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military topography is one of the most important subjects of instruction in the system of combat training of sergeants and soldiers of all branches of the armed forces. Knowledge of military topography allows one to skillfully study and evaluate the terrain, its tactical properties, use topographic and special maps, ground navigation equipment in organizing and conducting combat operations in order to effectively use weapons and military equipment in modern combat conditions.
Military topography- a special military discipline that studies the methods and means of assessing the terrain, orienting on it and making field measurements to ensure the combat activities of troops (forces), the rules for maintaining work maps and developing graphic combat documents.
12.1. Orientation on the ground without maps
orientation on the ground means to determine your location relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding local objects and landforms, find the right direction of movement and be able to maintain this direction on the way.
When orienting on the ground, the simplest methods of orientation are widely used: by compass, celestial bodies and signs of local objects.
12.1.1.1 magnetic compass device
when orienting on the ground, the Adrianov compass is most widely used.
Adrianov's compass is designed to determine the sides of the horizon, the magnetic azimuth of the direction, the measurement of horizontal angles between directions.
Adrianov's compass consists of body 1 (Fig. 176), in the center of which, on the tip of the game,
a magnetic needle 3 is placed in the base. In a non-working state, the magnetic needle is pressed against the glass cover by a brake 6. The circular scale (limb) 2 is divided into 120 divisions, the division value is 3 0. The scale has a double digitization: internal - clockwise from 0 0 to 360 0 through 15 0 (5 scale divisions) and external - counterclockwise through 5 large divisions of the goniometer (10 scale divisions).
For sighting objects on the ground and taking readings on the compass scale, a sighting device (pillar and lushka) 4 and a reading indicator 5 are fixed on a rotating ring. using a compass at night.
Compass Rules. When working with a compass, you should always remember that when determining the sides of the horizon, it is necessary to move away from power lines, railway tracks, military equipment and large metal objects at a distance of 40-50 meters.
12.1.2. Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass
to determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the brake and set (turn) the compass so that the northern end of the arrow coincides with the zero division of the scale, which corresponds to the direction to the north.
12.1.3. Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon
by heavenly lights
In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies, the sides of the horizon can be approximately determined during the day by the Sun, and at night by the Polar Star or the Moon.
The sun makes its visible path across the sky from east to west and moves 15 0 in 1 hour. at noon (about 1 pm and 2 pm in summer) it is in the south.
On a sunny day, the direction to the north can be determined by the shadow (Fig. 177). In the figure, the shadow is given by a vertically placed pencil. Local shadow observation time
is 30 0 (15-13) x 15 0 \u003d 30 0.
By the sun with a watch(Fig. 178). The clock is held horizontally and rotated
them until the hour hand is aligned with the direction of the Sun (the position of the minute hand is not taken into account). The angle between the hour hand and number 1 (in summer - number 2) of the watch dial is divided in half. The line dividing the angle in half will indicate the direction to the south.
By the North Star. The polar star is in the north. At night, in a cloudless sky, it can be easily found by the constellations Ursa Major. Through the two extreme stars of the Big Dipper, you need to slowly draw a straight line (Fig. 179) and set it aside for
it is five times a segment equal to the distance between the extreme stars. The end of the fifth segment will indicate the position of the North Star. The accuracy of determining the direction of the North Star is 2-3 0 .
By the Moon. The sides of the horizon are determined on a cloudy night, when it is not possible to find the North Star. To do this, you need to know the location of the moon in different phases (Table 65).
Table 65
12.1.4. Determining the sides of the horizon on the basis of local objects
The bark of most trees is rougher by north side, thinner, more elastic (lighter in birch) - in the south;
on the north side, trees, stones, tiled and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with moss, lichens, fungi;
on coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side;
anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps and bushes, in addition, the southern slope of anthills is gentle, and the northern one is steep;
snow melts faster on the southern slopes, as a result of thawing, notches are formed on the snow - spikes directed to the south;
clearings in forests, as a rule, are oriented in the north-south or west-east direction; the numbering of forest blocks goes from west to east and further south;
altars Orthodox churches, chapels facing east,
the main entrances are located on the western side;
altars Catholic churches(churches) facing west;
the raised end of the lower crossbar of the churches faces north;
on the stumps of sawn trees, the layers of annual growths of the tree are more closely located to the north side.
12.1.5. Measuring angles on the ground
Measuring angles with binoculars. In the binoculars telescope there are two mutually perpendicular scales (Fig. 180) for measuring horizontal and
vertical corners. The price of a large division is 0-10, a small division of a protractor is 0-05.
In the figure, the horizontal angle between the trees is 0-45 and the vertical angle between the base and the top of the tree is 0-15. The accuracy of measuring angles with binoculars is 0-02.
Measuring angles with a ruler with millimeter divisions. With the help of such a ruler, you can measure angles in goniometer divisions and in degrees. If the ruler is held in front of you at a distance of 50 cm from the eyes (Fig. 181), then 1 mm on the ruler will correspond to 0-02. When measuring the angle, the number of millimeters between the pre-
Meths and multiply them by 0-02. When measuring the angle in degrees, the ruler is carried out in front of you at a distance of 60 cm from the eyes. In this case, 1 cm on the ruler will correspond to 1 0 .
12.1.6. Distance measurement
Determination of distances by the angular dimensions of objects. The method is used when the linear dimensions of the remote object are known, to which the distance is measured. The angular dimensions of an object are measured in goniometer divisions using binoculars. The distance to the object is determined by the formula:
D \u003d ------- x 1000,
where B is the known height (width, length) of the object, in m;
Y is the angular value of the object, in goniometer divisions.
For example: a landmark (a single tree) observed through binoculars, whose height is 10 m, is covered by three small divisions of the binocular scale (0-15). Therefore, the distance to the landmark
Table 66
| An object | Dimensions, m | ||
| height | length | width | |
| Medium tank | 2-2,5 | 6-7 | 3-3,5 |
| armored personnel carrier | 5-6 | 2-2,4 | |
| Sidecar motorcycle | 1,2 | ||
| Truck | 2-2,5 | 5-6 | 2-3,5 |
| Passenger car | 1,6 | 1,5 | |
| Coach | |||
| railway tank car | |||
| Communication line wooden pole | 5-7 | - | - |
| Rural house | 6-7 | - | - |
| One floor of a residential building | 3-4 | - | - |
| Distance between poles | - | 50-60 | - |
| Medium height man | 1,7 | - | - |
Measuring distances in steps
This method is usually used when moving along azimuths, drawing up terrain diagrams, mapping individual objects, landmarks, and in other cases. Steps are usually counted in pairs. The step of a person of average height is 0.7-0.8 m, the length of a pair of steps is 1.6 m. More precisely, the length of your step can be determined by the formula:
D \u003d ----- + 0.37,
where D is the length of one step, in m;
P is the height of a person, in m.
Example: a person’s height is 1.75 m, then the length of his step is
D \u003d ----- + 0.37 \u003d 0.8 m.
12.1.7. Target designation on the ground
The ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground has importance to control units and fire.
Target designation on the ground is performed in various ways: from a landmark, by azimuth and range to the target, by an azimuth indicator (tower goniometer), tracer bullets (projectiles) and signal rockets.
Target designation from a landmark is the most common method. First, the nearest landmark to the target is called, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in goniometer divisions (measured with binoculars) and the distance to the target in meters. For example: "Landmark two, forty to the right, further two hundred, at a separate bush - a machine gun."
In azimuth and range to the target. The azimuth of the direction to the target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it is determined using an observation device or by eye in meters. For example: "Azimuth thirty-five, range six hundred - a tank in a trench." This method is most often used in areas where there are few landmarks.
According to the azimuth index (tower goniometer). The square of the sight is combined with the target and, after reading the setting of the azimuth indicator, the direction to the target, its name and range are reported. For example: "Thirty-five zero-zero, BMP at the edge of the grove, seven hundred."
Tracer bullets (shells) and flares. When specifying targets in this way, the order and length of the queues (the color of the missiles) are pre-set, and observers are appointed to receive target designation, who report on the appearance of signals.
12.1.8 Determination of magnetic azimuths
Magnetic azimuth, Am - horizontal angle measured clockwise from the north direction of the magnetic meridian to the direction of the object. Its values can be from 0 to 360 0 .
The magnetic azimuth of the direction is determined using a compass in a certain order. Stand facing in a given direction, holding the compass in a horizontal position in front of you at a height of 10-12 cm below eye level, release the brake of the magnetic needle. Holding the compass in an approximate position, turn the rotating cover to direct the line of sight (sight sight) in a given direction and calculate the reading on the dial against the front sight pointer. This will be the magnetic azimuth of the direction. On fig. 182 magnetic azimuth to a single tree 330 0 .
To determine the direction on the ground according to a given magnetic azimuth, it is necessary to set a reading on the compass scale against the front sight equal to the value of the given magnetic azimuth. Then, releasing the brake of the magnetic needle, turn the compass in a horizontal plane so that the northern end of the arrow points against the zero division of the scale. Without changing the position of the compass, notice on the ground along the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight some distant landmark. The direction to the landmark will be the direction corresponding to the given azimuth.
12.1.9. Movement in azimuths
Azimuth movement is a way of maintaining an intended path from one point to another at known azimuths and distances.
Preparing data for moving along azimuths
On the map, a route is planned with clear landmarks on turns and the directional angle and length of each straight section of the route are measured. The distance between landmarks should not exceed 1-2 km on foot, and 6-10 km when driving. Directional angles are converted to magnetic azimuths (see section 12.2.4), and distances are converted to pairs of steps. Data for movement in azimuths is drawn up on the map, and if there is no map on the way, then they make up a route diagram (Fig. 183) or a table (Table 67).
The order of movement in azimuths
At the original (first) landmark, using a compass, it is determined by the azimuth to
Table 67
direction of movement to the second landmark. In this direction, they notice some distant landmark and begin to move, counting the distance in pairs of steps. Having reached the intended landmark, the direction of movement is again indicated by the compass to the next intermediate landmark, and so they continue to move until they reach the second landmark. In the same order, they continue to move from the second landmark to the third, and so on. the accuracy of the exit to landmarks and to the end point usually does not exceed 1/10 of the distance traveled, that is, 100 m for each kilometer of the distance traveled.
12.2. Working with a map on the ground
topographic map is a reduced, detailed and accurate image of a small area on a plane (paper).
The maps used by the troops are divided into large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale (tab. 68).
Table 68
| map scale | Card name | Map classification | |
| scale | by main purpose | ||
| 1: 10,000 in 1cm 100m) | ten thousandth | large scale | tactical |
| 1: 25,000 (in 1 cm 250 m) | twenty-five thousandth | ||
| 1: 50,000 (in 1 cm 500 m) | five thousandth | ||
| 1:100,000 (in 1 cm 1 km) | hundred thousandth | medium-sized staff | |
| 1: 200,000 (in 1 cm 2 km) | two hundred thousandth | operational | |
| 1: 500,000 (in 1 cm 5 km) | five hundred thousandth | small scale | |
| 1:1,000,000 (in 1 cm 10 km) | millionth |
12.2.1. Map nomenclature
This is a system of designation (numbering) of individual sheets. The nomenclature of topographic maps is based on a 1:1,000,000 scale map. The nomenclature is signed above the northern frame of the map in the upper right corner. A typical record of the nomenclature of sheets of maps of all scales is given in Table 69.
Table 69
Knowing the nomenclature of a map sheet, it is possible to determine what scale of the map this sheet belongs to. The digital nomenclature is used for the mechanical accounting of the card.
12.2.2. Basic symbols
Topographic maps display all the most important elements of the terrain: relief, hydrography, vegetation cover and soils, settlements, road network, borders, industrial, agricultural, socio-cultural and other objects. All these elements of the terrain are displayed on the maps with cartographic symbols.
According to their purpose and geometric properties, cartographic symbols are divided into three types: linear, off-scale and areal. In addition to conventional signs on maps, signatures are used to explain the type or type of objects depicted on the map, as well as their quantitative and qualitative characteristics.
Linear cartographic symbols depict objects of a linear nature, the length of which is expressed on the scale of the map - roads, oil pipelines, etc.
Off-scale cartographic symbols depict objects whose areas are not expressed on the scale of the map. The location of such objects is determined by the main point of the symbol. (Fig. 184).
Areal cartographic conventions fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of the map (forests, settlements, etc.).
12.2.3. Reading maps of various scales
Reading a map means correctly and fully perceiving the symbolism of its conventional signs, quickly and accurately recognizing from them not only the type and varieties of the depicted objects, but also their characteristic properties. The following general rules must be followed:
1. Visual attitude to the content of the card.
2. Aggregate reading of conventional signs.
3. Memorization of what has been read.
12.2.4. Determination of directional angles
Transition from directional angle to magnetic azimuth and vice versa
The directional node, ___ of any direction, is the angle measured on the map in a clockwise direction from 0 0 to 360 0 between the north direction of the vertical kilometer line and the direction to the local object being determined. Directional angles are measured with a protractor or chordogoniometer. The measurement of directional angles with a protractor is measured in the following sequence:
the landmark on which the directional angle is measured is connected by a straight line to the standing point so that this straight line is greater than the radius of the protractor and intersects at least one vertical line of the coordinate grid;
combine the center of the protractor with the intersection point, as shown in Fig. 185 and count the value of the directional angle along the protractor. In our example, the directional angle from point A to point B is 46 0 , and from point A to point C - 300 0 . The average error in measuring the angle with a protractor is 1 0 .
On the ground, with the help of a compass (compass), the magnetic azimuths of the directions are measured, from which they then go to the directional angles. On the map, on the contrary, directional angles are measured and from them they are transferred to the magnetic azimuths of directions on the ground (Fig. 186).
A m = ___ - ( + PN),
A m + ( + PN),
PN = ( + b) – ( + ___),
where b - magnetic declination, ___ - convergence of meridians, PN - direction correction. Sign "+" if ___, ____, PN - eastern, "-" if ___, ___, PN - western. Magnetic declination, approach and direction correction are signed under the southern frame of the map in the lower left corner.
12.2.5. Target designation on the map. Determination of coordinates
If you want to clarify the position of the target in the square, then it is divided into 4 or 9 parts (Fig. 187). For example: "Target M, square 6590-B" or "square 6590-4".
Geographical coordinates
Geographic coordinates are called angular quantities (latitude B and longitude L), which determine the position of objects on the earth's surface relative to the plane of the equator and the initial (zero) meridian. On maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:200,000, the sides of the frames are divided into segments equal to 1 / . These segments are shaded through one and divided by dots (except for the map at a scale of 1:200,000) into parts of 10 // . Definition geographical coordinates(Fig. 188). Position accuracy + 3 // .
Flat rectangular coordinates - linear values of the abscissa X and ordinate Y, which determine the position of a point on a plane (map). When determining the full coordinates of a point by digitizing the coordinate line that forms the southern and western sides of the square in which the point is located, find and record full value XY in kilometers. Then, with a measuring compass (ruler), measure the distance along the perpendicular from the point to these coordinate lines in meters and add them to X and Y (Fig. 189). The accuracy of determining the coordinates is not more than 0.2 mm on the map scale.
12.2.6. Determination of heights and mutual excesses
The absolute height H of any point in the area, the mark of which is not signed on the map, is determined by the mark of the horizontal line closest to it. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to determine the marks of contour lines using the marks of other contour lines and characteristic points of the terrain indicated on the map (Fig. 190). The mark of the horizons a can be determined by the elevation of 197.4 and the section height of 10 m, a = 190 m. Absolute height
a separate tree will be equal to 165 m, a windmill 172 m. Determination of the mutual excess of points (h) consists in establishing a value indicating how much one point is higher or lower than the other. For example, a windmill is 7 m higher than a single tree. The absolute height accuracy is no more than 0.5 mm on the map scale.
12.2.7. Mapping the situation and actions of units
and divisions of the RCB protection
Mapping the situation is called maintaining a work map. The situation is applied with the necessary accuracy, completeness and clarity.
The service heading, the start time of the card and the signature are drawn up on the map official; put the position of their unit and information about the enemy, information about the radiation, chemical and biological situation, draw the forms of tables (distribution of forces and means, control signals, warnings, etc.), symbols, meteorological data.
Drawing on the working map with pencils of certain colors the position of friendly troops and enemy troops must correspond to their location on the ground.
Red color shows the position, tasks and actions of motorized rifle, tank units and units of other types of troops, except for units missile troops, artillery, special troops, which are shown in black.
Enemy troops, their position, actions, control points, positions, etc. marked on the map in blue.
The numbering and name of units and explanatory captions related to friendly troops are in black, and those related to the enemy are in blue. All signatures should be placed parallel to the northern frame of the map.
For the commanders of radiation and chemical reconnaissance, it is necessary to know and be able to correctly plot the reconnaissance route.
Climbing the route on the map
The route on the map is raised with a black colored pencil, dashed line at a distance of 2 - 3 mm from the south and east sides of the road. Landmarks are circled in black 8 mm in size. The distance between the landmarks is measured and signed next to the designations of the landmarks on an accrual basis from the outgoing point (Fig. 191). When planning a march, the route is raised in pencil
Brown color and the circles are outlined in the same brown color. Drawing the situation on the map and the actions of units and subunits of the RCB protection are applied with the symbols used in combat documents.
12.2. navigation equipment reconnaissance vehicles
Navigation equipment is intended for:
driving automobile and mixed convoys in conditions of limited visibility (at night, in fog, blizzard, with dust and smoke), on terrain poor in landmarks and in zones of radioactive contamination;
implementation of the binding of the detection and serif station nuclear explosions;
maintaining a given direction of movement.
12.3.1. Tactical and technical characteristics
| Name of data | TNA-3 | TNA-4 |
| The equipment provides operation with the maximum error in determining the current coordinates: for caterpillar objects for wheeled objects | 3% 3,5% | 3% 3,5% |
| Work with a given reorientation accuracy for | 7 o'clock | 7 o'clock |
| Maintaining the initial directional angle of the object with an error | 0-01 | 0-01 |
| Initial coordinates with error | + 20 m | + 20 m |
| Time of continuous operation of the equipment | no more than 7 hours | not limited |
| Time of readiness of the equipment for work after its inclusion | 13 minutes | 13 minutes |
| The movement of the object after turning on the equipment is allowed | in 6 minutes | in 3 minutes |
| The equipment ensures operation with a given accuracy at the voltage of the on-board network | 27 V + 10% | 27 V + 5 % |
| The accuracy of maintaining the route from the distance traveled is approximately | 1,3 % | 1,3% |
12.3.2. Preparation for work consists in preparing the initial data,
turning on the equipment and initial and initial orientation
Preparation of initial data includes the definition of:
flat rectangular coordinates X and Y of the starting point;
coordinate difference between the destination and the starting point X, Y:
X = X a.s. – X ref.
Y = Y a.s. - At ref.
Directional angle to the landmark ___ op.
12..3.3. Switching the equipment on and off
Turn on the equipment in the parking lot of the facility in the following order:
set the SYSTEM switch on the coordinator to the ON position;
make sure by ear that the current converter PT-200-TsSh is started;
switch OPERATION-CONTROL to position WORK;
scale to 10 m.
Turn on the equipment by setting the SYSTEM switch on the coordinator to the OFF position.
12.3.4. Initial orientation
The initial orientation consists in setting the object to the starting point, determining the initial directional angle _______ ref. And entering the initial data into the equipment (Fig. 192).
Ref. = ___ op. - ___ visas. ,
where ___ visa. - the angle of sight from the tower protractor to the landmark on the ground, if ___ op< ____ виз, то _____ исх. = 60-00+___ ор. - ___ виз. .
in the absence of landmarks and in conditions of poor visibility, the directional angle
Ref. It can be determined using the PAB-2A compass (Fig. 193) and is calculated by the formulas:
Ref. = A m + ( + PN) + ( + 30-00) - ____ visa. ,
the value 30-00 is entered into the formula with a “+” sign if A m< 30-00 и со знаком «-«, если А м >30-00. If the sum A m + ( + PN) + ( + 30-00) < ___ виз. , то ___ мсх. = А м + (+ PN) + ( + 30-00) + 60 –00 - ___ visa.
12.3.5. Entering initial data
The following initial data are entered into the navigation equipment: latitude, electrical balancing (El.B), flat rectangular coordinates X ref and Y ref, X and Y, initial directional angle ___ ref., path correction (K).
12.3.6. Terms of use
Before putting the equipment into operation, it is necessary to carry out TO-1;
correction of the path during the march is allowed;
it is forbidden to turn off the power while the equipment is operating in the facility;
if the supply voltage was cut off or decreased while the object was moving, then it is necessary to turn off the equipment, after the voltage rises to the norm, turn on the equipment and reorient the object;
each time the latitude of the location of the object changes by 1 0 (THA-3) and 2 0 (THA-4), it is necessary to set the corresponding value of the LATITUDE scale of the control panel of the equipment.
12.4. Organization of classes on military topography in a platoon
Classes in a platoon are organized in accordance with the Combat Training Program of the Ground Forces.
Preparation of the lesson includes: study of the lesson schedule, personal preparation of the leader and students for the lesson, selection and preparation of a site, development of a plan for the lesson, preparation of the material part and means of logistical support for the lesson.
The squad leader, preparing for the lesson, understands its topic, learning objectives and learning issues, time, duration and area of the lesson, studies the relevant sections of the textbook "Military Topography", teaching aids and the standards planned for practicing for classes. After the reconnaissance of the occupation area by the platoon commander, on the basis of his instructions, the squad leader draws up a plan for conducting the lesson and submits it for approval to the platoon commander 1-2 days before the start of the lesson.
The lesson plan is a personal working document of the squad leader and is usually drawn up in workbook textually with the action plan of the unit being trained. It should be set out clearly, specifically, it should clearly define the goals, educational issues and the sequence of the lesson, as well as the nature of the actions of the leader and trainees on each educational issue.
1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE .. 4
1.1. Purpose of military topography. four
2. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF TOPOGRAPHIC .. 5
2.1 General provisions. 5
2.2 Classification of topographic maps. 5
2.3 Purpose of topographic maps. 6
2.4 Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. 7
2.4.1. Drawing topographic maps. 7
2.4.2. Nomenclature of sheets of topographic maps. eight
2.4.3. Selection of map sheets for a given area. ten
3. MAIN TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS CARRIED OUT ON THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP. ten
3.1. Preparation of topographic maps. ten
3.2. Measurement of distances, coordinates, directional angles and azimuths. 12
3.2.1. Topographic map scale. 12
3.2.2. Measurement of distances and areas. 13
3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography. fourteen
3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationship on the map. 16
3.2.5. Determination of geographical coordinates of points on a topographic map. eighteen
3.2.6. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points on a topographic map. 19
3.2.7. Measurement of directional angles and azimuths. 19
4. READING TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS. twenty
4.1. The system of symbols on the topographic map. twenty
4.1.1. Elements of the system of symbols. twenty
4.2. General rules reading topographic maps. 21
4.3. Image on topographic maps of the area and various objects. 21
5. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTIONS AND DISTANCES IN ORIENTATION. 23
5.1. Definition of directions. 23
5.2 Determination of distances. 23
5.2 Movement in azimuths. 23
6. WORKING WITH THE MAP.. 24
6.1 Preparing the card for work. 24
6.2. Basic rules for maintaining a work card. 25
7. DEVELOPING SCHEMES OF THE TERRAIN. 28
7.1. The purpose of the terrain schemes and the basic rules for their compilation. 28
7.2. Symbols used on the maps of the area. 29
7.3. Ways of drawing up schemes of the area. thirty
CHANGES RECORDING SHEET .. 33
The actions of subunits and units in the performance of assigned tasks are always associated with natural environment. The area is one of the permanent operating factors affecting combat activities. Terrain properties that affect the preparation, organization and conduct of hostilities, the use of technical means, are usually called tactical.
These include:
patency;
orientation conditions;
the conditions of observation;
conditions for firing
masking and protective properties.
Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain ensures the most effective use of weapons and technical means, secrecy of maneuver, etc. Each soldier must be able to competently use the tactical properties of the terrain. This is taught by a special military discipline - military topography, the foundations of which are necessary in practical activity.
The word topography in Greek means a description of the area. Thus, topography is a scientific discipline, the subject of which is a detailed study of the earth's surface in geometric terms and the development of methods for depicting this surface.
Military topography is a military discipline about the means and methods of studying the terrain and its use in the preparation and conduct of hostilities. The most important source of information about the area is a topographic map. It should be noted here that Russian and Soviet topographic maps have always been superior in quality to foreign ones.
Despite the technical backwardness of Russia, by the end of the 19th century, in 18 years, the best three-verst map in the world at that time (3 versts in 1 inch) on 435 sheets was created. In France, 34 sheets of a similar map were created for 64 years.
During the years of Soviet power, our cartography took first place in the world in terms of the technique and organization of the production of topographic maps. By 1923, a unified system of layout and nomenclature for topographic maps had been developed. The scale series of the USSR has an obvious advantage over those in the USA, England (England has 47 different scales that are difficult to coordinate with each other, the USA has its own coordinate system in each state, which does not allow topographic map sheets to be joined).
Russian topographic maps have twice as many symbols as the maps of the USA and England (the maps of the USA and England do not have symbols for the qualitative characteristics of rivers, road networks, bridges). In the USSR, since 1942, a unified coordinate system has been operating on the basis of new data on the size of the earth. (In the United States, data on the size of the Earth are used, calculated back in the last century).
The map is the constant companion of the commander. According to it, the commander performs a whole range of works, namely:
clarifies the problem
· conducts calculations;
Evaluates the situation
makes a decision;
assigns tasks to subordinates;
organizes interaction;
Conducts target designation;
Reporting on the course of hostilities.
This clearly shows the role and significance of the map as a means of managing units. The main map of the unit commander is a 1:100,000 scale map. It is used in all types of combat operations.
Therefore, the most important tasks of the discipline is the study of topographic maps and the most rational ways to work with them.
An image of the earth's surface with all its characteristic details can be built on a plane using certain mathematical rules. As noted in the introductory lecture, the enormous practical value maps is due to such features of the cartographic image as clarity and expressiveness, purposefulness of the content and semantic capacity.
A geographic map is a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built in a certain cartographic projection.
A cartographic projection should be understood as a mathematical method for constructing a grid of meridians and parallels on a plane.
general geographic;
special.
General geographic maps include maps that depict all the main elements of the earth's surface with completeness, depending on the scale, without any particular emphasis on any of them.
General geographic maps, in turn, are divided into:
topographic;
hydrographic (sea, river, etc.).
Special maps are maps that, unlike general geographic maps, have a narrower and more specific purpose.
Special maps used in headquarters are created in advance in Peaceful time or in preparation for and during combat operations. Of the special cards, the following are most widely used:
survey-geographic (for the study of theater of operations);
blank cards (for the production of information, combat and reconnaissance documents);
· maps of communication routes (for a more detailed study of the road network), etc.
Before considering the principles by which topographic maps are classified, let's define what should be understood as topographic maps.
Topographic maps are general geographical maps on a scale of 1:1,000,000 and larger, depicting the area in detail.
Our topographic maps are nationwide. They are used both for the defense of the country and in solving national economic problems.
This is clearly shown in Table 1.
Table number 1.
Topographic maps serve as the main source of information about the terrain and are one of the most important means of command and control.
According to topographic maps, it is carried out:
study of the area;
orientation;
Calculations and measurements;
a decision is made;
preparation and planning of operations;
organization of interaction;
setting tasks for subordinates, etc.
Topographic maps found very wide application in command and control (working cards for commanders of all levels), as well as as a basis for combat graphic documents and special maps. Now let's take a closer look at the purpose of topographic maps of various scales.
Scale maps 1:500,000 - 1:1,000,000 are used for study and evaluation general areas in the preparation and conduct of operations.
Maps at a scale of 1:200,000 are used to study and assess the terrain in the planning and preparation of combat operations of all branches of the armed forces, their control in battle, and marches. A feature of a map of this scale is that on its back a detailed information about the terrain depicted on it (settlements, relief, hydrography, soil map, etc.) is printed.
A 1:100,000 scale map is the main tactical map and is used for a more detailed study of the terrain compared to the previous map and for assessing its tactical properties, commanding units, target designation, and carrying out the necessary measurements.
Topographic maps of scales 1: 100,000 - 1: 200,000 serve as the main means of orientation on the march.
A 1:50,000 scale map is used primarily in defense situations.
A 1:25,000 scale map is used for a detailed study of individual areas of the terrain, for making accurate measurements, and calculations during the construction of military facilities.
1. Orientation on the ground in azimuths. Determination of azimuths to local objects 1.1. Determination of azimuths to local objects (Article: 1.1. Determination of azimuths to local objects) The direction to the object (target) is determined and indicated by the horizontal angle between the initial direction and the direction to the object (target) or magnetic azimuth. In this case, the direction to one ...
1. Orientation and target designation on the ground without a map. The essence of orientation (Article: 1. Orientation and target designation on the ground without a map. The essence of orientation) When performing many combat missions, the actions of squad commanders (crews, crews) and soldiers are inevitably associated with orientation on the ground. The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on a march, in battle, in reconnaissance to maintain the direction of movement, target designation, application ...
1. Linear and angular units of measurement (Article: 1. Linear and angular units of measurement) Linear units of measurement are used to indicate the apparent length, width or height of an object (object, target) in linear terms: millimeters, centimeters, meters, etc. Angular units of measurement are used for orientation and target designation on the ground. Horizontal (vertical) angles between directions to local objects (targets) ...
1. Coordinate systems used in topography: geographical, flat rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates, their essence and use (Article: 1. Coordinate systems used in topography: geographical, flat rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates, their essence and use) Coordinates are called angular and linear quantities (numbers) that determine the position of a point on a surface or in space. In topography, such ...
1. The essence and order of movement in azimuths on foot in open areas during the day (Article: 1. The essence and procedure for movement in azimuths on foot in open areas during the day) exact exit to the designated point. Data required for movement in azimuths, ...
1. The terrain as an element of the operational-combat situation. Definition on the map of the general nature of the terrain (Article: 1. Terrain as an element of the operational-combat situation. Definition on the map of the general nature of the terrain) Terrain is a part of the earth's surface with all its elements. General rules and sequence of studying the area on the map. The sequence and degree of detail of the study of the terrain is determined by the specific conditions of the combat situation, the nature of the combat ...
1. Orientation on the ground on the map (scheme): methods of orienting the map (scheme), the procedure for identifying landmarks, determining one's location, comparing the map (scheme) with the terrain (Article: 1. Orientation on the ground on the map (scheme): methods of orienting the map (schemes), the procedure for identifying landmarks, determining your location, comparing a map (scheme) with the terrain) Navigating the terrain means finding the direction of the sides of the horizon ...
1. Essence and methods of orientation (Article: 1. Essence and methods of orientation) When performing many combat missions, the actions of commanders are inevitably connected with orientation on the ground. The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on a march, in battle, in reconnaissance to maintain the direction of movement, target designation, drawing landmarks, targets and other objects on a map (terrain map), control of a unit and fire. Backed by experience…
Knowledge of the basics of topography is a necessary condition for the training of army personnel. Military personnel need topographical knowledge and skills, for example, to find targets and prepare initial data for firing, finding and maintaining the desired direction of movement on the battlefield, in reconnaissance, during maneuvering and marches.
Preparation and participation in orienteering competitions bring up the will, endurance, resourcefulness, visual memory, the ability to work together, the ability to compare facts, as well as emotional stability.
The subject of military topography is: orientation on the ground; determination of distances on the ground; finding and maintaining the direction of movement along the given magnetic azimuths, orientation on the map in motion.
Topic 1. ORIENTATION ON THE TERRAIN WITHOUT A MAP
Lesson 1.
Study questions:
1. The essence of orientation.
2. Methods of orientation on the ground, determination of the sides of the horizon (by compass, celestial bodies, local objects)
Target: Familiarize students with landmarks on the ground without a map.
Time: 90 min.
Method: Conversation, demonstration and practical session.
Place: Field.
Methodological support:
1. Tutorial on initial military training, M., Military Publishing House, 1995.
2. Initial military training. M., Military Publishing, 2001.
3. Military topography. M., Military Publishing House, 199.
4. Video film.
5. Andrianov's compasses (5 pcs.), sight lines - for each student, wrist watches.
Introductory part - 10 min.
Report of the commander of the training group. Checking the appearance of cadets. Theme, goals and objectives of the lesson. The exit of the study group to the place of employment
Main part – 70 min.
1st training question - 20 min
Topography- a science that studies the earth's surface in geometric terms, as well as ways to depict it on paper in the form of posters and maps.
Military topography- considers methods of studying the terrain, orienting on it and other issues related to the assessment and use of the terrain in the interests of combat operations of the troops; teaches the use of topographic maps and aerial photographs in the performance of combat missions.
When operating on diverse terrain, a soldier often has to determine the direction of movement himself, indicate the position of the target or his own location, find the point indicated to him and the path of movement to him in unfamiliar or unfamiliar terrain. To solve these problems and ensure skillful actions on the battlefield, it is necessary to master the simplest requirements for military topography.
Orientation in the area is very great importance, especially during combat operations on unfamiliar terrain, in the forest, in conditions of limited visibility (at night, in a snowstorm and fog, etc.). Without precise orientation, reconnaissance, security, combat, and the movement of troops on the ground are hindered. Every soldier should be able to navigate the terrain and in any combat situation.
In a combat situation, topographic and tactical orientation is used.
Topographic orientation consists in determining the sides of the horizon and its location (standing point) relative to the surrounding local objects and landforms. tactical orientation consists in determining one's location on the battlefield relative to the location of one's own troops and enemy troops, and in knowledge of data on the actions of the enemy, as well as the combat mission (of one's own and one's unit).
For target designation, determining your location and determining directions are used landmarks- clearly visible local objects, for example: (a single tree, a pipe, a crossroads) and uneven ground (mountain, hill, peak, etc.). Landmarks, as a rule, are selected and assigned by the commander (senior group); they are numbered from right to left and along the lines from oneself towards the enemy. For ease of remembering, the landmark is given a name corresponding to its external hallmarks, for example: grove "Green", height "Round".
The landmark must be sharply different from other terrain objects located near it, in shape, size or color; it should be noticeable at first glance at the area. For fighting at night, landmarks are selected that are visible in the dark, as a rule, these are local objects located on elevated places and visible against the sky.
After the conversation, the leader shows on the ground how landmarks (their numbering order) and objects for target designation are selected and assigned. To check the assimilation of the material, students should be invited to identify objects for reference points themselves. In conclusion, a short training is carried out and the use of landmarks to determine their location and for target designation.
Orientation on the ground includes determining one's location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks). In the absence of a map, orientation can be carried out using a compass, large landmarks, celestial bodies, signs of local objects.
1st training question - 50 min.
The leader of the lesson consistently explains and shows how to determine the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies and by some signs of local objects. A compass is most often used to determine the sides of the horizon. With the help of a compass, you can navigate at any time of the day, in any weather.
Compass orientation is a simple and accessible way to determine the location relative to the sides of the horizon, providing greater accuracy and reliability of measurements in the most difficult environment, at any time of the day and year. However, when working with this most common and compact topographic device, the device of which is studied at school, it is necessary to strictly adhere to the following rules for handling and use.
When preparing for a particular task, as well as starting to work with the compass on the ground, you need to check its serviceability. To do this, the compass is placed horizontally on a table, stump or flat stone and the magnetic needle brake is released. After the arrow calms down, they notice the division on the limb - the degree ring, against which the northern end of the arrow has stopped. Then they bring any metal object to the arrow and make it rotate around the axis.
If, after each such shift, the northern end of the arrow stops against the same division, then the compass is in good order and suitable for work.
Measurements with a compass should not be made near metal objects, high voltage power lines, during a thunderstorm, as the readings in such cases will be inaccurate.
The compass should not be stored near metal objects, as they demagnetize its arrow.
The compass must be protected from sharp shocks and shocks; in the non-working position, its magnetic needle must be pressed against the glass by the brake and not oscillate, otherwise the needle point and arrow head under the influence of continuous vibrations can bend or quickly wear out and become unusable.
Determining the sides of the horizon with a compass it is done as follows: holding the compass in your left hand horizontally in front of you, release the brake of the magnetic needle with your right hand, give it time to calm down and set the compass so that the northern end of the arrow coincides with the zero division of the scale, against the letter "C". Knowing the direction to the north, it is not difficult to determine the other sides of the horizon - south, east and west.
On the sides of the horizon, you can determine and indicate the direction and mutual arrangement any landmarks and objects relative to the sides of the horizon, you can use them to move in the right direction.
Determination of the sides of the horizon by the sun. When determining the sides of the horizon according to the Sun, it is assumed that the position of our daylight corresponds to a certain time of day. At 7 (8) o'clock in the morning (daylight saving time is indicated in brackets). The sun is in the east; at 13 (14) hours - in the south, and all the shadows cast by objects are at this time the shortest and directed to the north; by 19 (20) hours the Sun moves to the west, and the shadows from objects point to the east.
Thus, it is possible at any time of the day to approximately determine the sides of the horizon by the Sun and the clock. To do this, you need to put the watch horizontally on the palm and direct hour hand on the Sun (Fig. 1). The angle formed by the hour hand and the number 1 (2) on the dial is divided in half by a conditional line, the upper end of which will point to the south, and the lower end to the north. It should be remembered that when measuring time by the Sun and hours before noon, the angle between the hour hand and the number 1 (2) on the dial is divided in half along the direction of the arrow, and in the afternoon - against its course. The minute hand is not taken into account when determining the sides of the horizon.
The determination of the sides of the horizon at night is carried out by the compass, and in the absence of it, by the Polar Star and the Moon. When determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star, it is considered that it is always in the north direction. Its location is easy to find by the constellation Ursa Major.
Picture 1.
For this, as shown in Fig. 2, mentally continue the straight line passing through the extreme stars of the Ursa Major bucket in the direction to another constellation - Ursa Minor and lay five segments on this line equal in magnitude to the apparent distance between the stars a and b (Ursa Major). At the end of the laid line is the Polar Star - the brightest among the stars surrounding it, closing the "bucket handle" of the constellation Ursa Minor.
The sides of the horizon according to the moon determined guided by the following positions of the Earth's satellite at different times of the day and its visible phases:
Full moon at 19(20) o'clock it is in the east, at 1(2) o'clock in the morning - in the south and at 7(8) o'clock in the morning - in the west;
At the new moon, when only the right, illuminated part of the Moon is visible, it happens at 19 (20) hours in the south, at 1 (2) o'clock in the morning - in the west;
The moon on damage (only its left part is illuminated) at 1 (2) o'clock in the morning is in the east, at 7 (8) o'clock in the morning - in the south. 
Figure 2.
Determining the sides of the horizon on the basis of local objects produced both during the day and at night. In this case, the following signs and properties of objects on the ground are used as landmarks:
On separately growing trees, branches and foliage are thicker on the south side; their bark is rougher, there are more cracks on the trunk on the north side;
In birches, the bark on the south side is whiter and smoother than on the north;
· on the coniferous trees resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side;
· on the stumps, the so-called annual rings on the south side are thicker and less dense than on the north side;
anthills are located, as a rule, on the southern and southwestern sides of trees, stumps and bushes, and the northern slope of the anthill is steeper, the southern one is gentle;
trees, stumps, rocks, large stones (boulders), wooden, tiled and slate roofs are more abundantly covered with moss, fungi and lichens on the north side;
In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern outskirts of the glades, warmed up sunbeams, and in the hot period of summer - in the south; berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier. Redden and turn yellow more on the south side;
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;
In the mountains, snow melts faster on the southern slopes; as a result of thawing on the snow, notches are formed - “thorns”, the tips of which are directed to the south;
In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes;
· the altars of Orthodox and Lutheran churches face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;
· altars of catholic churches (kostels) are turned to the west;
· the raised end of the lower bar of the cross of the churches faces north;
· non-Christian chapels with idols facing south;
clearings in large forests, as a rule, are oriented in the direction of north-south and west-east; The numbering of the blocks of forests goes from west to east and further south.
When determining the sides of the horizon according to local features, it is recommended not to be limited to only one of them, but, if possible, to take into account several at once. This will give more accurate results.
Final part - 10 min
The leader analyzes the lesson, evaluates the assimilation of the material by individual students. Calls the names of the trainees who correctly answered the control questions and learned to navigate the terrain. Assesses the most typical errors. Gives assignments for self-study.
TOPOGRAPHY
Commander's Work Card- this is a topographic map prepared for work used by the commander in solving assigned tasks.
1. Basic rules for drawing the situation on the work map
If subunit commanders plot the situation on the map according to the words of the senior commanders who give the order or order, then in the process of hearing the order, you must quickly find the necessary points on the map and immediately put the necessary data on it. When setting a combat mission directly on the ground, the map must be kept oriented and, comparing it with the terrain, plot the situation and your task on it.
Often, the situation is mapped from a written document (order, order). In this case, the following order is usually observed. First, they understand the content of the written document, being sure to be guided by the map and slightly emphasizing on it the names of the settlements and landmarks mentioned in the document. When re-reading the text, the data of the situation (information about the enemy, the tasks of the unit, etc.) set out in the document are put on the map.
The situation is applied to work cards with pencils of certain colors.
Red color shows the position, tasks and actions of tank, motorized rifle, airborne units, their command posts, demarcation lines, rear facilities.
The position, tasks and actions of missile, artillery, anti-aircraft, engineering, chemical, radio engineering units, communications units, rear institutions of these troops, as well as signatures related to their troops are applied in black.
Enemy troops are depicted in blue, including his engineering structures, barriers, etc., as well as signatures and digital designations related to him.
To designate own troops and the enemy, they use the same tactical conventional signs, the dimensions of which x are coordinated with the scale of the map and the size of the designated objects.
Contour and linear symbols, when drawn on a map, must be coordinated according to the outline - with the relief and contours of local objects along which they are located - (the edges of the forest, the configuration of the outskirts of settlements, coastlines), be sure to show the direction of action and firing. Conditional, signs marching columns should be applied next to the conventional road signs (Fig. 91).
The position and actions of friendly troops and the enemy are plotted in solid lines, and the intended or planned actions are dashed. The positions of the unit related to different points in time should be shown with lines of various styles, accompanied by a time stamp (Fig. 92).
Signatures relating to the tactical situation should be placed parallel to the northern side of the map frame, commensurate with their size with the scale of the map, the size and significance of the objects to which they refer.
When applying the situation data, you need to make sure that the necessary elements of the map content (elevation marks, landmarks, names of settlements, etc.) remain well readable.
Conventional signs and signatures are drawn neatly and clearly on the map. It is recommended to use stencils of the commander's line for this. Thoroughness and accuracy in maintaining a working map must be combined with the speed of work.
In order not to overload the map, it is necessary to put on it only the main and the main; secondary and rapidly changing data should be memorized or written down in the margins or in the free space of the card, and obsolete information should be removed with an elastic band.
2. What is a coordinate system. What coordinate systems do you know, their characteristics.
Coordinate systems used in topography
Coordinates called angular and linear quantities (numbers) that determine the position of a point on a surface or in space.
There are many various systems coordinates, which are widely used in various fields of science and technology.
In topography, such coordinate systems are used that allow the most simple and unambiguous determination of the position of points on the earth's surface, both from the results of direct measurements on the ground and using maps. These systems include geographic, flat rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates.
In the system of geographical coordinates the position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin
defined in terms of angle. For the beginning, in our country and in most other states, the point of intersection of the initial (Greenwich) meridian with the equator is accepted. Being, therefore, the same for our entire planet, the system of geographical coordinates is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at considerable distances from each other. Therefore, in military affairs, this system is used mainly for conducting calculations related to the use of combat weapons. long range, for example ballistic missiles, aviation, etc.
Planar Cartesian Coordinate System is zonal; it is set for each six-degree zone into which the Earth's surface is divided when it is depicted on maps in the Gaussian projection, and is intended to indicate the position of images of points on the earth's surface on a plane (map) in this projection.
The origin of coordinates in the zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator, relative to which the position of all other points of the zone is determined in a linear measure. The origin of the zone coordinates and its coordinate axes occupy a strictly defined position on the earth's surface. Therefore, the system of flat rectangular coordinates of each zone is connected both with the coordinate systems of all other zones, and with the system of geographical coordinates.
The use of linear quantities to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for making calculations both when working on the ground and on the map. Therefore, this system finds the widest application in the troops. Rectangular coordinates indicate the position of terrain points, their battle formations and targets, with their help determine the relative position of objects within one coordinate zone or in adjacent sections of two zones.
Polar and bipolar coordinate systems are local systems. In military practice, they are used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of the terrain, for example, in target designation, marking landmarks and targets, drawing up terrain maps, etc. These systems can be associated with systems of rectangular and geographical coordinates.
The system of flat polar coordinates (Fig. 16) consists of the point O - the origin of coordinates, or the pole, and the initial direction of the OP, called the polar axis. The position of the point M on the ground or on the map in this system is determined by two coordinates: the position angle 0, which is measured clockwise from the polar axis to the direction to the determined point M (from 0 to 360 °), and the distance
Depending on the task being solved, an observation post, a firing position, a starting point for movement are taken as a pole
etc., and for the polar axis - the geographical (true) meridian, the magnetic meridian (the direction of the magnetic needle of the compass), or the direction to some landmark. The system of flat bipolar (two-pole) coordinates (Fig. 17) consists of two poles A and B and a common axis AB, called the basis or base of the notch. The position of any point M relative to the two data on the map (terrain) points A to B is determined by the coordinates that are measured on the map or on the terrain. These coordinates can be either two position angles that determine directions from points A and B to the desired point M, or distances D 1 =AM and D 2 - BM to it. The position angles, as shown in Fig. 17 are measured at points A and B or from the direction of the basis (i.e., angle A=BAM and angle B=ABM) or from any other directions passing through points L and B and taken as initial ones. For example, in fig. 17 the place of the point M is determined by the position angles 61 and 62, measured from the direction of the magnetic meridians.
The above coordinate systems determine the planned position of points on the surface of the earth's ellipsoid. To determine the position of a point on the physical surface of the Earth, in addition to the planned position, indicate its height (mark) above sea level. In the USSR, heights are counted from the average level Baltic Sea, from the zero point of the Kronstadt water-measuring station. The heights of points on the earth's surface above sea level are called absolute, and their excess over any other point is called relative.
3. What is a work card. What does the preparation of the card for work include.
Commander's Work Card- this is a topographic map prepared for work and used by the commander in solving assigned tasks.
Subunit commanders enter on their work maps only those data of the situation that they need when clarifying a combat mission, making reports, assigning tasks to subordinate subunits, and also when compiling reports and other combat documents. It is not recommended to put on karate information that is not directly related to the performance of their functional duties.
Preparation of the card for work includes:
Familiarization with the map consists in understanding its main characteristics - graphic accuracy, detail and modernity, as well as information placed in the marginal design of the map;
Pasting the card;
Card folding;
Raising the map (drawing the main objects for unit commanders).
4. Types of conditional topographic signs. What is their difference from tactical conventional signs (give examples).
According to their purpose and properties, conventional signs are divided into the following three types: large-scale, off-scale and explanatory.
Scale, or contour, conventional signs denote objects that are expressed on the scale of the map, that is, those whose dimensions (both length, width, and area) can be measured on the map.
Each such sign consists of a contour, i.e., a planned outline of the depicted object, and an explanatory designation that fills it in the form of a background color, color hatching or a grid of icons (filling signs) that are identical in their design (filling signs) indicating the genus and variety of the object.
The contours of objects are shown on the maps as a dotted line, if they do not coincide with other terrain lines (ditches, coastlines, roads, fences, etc.), which are indicated by their conventional signs.
In non-scale and, or point, conventional signs, small-sized objects (wells, tower-type structures, stand-alone landmark trees, etc.) are depicted that are not expressed on the scale of the map, and therefore they can be represented on it only in the form of points.
The figured drawing of such a sign includes this, as it were, the main point, showing the exact position of the given object on the ground, and indicates what kind of object it is. Such a main point is (Fig. 33):
For signs of a symmetrical shape (circle, square, rectangle, asterisk) - in the center of the figure;
For signs that have the shape of a figure with a wide base - in the middle of the base;
For signs that have a base in the form of a right angle - at the top of the corner;
For signs that are a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure.
These main points should be used for accurate measurements on the map of distances between objects and when determining their coordinates.
Off-scale conventional signs also include signs of roads, streams and other linear local objects, in which only the length is expressed on a scale; the width cannot be measured on the map. The exact position of such objects on the ground corresponds to the longitudinal axis (middle) of the sign on the map.
It must be borne in mind that such small-sized objects, such as wells, gas stations (gas stations), water towers, etc., are depicted on all maps with off-scale symbols, while larger objects (settlements, rivers, etc.) etc.) are depicted, depending on the Scale of the map, by contour or off-scale signs. For example, settlements on a large scale are depicted by contour symbols with many details. As the scale of the map decreases, the same points are depicted in less detail, more generally; on maps of small scales, they can be shown only by circles or other small figures, i.e., off-scale conventional signs.
Off-scale conventional signs do not in themselves indicate the size of objects or the area they occupy, therefore, it is impossible to measure, for example, the width of a bridge on a map.
Explanatory symbols are used for additional feature objects and display their varieties. For example, a conventional sign of a coniferous or deciduous tree inside the forest outline shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on the river, the direction of the flow, etc.
5. What is a relief, the essence of the image of the relief by contour lines.
The relief is a set of irregularities of the earth's surface, composed of various elementary forms of various orders. ,
There are large, structural landforms that form the surface of relatively large geographic regions (mountains, plains, highlands), and elementary forms of irregularities that are less significant in size and make up the surface of these relief objects.
Combinations of homogeneous forms, similar in appearance, structure and size and regularly repeated in a certain territory, form different types and landforms.
According to the elevation above sea level and the degree of dissection of the earth's surface, two main types of relief are distinguished - mountainous and flat. Their classification by height above sea level is indicated in Table.
6. Topographic map, its purpose. Nomenclature of topographic maps (give examples).
Nomenclature of map sheets
The nomenclature of each sheet is indicated above the north side of its frame. Next to the nomenclature, in addition, the name of the largest of the settlements shown on it is signed.
Each sheet also indicates the nomenclature of sheets adjacent to it, which facilitates their selection when gluing the card. These signatures are placed in the middle of the sides of the outer frame of the sheet. » The designation of sheets of topographic maps of any scale is based on the nomenclature of sheets of a millionth map.
The rows of sheets of this map are indicated by capital letters of the Latin alphabet (from A to V) and they are counted from the equator to the poles. The columns of the sheets are numbered from 1 to 60. The columns are counted from the meridian 180 ° from west to east.
The nomenclature of a sheet of a map 1:1000000 is composed of an indication of the row (letter) and column (number) at the intersection of which it is located. For example, a sheet from the city of Smolensk has the nomenclature N-36 (Fig. 7).
The columns of sheets of a millionth map coincide with six-degree coordinate zones, into which the surface of the earth's ellipsoid is divided when calculating coordinates and compiling maps in the Gaussian projection. The difference lies only in their numbering: since the coordinate zones are counted from the zero (Greenwich) meridian, and the columns of the sheets of the million map are counted from the 180 ° meridian, the zone number differs from the column number by 30. Therefore, knowing the nomenclature of the diet card, it is easy determine which zone it belongs to. For example, sheet M-35 is located in the 5th zone (35-30), and sheet K-29 is located in the 59th zone (29 + 30).
The nomenclature of sheets of maps in scales 1:100,000 - 1:500,000 is composed of the nomenclature of the corresponding sheet of a million map with the addition of a number (numbers) or a letter indicating the location of this sheet on it.
As can be seen from fig. 8, sheets of all scales are counted from left to right and from top to bottom, while:
Sheets of scale 1:500000 (4 sheets) are indicated by Russian capital letters A, B, C and D. Therefore, if the nomenclature of a sheet of a millionth map is, for example, N-36, then the sheet shaded in the figure at a scale of 1:500,000 has the nomenclature N- 36-G and sheet from the city of Smolensk -N-36-A;
Sheets in scale 1:200000 (36 sheets) are designated by Roman numerals from I to XXXVI. Thus, the nomenclature of the sheet from the city of Smolensk will be N-36-IX;
Sheets at a scale of 1:100000 are numbered from 1 to 144. For example, a sheet from the city of Smolensk has the nomenclature N-36-41.
A sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 corresponds to 4 sheets of a scale of 1:50,000, denoted by Russian capital letters A, B, C, D, and a sheet of a scale of 1:50,000 corresponds to 4 map sheets of 1:25,000, which are denoted by lowercase letters a, b, c, d (Fig. 9). In accordance with this, the nomenclature of map sheets 1:50000 is composed of the nomenclature of the sheet at a scale of 1:100000, and the sheets 
maps 1:25000 - from the nomenclature of a sheet at a scale of 1:50000 with the addition of a letter indicating this sheet to it.
For example, N-36-41-8 denotes a 1:50000 scale sheet, and N-3641-В-а - a 1:25000 scale sheet from the city of Smolensk.
For areas north of the 60° parallel, topographic maps of all scales are published in double sheets in longitude, and to the north of the 76° parallel - in quadruple sheets, with the exception of a 1:200000 scale map, which is published in triple sheets. The nomenclature of such summary sheets is composed of the nomenclature of the left single sheet with the addition of final indices (letters or numbers) of the nomenclature of the remaining sheets to it. For example, R-52-V, VI (map at a scale of 1:200,000), R-52-23, 24 (map at a scale of 1: 100,000).
Maps of scales 1: 500,000 and 1: 1,000,000 are issued along with the regular edition, in addition, in rectangular frames that do not coincide with the geographical grid. The pages of this edition are much larger than usual. They are convenient for gluing them into multi-sheet blocks covering vast areas.
7. Explain the principle of movement in azimuth.
When moving along azimuths at each gate point of the route, starting from the initial one; find the desired direction of the path on the ground using a compass and move along it, measuring the distance traveled in steps, and when driving a car - using a speedometer. In order to more accurately maintain this direction, some auxiliary landmark is chosen on it. Having reached it, they outline the next intermediate landmark and continue moving towards it. At the turning point, these steps are repeated. And so to the end of the route. As an auxiliary guide at night, you can use any heavenly body. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that it moves across the firmament, and if you do not take this into account and do not check the correctness of the movement by the compass every 10-15 minutes, then you can significantly deviate to the side.
When driving on an open, but poor terrain, the direction can be maintained along the alignment. To do this, having outlined the direction of the path on the compass at the beginning of the movement and moving along it, they leave behind them at certain intervals some leading signs (the end, a stake hammered into the ground, a milestone) and then, looking back at these signs, make sure that the direction of movement did not deviate from the leading line. When driving on soft ground and a snowy field, leading signs can replace the trace of their own movement (traces of caterpillars or car wheels, ski tracks).
If you have a map, the correctness of pulling out the route of movement in azimuths in the sections between its turning points, even in a closed or poor terrain, can at least occasionally be controlled by the nature of the relief and local objects encountered on the way. Therefore, when moving along azimuths, especially over a long distance, it is imperative to use a map.
If the unit moves in azimuths on foot, then it is advisable to appoint one of the soldiers as a guide (azimuth) with the task of correctly maintaining the direction of movement along the compass, and one or two soldiers to measure the distance traveled in steps,
When driving a car, a gyro-semi-compass first determines the directional angle or magnetic azimuth of the longitudinal axis of the car. This can be done by the directional angle of the direction. - fa landmark, visible from the point of standing, or by compass.
To determine the directional angle of the longitudinal axis of the machine, it is set to a point from which any distant landmark indicated on the map is visible. With the help of a tower goniometer or a sight, the longitudinal axis of the machine is combined with the direction to this landmark. Instead of directing to a landmark, you can use any terrain line (straight section of the road, clearing, power line, etc.).
To determine the magnetic azimuth of the longitudinal axis of the machine, the compass moves away from it forward or backward by 50–60 m and measures the direction azimuth along one side of the machine with a compass, and then along the other and takes the average from the two results.
After the directional angle (magnetic azimuth) of the longitudinal axis of the machine is set on the scale of the gyro-semi-compass, it is turned so that the scale index has a reading equal to the directional angle (magnetic azimuth) of the direction to the first turning point, the arrester is released and movement begins. The car is driven in such a way that, throughout the entire section of the path to the next landmark, the countdown of the index corresponding to the set course is maintained. Having reached the turn and making sure that the movement is correct, the car is turned so that a count equal to the directional angle of the next section of the route stands against the index, and move in this direction.
To control and clarify the readings of the gyro-semi-compass during the movement, linear landmarks indicated on the map are used. If this is not possible, every 1.5 - 2 hours of movement - at one of the turning points, the directional angle of the longitudinal axis of the machine is determined in the same way as at the starting point.
8. Orientation on the ground. Orientation methods. Types of landmarks (give examples).
Navigate the terrain in combat conditions- this means determining your location and the desired direction of movement or actions relative to the sides of the horizon, the surrounding terrain, the location of your troops and enemy troops. The essence of orientation consists of three main elements:
Identification of the area where you are, according to its characteristic features and landmarks;
Determination of locations (own, observed targets and other objects of interest);
Finding and determining the desired directions on the ground.
The most important task of orientation is finding and pulling out a given direction of movement in any situation: during a battle, in reconnaissance, when making a march.
All actions of the unit commander are inevitably connected with orientation on the ground. Without orientation, the setting of combat missions for subunits and fire weapons, target designation, mapping the results of reconnaissance of the enemy and the terrain, and control of subunits in the course of battle are inconceivable.
The ability to quickly and accurately navigate the terrain in any conditions is one of essential elements field training of officers. Orientation on the ground is not an episodic event in the work of a commander. It must be carried out systematically by the commander himself and personnel units under his leadership both in preparation and in the course of performing a combat mission.
Orientation is based on the ability to select landmarks on the ground and use them as beacons indicating the desired directions, points and boundaries.
The study and memorization of an unfamiliar piece of terrain should always begin with the choice of three or four most noticeable landmarks. Gotta remember them well. appearance and mutual position, so that in the future it would be possible to identify the area at any point and determine your location. When moving, landmarks are chosen in the direction of the path, sequentially marking them as they enter new areas.
You can navigate the area in various ways. Unit commanders are guided mainly by the map. From it, they determine their location, identify surrounding local objects and terrain elements, and establish the location of observed targets and other objects. Soldiers and sergeants have to navigate mainly by landmarks and with the help of a compass. To get to the desired point, the commander indicates to them the azimuth of the direction of movement and landmarks along the route of movement. The subunit commander usually prepares this data from the map.
For orientation in areas poor in landmarks, in large settlements and in areas where significant changes in terrain have occurred, it is advantageous to use aerial photographs. A detailed depiction on aerial photographs of the outlines of local objects and small details that cannot be placed on a map, and other features inherent in a photographic image, make it possible in most cases to accurately determine one's location and observed objects on them, select landmarks on the path of movement, and control the correctness of pulling out the intended route.
For reliable and accurate orientation in any terrain and weather conditions - in the forest, desert, with poor visibility - many combat vehicles are armed with special so-called navigation equipment. It allows you to know the coordinates of the location of the machine and the directional angle of the direction of movement at any time.
Orientation is closely related to target designation, the tasks of which are to determine and indicate the location of detected targets.
In order to accurately determine your location and the position of the observed objects and correctly carry out target designation, it is necessary to be able to determine on the ground the distances to objects and directions to them.
9. Measurement of angles and distances on the ground.
When orienting and target designating, it is necessary not only to determine magnetic azimuths, but also to measure horizontal angles between different directions on objects. These measurements can be made using a turret protractor, compass, binoculars and aiming devices available on combat vehicles, as well as a periscope artillery compass.
Measuring angles with a tower goniometer. On tanks and some other combat vehicles, there is a goniometric device for measuring the angle of rotation of the turret (Fig. 62). It consists of the main scale 1, located on the chase along the entire length of its circumference, and the reporting scale 2, mounted on a rotating cap of the turret. The main scale is divided into 600 divisions (scale division 0-10). Reporting, the scale has 10 divisions and allows you to count angles with an accuracy of 0-01. In some machines, the turret is mechanically connected to the arrows of the azimuth indicator, on which there are scales for coarse and fine readings of angles. The azimuth indicator also allows you to read the angle with an accuracy of 0-01. To aim at the observed object, an optical sight is used, in the field of view, which has a crosshair or square. The optical sight is mounted on a rotating turret in such a way that in position 0-00 its optical axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the machine.
To determine the angle between the longitudinal axis of the machine and the direction of the object, it is necessary to turn the rotating cap of the turret in the direction of this object until the crosshair (angle) is aligned with the object and read the reading on the goniometric scale. The horizontal angle between the directions on any two objects will be equal to the difference in the scale reading on these objects.
Measuring angles with a compass. To measure the angle between directions on any two objects in degree measure on the ground, you need to set the compass front sight to zero reading on the limb and turn the compass so that the sight line is directed to the left object. Then turn to face the second object and, rotating the lid, direct the line of sight to this object. The countdown against the fly pointer will be the desired angle. When measuring the angle in thousandths, the zero reading of the limb is directed to the right object, since the thousandths count increases counterclockwise.
Measuring angles with binoculars and observation and aiming devices are produced mainly for target designation. To do this, combine some stroke of the goniometric scale with one of the directions and count the number of divisions to the second direction. By multiplying this reading by the value of the division of the scale, the value of the measured angle is obtained in thousandths.
Determination of distances on the ground.
Eye gauge.
Eye - the main and most fast way distance definitions. For the development of the eye, systematic exercises are necessary on a variety of terrain with checking the results on a map, aerial photographs, or by direct measurements on the ground with a rangefinder, tape measure, or steps. To develop an eye, you first need to learn to confidently distinguish distances of 25, 50 and 100 m on any terrain. After these distances are mastered, they begin training to determine large distances (200, 400, 800 and 1000 m). When these distances are fixed in visual memory, they are used as standards, comparing with them the distances to the observed objects.
The accuracy of the eye gauge depends on the training of the observer, on the magnitude of the determined distances, and on the conditions of observation. For distances up to 1000 m, for sufficiently experienced observers, errors usually do not exceed 10–15 a of the distance. At greater distances, they can in some cases reach 50.
Determination of distances by measured angular dimensions of objects
10. Justify the thousandth formula. Its practical application.
This method is applicable only if the linear value (height, width or length) of the object to which the distance D is determined, or any other object located in close proximity to it, is known. The method is reduced to measuring in thousandths of an angle, under which the object is visible, and to the subsequent solution of the problem: by the ratio of the linear value (B) and the angular value (Y) of the object, determine the distance to it, This proportion is called the thousandth formula:
Measurement of the object's angular magnitude is carried out using field glasses or observation and aiming devices, which are available on the combat vehicle.
Example. The power line tower, whose height is 18 m, covers four divisions of the observation device, the price of one division is 0-05. Determine the distance to the support.
Solution: Applying the thousandths formula, we get:
m
The error in measuring distances by the angular dimensions of objects does not exceed 8% of the determined distance, provided that the dimensions of the observed object are known accurately enough, and the value of the angle Y does not exceed 300 thousandths (3-00).
11. Definition of coordinates. Methods of target designation on the map and on the ground.
12. Methods for determining the sides of the horizon on the ground (give examples).
13. Classification of topographic maps (give examples).
14. Determination of coordinates. Methods for measuring distances and areas on a map
15. Using the map for reports, setting tasks. Conditional abbreviations used in combat documents (give examples).
