits stretching over 100 km across the Dnepropetrovsk, Kirovograd and Nikolaev regions. The industrial development of the basin began in the 19th century. The most important for the economy are rich (with an iron content of more than 46%) and high-quality ores - red iron ore (hematites), which contain almost no harmful impurities.

They are mined by mining. Poor ores (ferruginous quartzites), in which the iron content is less (from 20%), are developed by an open method (in quarries). Iron ores with a high metal content also occur in the Kremenchug (Poltava region) and Belozersk (Zaporozhye region) iron ore regions. They are mined both by quarry and mine methods. In the future, the Priazovsky iron ore region (Zaporozhye region) may become promising. But in the Kerch iron ore basin (Crimea), ore was no longer mined.

Manganese ores are used as a raw material for the production of high-quality steel grades. Their reserves in Ukraine amount to more than 2.5 billion tons. They are concentrated in

The Dnieper manganese ore basin is one of the largest in the world in terms of reserves and production. From the end of the 19th century Ore mining is carried out by open and mine methods in the western part of the basin - the Nikopol deposit ( Dnipropetrovsk region) (Fig. 78).

At the same time, twice as many ore reserves have been explored in the Velikotokmakskoye deposit (Zaporozhye region).

Ferrous metal ores also include chromite ores, small deposits of which were found in the Bug region (Kirovograd region).

ORES OF NON-FERROUS METALS. Titanium and its alloys are light and resistant metals, and therefore are essential materials in aircraft, rocket and shipbuilding, and the production of chemical reactors. Deposits of titanium ores are concentrated within the Ukrainian Shield. The largest explored deposits are Irshanskoe (Zhytomyr region) and Samotkanskoe (Dnepropetrovsk region).

From the end of the 19th century in Ukraine, mercury ores were mined in one of the largest in Europe Nikitovsky deposit (Donetsk region), but their development was stopped. In the Po-Bugsky nickel-ore region (Kirovograd region), nickel ores are mined and cobalt ores are explored. In Ukraine, there are many deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, which are not yet developed. Some of them were discovered relatively recently, and the reserves of metals are being specified there, others are well explored and prepared for exploitation. These include deposits of polymetallic, aluminum ores, gold, molybdenum, and many rare metals. Among the deposits of polymetallic (lead-zinc) ores, the largest is Beregovskoye (Transcarpathian region). Deposits of aluminum ores have been found in Transcarpathia, in the Dnieper and Azov regions. However, the total reserves of these types of raw materials are insignificant, so they are not mined.

Geological exploration work carried out in recent years indicates that in the bowels of Ukraine

there are industrial reserves of gold, silver, copper, many rare and rare earth metals. Thus, gold was found in the Carpathian and Donetsk regions, on the southern slopes of the Ukrainian shield. In Transcarpathia, it was mined in the Muzhievsky deposit. Large reserves of native copper have been discovered and are being explored in Volhynia.

URANIUM ORES. A special place among ore minerals is occupied by uranium ores. It is an important fuel and energy resource. Three uranium deposits are being exploited in Ukraine, but much more have been explored. Most of the deposits are in the Kirovograd region, among them Novokonstantinovskoye. It belongs to the world's leading reserves. The total reserves of uranium ores, for which Ukraine is among the top ten countries in the world, make it possible to meet the needs of operating domestic nuclear power plants for 100 years.

REMEMBER

In terms of reserves of iron and manganese ores, Ukraine is one of the leading countries in the world. iron ore mined in the Krivoy Rog basin and the Kremenchug region, manganese ore - in the Dnieper basin.

Of non-ferrous metal ores, Ukraine has significant reserves of titanium and mercury ores, reserves of other ores are limited or have no commercial value.

Ukraine has large reserves of uranium ores, with which it can provide itself in the long term.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. Name the ore minerals, the reserves of which Ukraine occupies a leading position in Europe and the world.

2. What tectonic structures are mainly associated with deposits of ore minerals?

3. Where is iron ore mined in Ukraine? Which ores are considered rich in iron content, and which are poor?

5. What non-ferrous metal ores are mined in Ukraine? Where are their deposits located?

6. Are there any ore minerals in your locality (region)? If so, where are they mined?

7*.Describe Ukraine's prospects for the extraction of its traditional ore resources and the development of new mineral deposits.

This is textbook material.

Natural substances and types of energy that serve as the means of existence of human society and are used in the economy are called .

One of the varieties of natural resources is mineral resources.

Mineral resources - these are rocks and minerals that are used or can be used in national economy: to obtain energy, in the form of raw materials, etc. Mineral resources serve as the mineral resource base of the country's economy. Currently, more than 200 types of mineral resources are used in the economy.

Often synonymous with mineral resources is the term "minerals".

There are several classifications of mineral resources.

Based on the consideration of physical properties, solid (various ores, coal, marble, granite, salts) mineral resources are distinguished, liquid (oil, mineral waters) and gaseous (combustible gases, helium, methane).

By origin, mineral resources are divided into sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic.

Based on the scope of the use of mineral resources, combustible (coal, peat, oil, natural gas, oil shale), ore (rock ores, including metallic useful components and non-metallic (graphite, asbestos) and non-metallic (or non-metallic, non-combustible: sand, clay , limestone, apatite, sulfur, potassium salts) Precious and ornamental stones are a separate group.

The distribution of mineral resources on our planet is subject to geological patterns (Table 1).

Mineral resources of sedimentary origin are most characteristic of platforms, where they occur in the sedimentary cover, as well as in foothill and marginal foredeep.

Igneous mineral resources are confined to folded areas and places where the crystalline basement of ancient platforms comes to the surface (or close to the surface). This is explained as follows. Ores were formed mainly from magma and hot aqueous solutions released from the carrier. Typically, magma rise occurs during periods of active tectonic movement, so ore minerals are associated with folded areas. On platform plains, they are confined to the basement; therefore, they can occur in those parts of the platform where the thickness of the sedimentary cover is small and the basement comes close to the surface or on shields.

Minerals on the map of the World

Minerals on the map of Russia

Table 1. Distribution of deposits of the main minerals by continents and parts of the world

Sedimentary origin is primarily fuel resources. They were formed from the remains of plants and animals, which could accumulate only in sufficiently humid and warm conditions favorable for the abundant development of living organisms. This occurred in the coastal parts of shallow seas and in lacustrine-marsh land conditions. From general reserves more than 60% of mineral fuel is coal, about 12% is oil and 15% is natural gas, the rest is oil shale, peat and other fuels. Mineral fuel resources form large coal and oil and gas bearing basins.

coal basin(coal-bearing basin) - a large area (thousands of km 2) of continuous or intermittent development of coal-bearing deposits (coal-bearing formation) with layers (deposits) of fossil coal.

Coal basins of the same geological age often form coal accumulation belts extending over thousands of kilometers.

On the the globe more than 3.6 thousand coal basins are known, which together occupy 15% of the earth's land area.

More than 90% of all coal resources are located in the Northern Hemisphere - in Asia, North America, Europe. Africa and Australia are well supplied with coal. The most coal-poor continent is South America. Coal resources have been explored in almost 100 countries of the world. Most of both total and explored coal reserves are concentrated in economically developed countries.

The largest countries in the world in terms of proven coal reserves are: USA, Russia, China, India, Australia, South Africa, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Poland, Brazil. Approximately 80% of the total geological reserves of coal are in only three countries - Russia, the USA, China.

The qualitative composition of coals is essential, in particular, the proportion of coking coals used in ferrous metallurgy. Their share is greatest in the fields of Australia, Germany, Russia, Ukraine, USA, India and China.

Oil and gas basin— the area of ​​continuous or insular distribution of oil, gas or gas condensate deposits, significant in terms of size or mineral reserves.

Mineral deposit called a section of the earth's crust in which, as a result of certain geological processes, an accumulation of mineral matter occurred, which, in terms of quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence, is suitable for industrial use.

oil and gas bearing More than 600 basins have been explored, 450 are being developed. The main reserves are located in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in Mesozoic deposits. An important place belongs to the so-called giant fields with reserves of over 500 million tons and even over 1 billion tons of oil and 1 trillion m 3 of gas each. There are 50 such oil fields (more than half - in the countries of the Near and Middle East), gas - 20 (such fields are most typical for the CIS countries). They contain over 70% of all stocks.

The main part of oil and gas reserves is concentrated in a relatively small number of major basins.

The largest oil and gas basins: Persian Gulf, Maracaibe, Orinok, Gulf of Mexico, Texas, Illinois, California, Western Canadian, Alaska, North Sea, Volga-Ural, West Siberian, Daqing, Sumatran, Gulf of Guinea, Sahara.

More than half of the explored oil reserves are confined to offshore fields, the continental shelf zone, and sea coasts. Large accumulations of oil have been identified off the coast of Alaska, in the Gulf of Mexico, in the coastal regions of the northern part of South America (the Maracaibo basin), in the North Sea (especially in the waters of the British and Norwegian sectors), as well as in the Barents, Bering and Caspian Seas, off the western coasts Africa (Guinean washed down), in the Persian Gulf, near the islands of Southeast Asia and in other places.

The countries of the world with the largest oil reserves are Saudi Arabia, Russia, Iraq, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Venezuela, Mexico, Libya, and the USA. Large reserves are also found in Qatar, Bahrain, Ecuador, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Indonesia, Brunei.

The availability of proven oil reserves with modern production is 45 years in the world as a whole. On average for OPEC, this figure is 85 leg; in the USA it barely exceeds 10 years, in Russia it is 20 years, in Saudi Arabia it is 90 years, in Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates it is about 140 years.

Countries leading in terms of gas reserves in the world, are Russia, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Large reserves are also found in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, USA, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Algeria, Libya, Norway, the Netherlands, Great Britain, China, Brunei, Indonesia.

The provision of the world economy with natural gas at the current level of its production is 71 years.

Metal ores can serve as an example of igneous mineral resources. Metal ores include ores of iron, manganese, chromium, aluminum, lead and zinc, copper, tin, gold, platinum, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, etc. Often they form huge ore (metallogenic) belts - Alpine-Himalayan, Pacific etc. and serve as a raw material base for the mining industry of individual countries.

Iron ores serve as the main raw material for the production of ferrous metals. The iron content in the ore averages 40%. Depending on the percentage of iron, ores are divided into rich and poor. Rich ores with an iron content above 45% are used without enrichment, while poor ones undergo preliminary enrichment.

By the size of the general geological resources of iron ore the first place is occupied by the CIS countries, the second - by foreign Asia, the third and fourth are shared by Africa and South America, the fifth - is occupied by North America.

Iron ore resources are located in many developed and developing countries. According to them total and proven reserves Russia, Ukraine, Brazil, China, Australia stand out. There are large reserves of iron ore in the USA, Canada, India, France, and Sweden. Large deposits are also located in the UK, Norway, Luxembourg, Venezuela, South Africa, Algeria, Liberia, Gabon, Angola, Mauritania, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan.

The provision of the world economy with iron ore at the current level of its production is 250 years.

In the production of ferrous metals great importance have alloying metals (manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum) used in steelmaking as special additives to improve the quality of the metal.

By reserves manganese ores South Africa, Australia, Gabon, Brazil, India, China, Kazakhstan stand out; nickel ores - Russia, Australia, New Caledonia (islands in Melanesia, southwestern part Pacific Ocean), Cuba, as well as Canada, Indonesia, Philippines; chromites - South Africa, Zimbabwe; cobalt - DR Congo, Zambia, Australia, Philippines; tungsten and molybdenum USA, Canada, South Korea, Australia.

Non-ferrous metals find wide application in modern industries. Ores of non-ferrous metals, unlike ferrous ones, have a very low percentage of useful elements in the ore (often tenths and even hundredths of a percent).

Raw material base aluminum industry constitute bauxites, nephelines, alunites, syenites. main view raw materials - bauxites.

There are several bauxite-bearing provinces in the world:

• Mediterranean (France, Italy, Greece, Hungary, Romania, etc.);
• coast of the Gulf of Guinea (Guinea, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Cameroon);
• Caribbean coast (Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Suriname);
• Australia.

Stocks are also available in the CIS countries and China.

Countries of the world that have largest total and proven bauxite reserves: Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, Australia, Russia. The provision of the world economy with bauxites at the current level of their production (80 million tons) is 250 years.

The volumes of raw materials for obtaining other non-ferrous metals (copper, polymetallic, tin and other ores) are more limited in comparison with the raw material base of the aluminum industry.

Stocks copper ores concentrated mainly in Asia (India, Indonesia, etc.), Africa (Zimbabwe, Zambia, DRC), North America (USA, Canada) and CIS countries (Russia, Kazakhstan). Resources of copper ores are also available in countries Latin America(Mexico, Panama, Peru, Chile), Europe (Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia), as well as in Australia and Oceania (Australia, Papua New Guinea). Leading in copper ore reserves Chile, USA, Canada, DR Congo, Zambia, Peru, Australia, Kazakhstan, China.

Provision of the world economy with explored reserves of copper ores with the current volume of their annual production is approximately 56 years.

By reserves polymetallic ores containing lead, zinc, as well as copper, tin, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, gold, silver, selenium, tellurium, sulfur, the leading positions in the world are occupied by the countries of North America (USA, Canada), Latin America (Mexico, Peru), as well as Australia. The resources of polymetallic ores are located in the countries of Western Europe (Ireland, Germany), Asia (China, Japan) and the CIS countries (Kazakhstan, Russia).

Place of Birth zinc are available in 70 countries of the world, the availability of their reserves, taking into account the growth in demand for this metal, is more than 40 years. Australia, Canada, USA, Russia, Kazakhstan and China have the largest reserves. These countries account for more than 50% of the world's zinc ore reserves.

World deposits tin ores are found in Southeast Asia, mainly in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Other large deposits are located in South America (Bolivia, Peru, Brazil) and in Australia.

If we compare economically developed countries and developing countries in terms of their share in the resources of various types of ore raw materials, then it is obvious that the former have a sharp predominance in the resources of platinum, vanadium, chromites, gold, manganese, lead, zinc, tungsten, and the latter in the resources of cobalt, bauxite, tin, nickel, copper.

uranium ores form the basis of modern nuclear energy. Uranium is very widespread in the earth's crust. Potentially, its reserves are estimated at 10 million tons. However, it is economically profitable to develop only those deposits whose ores contain at least 0.1% uranium, and the production cost does not exceed $80 per 1 kg. The explored reserves of such uranium in the world are 1.4 million tons. They are located in Australia, Canada, the USA, South Africa, Niger, Brazil, Namibia, as well as in Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

Diamonds are usually formed at depths of 100-200 km, where the temperature reaches 1100-1300 ° C, and the pressure is 35-50 kilobars. Such conditions favor the metamorphosis of carbon into diamond. Having spent billions of years at great depths, diamonds are brought to the surface by kimberlig magma during volcanic explosions, thus forming primary deposits of diamonds - kimberlite pipes. The first of these pipes was discovered in southern Africa in the province of Kimberley, after this province they began to call the pipes kimberlite, and the rock containing precious diamonds, kimberlite. To date, thousands of kimberlite pipes have been found, but only a few dozen of them are profitable.

Currently, diamonds are mined from two types of deposits: primary (kimberlite and lamproite pipes) and secondary - placers. The main part of diamond reserves, 68.8%, is concentrated in Africa, about 20% - in Australia, 11.1% - in South and North America; Asia accounts for only 0.3%. Diamond deposits have been discovered in South Africa, Brazil, India, Canada, Australia, Russia, Botswana, Angola, Sierra Lsona, Namibia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, etc. Botswana, Russia, Canada, South Africa, Angola, Namibia and DR Congo.

Nonmetallic mineral resources- these are, first of all, mineral chemical raw materials (sulfur, phosphorites, potassium salts), as well as building materials, refractory raw materials, graphite, etc. They are widespread, occurring both on platforms and in folded areas.

For example, in hot dry conditions, salts accumulated in shallow seas and coastal lagoons.

Potassium salts are used as raw materials for the production of mineral fertilizers. The largest deposits of potassium salts are located in Canada (Saskatchewan basin), Russia (the Solikamsk and Bereznyaki deposits in Perm region), Belarus (Starobinskoye), in Ukraine (Kalushskoye, Stebnikskoye), as well as in Germany, France, and the USA. With the current annual production of potash salts, proven reserves will last for 70 years.

Sulfur It is used primarily to produce sulfuric acid, the vast majority of which is used in the production of phosphate fertilizers, pesticides, and also in the pulp and paper industry. In agriculture, sulfur is used to control pests. The United States, Mexico, Poland, France, Germany, Iran, Japan, Ukraine, Turkmenistan have significant reserves of native sulfur.

The reserves of individual types of mineral raw materials are not the same. The need for mineral resources is constantly growing, which means that the size of their production is growing. Mineral resources are exhaustible, non-renewable natural resources, therefore, despite the discovery and development of new deposits, the availability of mineral resources is declining.

Resource availability is the ratio between the amount of (explored) natural resources and the amount of their use. It is expressed either in the number of years that a particular resource should last at a given level of consumption, or in its per capita reserves at current rates of extraction or use. The resource supply with mineral resources is determined by the number of years for which this mineral should be enough.

According to the calculations of scientists, the world's general geological reserves of mineral fuel at the current level of production can be enough for more than 1000 years. However, if we take into account the reserves available for extraction, as well as the constant growth in consumption, this provision can be reduced by several times.

For economic use the most profitable are territorial combinations of mineral resources that facilitate the complex processing of raw materials.

Only a few countries in the world have significant reserves of many types of mineral resources. Among them are Russia, the USA, China.

Many states have deposits of one or more types of world-class resources. For example, the countries of the Near and Middle East - oil and gas; Chile, Zaire, Zambia - copper, Morocco and Nauru - phosphorites, etc.

Rice. 1. Principles of rational nature management

Important rational use resources - more complete processing of extracted minerals, their integrated use, etc. (Fig. 1).