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The relative constancy of the internal environment of one organism - the host - makes it possible to use his body by other organisms - cohabitants - as a living environment. Master An organism that provides a living environment for other organisms. Roommate- an organism that settles on the surface or inside the body of another organism. A cohabitant may be neutral for the host (fish fry in the intestinal cavity of marine intestinal animals). It can benefit him by providing nutrients (nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria and leguminous plants). But he can harm the owner by using it nutrients(Ascaris human and man).
Most of the cohabitants are among microorganisms. These include some representatives of bacteria, fungi, protists (dysentery amoeba, Trichomonas). Of multicellular organisms, cohabitants are flat and round worms, some insects with a simplified structure. All viruses can also be considered cohabitants, since they show vital activity only in another organism.
- limited environment in time and space;
- difficulty in spreading from one host to another;
- difficulties in providing oxygen;
- host responses.
Adaptations to life in another organism
For example, human roundworm per day is able to lay 250 thousand eggs, and in 5-6 months of puberty - 50-60 million eggs. Their mass is 1700 times greater than the mass of the female.
Intensive development of the reproductive system ensures high reproductive potential of the species. This is also supported parthenogenesis(development without fertilization), polyembryony(many embryos appear from one egg), asexual reproduction(females give birth only to females). emergence hermaphroditism(combination of male and female reproductive systems in one organism) is a kind of double guarantee of successful fertilization and offspring.
Parthenogenesis occurs in bees, ants, aphids, daphnia, rotifers, some species of snakes, and lizards. Polyembryony is a kind of vegetative reproduction at the zygote stage. It is found in various animals systematic groups: bryozoans, earthworms, some types of insects, sea urchins, armadillos and humans (identical twins). Natural hermaphroditism is common mainly among invertebrates. It is found in worms, hydras, molluscs, crustaceans (barnacles), and insects (coccids). Among vertebrates, many species of fish inhabiting coral reefs are hermaphrodites.
Protecting the fertilized eggs with multi-layered shells and providing the embryo with nutrition increase the survival rate of the offspring. The development of adaptations for the release of larvae from the egg and the body of the host into the external environment and their penetration into the body of a new host contribute to dispersal.
1. Who proposed the term "ecology":
A) Aristotle
B) E. Haeckel;
C) C. Darwin;
D) V. I. Vernadsky.
2.All factors live and inanimate nature affecting individuals, populations, species, are called:
A) biotic;
B) abiotic;
B) environmental;
C) anthropogenic.
3. The concept of "biogeocenosis" introduced:
A) V. Sukachev;
B) V. Vernadsky;
B) Aristotle
C) V. Dokuchaev.
4. Mineralize organic substances of other organisms:
A) producers
B) consumers of the 1st order;
C) consumers of the 2nd order;
B) reducers.
5. The concept of "ecosystem" led to ecology:
A) A. Tensley;
B) E. Suess;
C) V. Sukachev;
D) V. Vernadsky.
6. Consumers in biogeocenosis:
A) consume ready-made organic substances;
B) carry out the primary synthesis of carbohydrates;
C) decompose the remains of organic substances;
D) convert solar energy.
7. Changes in the external environment lead to various changes in the population, but do not affect:
A) the number of individuals;
B) on the age structure;
B) per area;
D) the sex ratio.
8. Constant high fecundity is usually found in species:
A) well-supplied food resources;
B) the mortality of individuals of which is very high;
C) which occupy a vast area;
D) the offspring of which passes the larval stage.
9. Determine the correct food chain:
A) spruce seeds - hedgehog - fox - mouse;
B) fox - hedgehog - spruce seeds - mouse;
C) mouse - spruce seeds - hedgehog - fox;
D) spruce seeds - mouse - hedgehog - fox.
10. An indicator of the prosperity of populations in an ecosystem is:
A) their high number;
B) communication with other populations;
C) the relationship between the individuals of the population;
C) population fluctuations.
11. Organisms capable of living in various environmental conditions are called:
A) stenobionts;
B) oligobionts;
B) commensals
B) eurybionts.
12. An abiotic environmental factor is not:
A) seasonal color change of the white hare;
B) distribution of the fruits of viburnum, mountain ash, oak;
AT) autumn change leaf color in deciduous trees;
D) autumn leaf fall.
13. The law of optimum means the following:
A) organisms tolerate deviations from the optimum in different ways;
B) any environmental factor optimally affects organisms;
C) any environmental factor has certain limits of positive impact on the body;
D) any organism optimally adapts to various conditions environment.
14. Adaptability to the environment:
A) is the result of long-term natural selection;
B) inherent in living organisms from the moment they are born;
C) occurs through prolonged training of the body;
D) is the result of artificial selection.
15.Only in aquatic environment became possible:
A) elongation of the body of organisms;
B) absorption of sunlight by organisms;
C) the appearance of five-fingered limbs;
D) the emergence of a filtration type of nutrition.
16. Of the environments of life, the thinnest (in vertical distribution):
A) air;
B) soil;
B) water;
D) water and air.
A) a white butterfly;
B) a ladybug
B) bark beetle;
D) wood ants.
18. Soil as a habitat includes all groups of animals, but the main part of its biomass is formed by:
A) heterotrophic consumers of the 1st order;
B) saprophages (saprotrophs);
C) producers (autotrophs);
D) heterotrophs - consumers of the 2nd order.
19. Light-loving herbs growing under spruce are typical representatives of the following type of interactions:
A) neutralism;
B) commensalism;
B) protocooperation;
D) amensalism.
A) smut;
B) broomrape
All the inhabitants of nature have their own life cycle. Nevertheless, the natural laws of nature are such that each individual is born, develops and dies. A special biological “mechanism” has been operating in this mode for millions of years. Since time immemorial, people have been trying with all their might to get around it and achieve immortality. In an attempt to cheat death, those wishing to live forever organized entire expeditions and set off in search of the elixir of eternal youth, not even suspecting that the owners of the "immortality gene" live next to them.
Some multicellular organisms are designed in such a way that they are potentially immortal. They can die, but not from old age or illness, but from external influences like global change environment, a volcanic eruption, or an encounter with a predator. These 7 creatures of nature do not feel the passage of time and, if circumstances are successful, they are capable of an indefinitely long existence.
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Bristlecone Pine
These trees grew even when Troy was located on the site of modern Turkey. Bristlecone pine is considered one of the oldest trees on our planet. The tree has no signs of mutational aging. At the cellular level, even old, gnarled trees look like young ones. You can look at centenarians in national park Inyo in California, USA.
Clam Ming
By counting the number of growth rings on the shell of a mollusk washed ashore in Iceland in 2006, scientists found that it is older than all of them, and its date of birth falls around 1499. The age of the mollusk was also confirmed by radiocarbon dating. Thus, it was found that under appropriate conditions on the ocean floor, molluscs of the species Arctica islandica of the Veneridae family can live for several hundred or even thousands of years.
in the waters Pacific Ocean there is a special kind of coral that can live over 4000 years. Similar species are found in the waters surrounding Hawaiian Islands, at depths of 300 to 500 meters. This type of coral has been recognized as the oldest long-lived among marine organisms.
The immortality of the hydra began to be talked about back in the 19th century. But it was possible to prove the hypothesis only at the end of the 20th. Experimentally, Daniel Martinez demonstrated that due to their high regenerative capacity, some types of hydras are immortal. Per a short time their body can regenerate individual parts. Thanks to these features last years hydra is used as a model object for studying regeneration and morphogenesis processes.
Jellyfish of the species Turritopsis nutricula can control their own genes. At the moment of danger, they change the stage of development and return to their original state, from which they then begin to grow again, just as if a butterfly had again turned into a caterpillar. They use the same mechanism when they reach maturity: they transform into a polyp, and then turn back into a jellyfish. They do not die of natural death and can only die from a meeting with a predator.
american lobster
This variety of lobster has self-healing DNA. A special enzyme called telomerase prevents them from aging. Scientists estimate that the oldest lobster found is 140 years old and has not shown any signs of aging. It is believed that American lobsters are biologically immortal, and they die from external causes.
A living organism is the main subject studied by such a science as biology. It is a complex system consisting of cells, organs and tissues. A living organism is one that has a number of characteristic features. He breathes and eats, stirs or moves, and also has offspring.
Life Science
The term "biology" was introduced by J.B. Lamarck - a French naturalist - in 1802. At about the same time and independently of him, the German botanist G.R. gave such a name to the science of the living world. Treviranus.
Numerous branches of biology consider the diversity of not only currently existing, but also already extinct organisms. They study their origin and evolutionary processes, structure and function, as well as individual development and relationships with the environment and with each other.
Sections of biology consider particular and general patterns that are inherent in all living things in all properties and manifestations. This applies to reproduction, and metabolism, and heredity, and development, and growth.
The beginning of the historical stage
The first living organisms on our planet differed significantly in their structure from those currently existing. They were incomparably simpler. Throughout the entire stage of the formation of life on Earth, He contributed to the improvement of the structure of living beings, which allowed them to adapt to the conditions of the surrounding world.
At the initial stage, living organisms in nature ate only organic components that arose from primary carbohydrates. At the dawn of their history, both animals and plants were the smallest single-celled creatures. They were similar to today's amoebas, blue-green algae and bacteria. In the course of evolution, multicellular organisms began to appear, which were much more diverse and more complex than their predecessors.
Chemical composition
A living organism is one that is formed by molecules of inorganic and organic substances.
The first of these components is water, as well as mineral salts. found in the cells of living organisms are fats and proteins, nucleic acids and carbohydrates, ATP and many other elements. It is worth noting the fact that living organisms in their composition contain the same components that objects have. The main difference is in the ratio of these elements. Living organisms are those ninety-eight percent of whose composition is hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.
Classification
The organic world of our planet today has almost one and a half million diverse animal species, half a million plant species, and ten million microorganisms. Such diversity cannot be studied without its detailed systematization. The classification of living organisms was first developed by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus. He based his work on the hierarchical principle. The unit of systematization was the species, the name of which was proposed to be given only in Latin.
The classification of living organisms used in modern biology indicates family ties and evolutionary relationships of organic systems. At the same time, the principle of hierarchy is preserved.
The totality of living organisms that have a common origin, the same chromosome set, adapted to similar conditions, living in a certain area, freely interbreeding and producing offspring capable of reproduction, is a species.
There is another classification in biology. This science divides all cellular organisms into groups according to the presence or absence of a formed nucleus. it
The first group is represented by nuclear-free primitive organisms. A nuclear zone stands out in their cells, but it contains only a molecule. These are bacteria.
The true nuclear representatives of the organic world are eukaryotes. The cells of living organisms of this group have all the main structural components. Their core is also clearly defined. This group includes animals, plants and fungi.
The structure of living organisms can be not only cellular. Biology studies other forms of life. These include non-cellular organisms, such as viruses, as well as bacteriophages.
Classes of living organisms
In biological systematics, there is a rank of hierarchical classification, which scientists consider one of the main ones. He distinguishes classes of living organisms. The main ones include the following:
bacteria;
Animals;
Plants;
Seaweed.
Description of classes
A bacterium is a living organism. It is a unicellular organism that reproduces by division. The cell of a bacterium is enclosed in a shell and has a cytoplasm.
Mushrooms belong to the next class of living organisms. In nature, there are about fifty thousand species of these representatives of the organic world. However, biologists have studied only five percent of their total. Interestingly, fungi share some characteristics of both plants and animals. An important role of living organisms of this class lies in the ability to decompose organic material. That is why mushrooms can be found in almost all biological niches.
Boasts a great variety animal world. Representatives of this class can be found in areas where, it would seem, there are no conditions for existence.
Warm-blooded animals are the most highly organized class. They got their name from the way they feed their offspring. All representatives of mammals are divided into ungulates (giraffe, horse) and carnivores (fox, wolf, bear).
Representatives of the animal world are insects. There are a huge number of them on Earth. They swim and fly, crawl and jump. Many of the insects are so small that they are not even able to withstand water tension.
Amphibians and reptiles were among the first vertebrates that came to land in distant historical times. Until now, the life of representatives of this class is connected with water. So, the habitat of adults is dry land, and their breathing is carried out by lungs. The larvae breathe through gills and swim in the water. Currently, there are about seven thousand species of this class of living organisms on Earth.
Birds are unique representatives of the fauna of our planet. Indeed, unlike other animals, they are able to fly. Almost eight thousand six hundred species of birds live on Earth. Representatives of this class are characterized by plumage and oviposition.
Fish belong to a huge group of vertebrates. They live in water bodies and have fins and gills. Biologists divide fish into two groups. These are cartilage and bone. There are currently about twenty thousand various kinds fish.
Within the class of plants there is its own gradation. Representatives of the flora are divided into dicots and monocots. In the first of these groups, the seed contains an embryo consisting of two cotyledons. You can identify representatives of this species by the leaves. They are pierced with a mesh of veins (corn, beets). The embryo has only one cotyledon. On the leaves of such plants, the veins are arranged in parallel (onions, wheat).
The class of algae includes more than thirty thousand species. These are water-dwelling spore plants that do not have vessels, but have chlorophyll. This component contributes to the implementation of the process of photosynthesis. Algae do not form seeds. Their reproduction occurs vegetatively or by spores. From higher plants this class of living organisms is distinguished by the absence of stems, leaves and roots. They have only the so-called body, which is called the thallus.
Functions inherent in living organisms
What is fundamental for any representative of the organic world? This is the implementation of the processes of energy and matter exchange. In a living organism, there is a constant transformation of various substances into energy, as well as physical and chemical changes.
This function is an indispensable condition for the existence of a living organism. It is thanks to metabolism that the world of organic beings differs from the inorganic. Yes, in inanimate objects there are also changes in matter and the transformation of energy. However, these processes have their fundamental differences. The metabolism that occurs in inorganic objects destroys them. At the same time, living organisms without metabolic processes cannot continue their existence. The consequence of metabolism is the renewal of the organic system. The cessation of metabolic processes entails death.
The functions of a living organism are varied. But all of them are directly related to the metabolic processes taking place in it. This can be growth and reproduction, development and digestion, nutrition and respiration, reactions and movement, excretion of waste products and secretion, etc. The basis of any function of the body is a set of processes of transformation of energy and substances. Moreover, this is equally relevant to the capabilities of both tissue, cell, organ, and the whole organism.
Metabolism in humans and animals includes the processes of nutrition and digestion. In plants, it is carried out with the help of photosynthesis. A living organism in the implementation of metabolism supplies itself with the substances necessary for existence.
Important hallmark objects of the organic world is the use of external energy sources. An example of this is light and food.
Properties inherent in living organisms
Any biological unit has in its composition individual elements, which, in turn, form an inextricably linked system. For example, in the aggregate, all organs and functions of a person represent his body. The properties of living organisms are diverse. In addition to a single chemical composition and the possibility of implementing metabolic processes, the objects of the organic world are capable of organization. Certain structures are formed from the chaotic molecular movement. This creates a certain order in time and space for all living things. Structural organization is a whole complex of the most complex self-regulating processes that proceed in a certain order. This allows you to maintain the constancy of the internal environment at the required level. For example, the hormone insulin reduces the amount of glucose in the blood when it is in excess. With a lack of this component, it is replenished by adrenaline and glucagon. Also, warm-blooded organisms have numerous mechanisms of thermoregulation. This is the expansion of skin capillaries, and intense sweating. As you can see, this is an important function that the body performs.
The properties of living organisms, characteristic only for the organic world, are also included in the process of self-reproduction, because the existence of any has a time limit. Only self-reproduction can sustain life. This function is based on the process of formation of new structures and molecules, due to the information that is embedded in DNA. Self-reproduction is inextricably linked with heredity. After all, each of the living beings gives birth to their own kind. Through heredity, living organisms transmit their developmental features, properties and signs. This property is due to constancy. It exists in the structure of DNA molecules.
Another property characteristic of living organisms is irritability. Organic systems always react to internal and external changes (impacts). As for irritability human body, then it is inextricably linked with the properties inherent in muscle, nervous, and glandular tissue. These components are able to give impetus to the response after muscle contraction, the departure of a nerve impulse, as well as the secretion of various substances (hormones, saliva, etc.). And if deprived nervous system living organism? The properties of living organisms in the form of irritability are manifested in this case by movement. For example, protozoa leave solutions in which the salt concentration is too high. As for plants, they are able to change the position of the shoots in order to absorb light as much as possible.
Any living system can respond to the action of a stimulus. This is another property of the objects of the organic world - excitability. This process is provided by muscle and glandular tissues. One of the final reactions of excitability is movement. The ability to move is common property all living things, despite the fact that outwardly some organisms are deprived of it. After all, the movement of the cytoplasm occurs in any cell. Attached animals also move. Growth movements due to an increase in the number of cells are observed in plants.
Habitat
The existence of objects of the organic world is possible only under certain conditions. Some part of space invariably surrounds a living organism or a whole group. This is the habitat.
In the life of any organism, organic and inorganic components of nature play a significant role. They have an effect on him. Living organisms have to adapt to existing conditions. So, some of the animals can live in areas Far North at very low temperatures. Others are able to exist only in the tropics.
There are several habitats on planet Earth. Among them are:
Land-water;
ground;
soil;
Living organism;
Ground-air.
The role of living organisms in nature
Life on planet Earth has been around for three billion years. And during all this time organisms developed, changed, settled and at the same time affected their environment.
The influence of organic systems on the atmosphere caused the appearance of more oxygen. This significantly reduced the amount of carbon dioxide. Plants are the main source of oxygen production.
Under the influence of living organisms, the composition of the waters of the World Ocean has also changed. Some rocks are of organic origin. Minerals (oil, coal, limestone) are also the result of the functioning of living organisms. In other words, the objects of the organic world are a powerful factor that transforms nature.
Living organisms are a kind of indicator indicating the quality human environment environment. They are connected by complex processes with vegetation and soil. If at least a single link from this chain is lost, an imbalance will occur ecological system generally. That is why it is important for the circulation of energy and substances on the planet to preserve all the existing diversity of representatives of the organic world.
Some organisms have a special advantage that allows them to withstand the most extreme conditions, where others simply cannot cope. Among these abilities, resistance to enormous pressure, extreme temperatures and others can be noted. These ten creatures from our list will give odds to anyone who dares to claim the title of the hardiest organism.
10 Himalayan Jumping Spider
The Asiatic wild goose is famous for flying over 6.5 kilometers, while the highest human settlement is at 5,100 meters in the Peruvian Andes. However, the high-altitude record does not belong to geese at all, but to the Himalayan jumping spider (Euophrys omnisuperstes). Living at an altitude of over 6700 meters, this spider feeds mainly on small insects brought there by gusts of wind. A key feature of this insect is the ability to survive in conditions of almost complete absence of oxygen.
9 Giant Kangaroo Jumper
Usually, when we think about the animals that can live the longest without water, the camel immediately comes to mind. But camels can survive without water in the desert for only 15 days. Meanwhile, you will be surprised when you find out that there is an animal in the world that can live its whole life without drinking a single drop of water. Giant kangaroo jumper - close relative beavers. Their average life expectancy is usually 3 to 5 years. They usually get moisture from food by eating various seeds. In addition, these rodents do not sweat, thereby avoiding additional water loss. Usually these animals live in Death Valley, and in this moment are in danger of extinction.
Since heat in water is more efficiently transferred to organisms, a water temperature of 50 degrees Celsius will be much more dangerous than the same air temperature. For this reason, bacteria predominately thrive in hot underwater springs, which cannot be said about multicellular life forms. However, there is a special kind of worm called paralvinella sulfincola, which is happy to settle in places where the water reaches temperatures of 45-55 degrees. Scientists conducted an experiment where one of the walls of the aquarium was heated, as a result it turned out that the worms preferred to stay in this place, ignoring cooler places. It is believed that this feature has developed in worms so that they can feast on bacteria that are abundant in hot springs. Because they didn't have it before. natural enemies, bacteria were relatively easy prey.
7 Greenland Shark
The Greenland shark is one of the largest and least studied sharks on the planet. Despite the fact that they swim quite slowly (any amateur swimmer can overtake them), they are extremely rare. This is due to the fact that this species of sharks, as a rule, lives at a depth of 1200 meters. In addition, this shark is one of the most resistant to cold. Usually she prefers to stay in water, the temperature of which fluctuates between 1 and 12 degrees Celsius. Since these sharks live in cold waters, they have to move extremely slowly in order to minimize the use of their energy. In food they are illegible and eat everything that comes in their way. Rumor has it that their lifespan is about 200 years, but no one has yet been able to confirm or deny it.
6. Devil Worm
For decades, scientists believed that only single-celled organisms could survive at great depths. In their opinion, high pressure, lack of oxygen and extreme temperatures stood in the way of multicellular creatures. But then microscopic worms were discovered at a depth of several kilometers. Named halicephalobus mephisto, after a demon from German folklore, they were found in water samples 2.2 kilometers below the ground in a cave in South Africa. They have managed to survive extreme environmental conditions, suggesting that life is possible on Mars and other planets in our galaxy.
5. Frogs
Some types of frogs are widely known for their ability to literally freeze for the whole winter period and revive with the arrival of spring. AT North America five species of such frogs have been found, the most common of which is the common tree frog. Since tree frogs are not very strong at burrowing, they simply hide under fallen leaves. They have a substance like antifreeze in their veins, and although their hearts eventually stop, this is temporary. The basis of their survival technique is the huge concentration of glucose that enters the bloodstream from the frog's liver. What is even more surprising is the fact that frogs are able to demonstrate their ability to freeze not only in natural environment, but also in the laboratory, allowing scientists to discover their secrets.
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4 Deep Sea Microbes
We all know that the deepest point in the world is the Mariana Trench. Its depth reaches almost 11 kilometers, and the pressure there exceeds atmospheric pressure by 1100 times. A few years ago, scientists managed to find giant amoebae there, which they managed to capture with a high-resolution camera and protected by a glass sphere from the enormous pressure that reigns at the bottom. Moreover, a recent expedition sent by James Cameron himself showed that in the depths Mariana Trench there may be other forms of life. Samples of bottom sediments were obtained, which proved that the depression is literally teeming with microbes. This fact amazed scientists, because the extreme conditions prevailing there, as well as the huge pressure, are far from paradise.
3. Bdelloidea
Rotifers of the species Bdelloidea are incredibly tiny female invertebrates, usually found in fresh water. Since their discovery, no males of this species have been found, and rotifers themselves reproduce asexually, which in turn destroys their own DNA. They restore their native DNA by eating other types of microorganisms. Thanks to this ability, rotifers can withstand extreme dehydration, moreover, they are able to withstand levels of radiation that would kill most living organisms on our planet. Scientists believe that their ability to repair their DNA came about as a result of the need to survive in an extremely arid environment.
2. Cockroach
There is a myth that cockroaches will be the only living organisms that will survive nuclear war. In fact, these insects can live without water and food for several weeks, and what's more, they can live for weeks without a head. Cockroaches have been around for 300 million years, even outliving the dinosaurs. The Discovery Channel conducted a series of experiments that were supposed to show whether cockroaches would survive or not with powerful nuclear radiation. As a result, it turned out that almost half of all insects were able to survive radiation of 1000 rads (such radiation can kill an adult healthy person in just 10 minutes of exposure), moreover, 10% of cockroaches survived exposure to radiation of 10,000 rad, which is equal to radiation at nuclear explosion in Hiroshima. Unfortunately, none of these small insects survived 100,000 rads of radiation.
1. Tardigrades
Tiny aquatic organisms, called tardigrades, turned out to be the hardiest organisms on our planet. These, at first glance, cute animals are able to survive almost any extreme conditions, whether it be heat or cold, huge pressure or high radiation. They are able to survive for some time even in space. AT extreme conditions and in a state of extreme dehydration, these creatures are able to remain alive for several decades. They come to life, one has only to place them in a pond.
