• 1. Traditional Chinese society (class structure, religious beliefs, centers of social integration).
• 2. Modern society and culture (the structure of society in communist China, the status of women, public education, the arts, health care).

Traditional Chinese society

Consideration of the issue of persons as subjects of law in a traditional society is closely related to the identification of legal differences between individual social strata, estates, and population groups. Chinese traditional law did not know the European concept of the subjective rights of a person, citizen, individual, originating in the ancient world. In Chinese codes and official documents, the legal status of a person was defined by the term "se" (color), indicating the individual's belonging to a particular social group, whose members had certain rights and strictly fixed duties.

Class differences in medieval China were more visible than class differences. They were sacredly protected by law and tradition, which fixed the scope of the rights and obligations of representatives not only of individual estates, but also of various categories of titled ranked officials. There were also strict and petty regulation of their behavior in everyday life, differences in clothing, rituals, etc.

Despite certain changes, in the social structure of traditional China at all times there were mainly three estate-class groups: "noble", "kind" and "mean" people.

The first estate-class group included privileged, "noble" persons - secular and spiritual nobility, military and civil officials. They were exempted from labor duties and corporal punishment, and some from taxes. Representatives of this estate were not only large private landowners, they also appropriated a significant part of the sums received by the treasury. For example, by the end of the reign of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the total number of "relatives" of the emperor with high titles, ranks, honorary titles, exceeded 100 thousand people. A significant part of tax revenues was spent on their maintenance in the form of salaries.

In a special position was the unprivileged layer of wealthy merchants, usurers, large landowners, the rich, who replenished the ranks of the ruling class. Class partitions separating them from the "noble" could be overcome, since in China, at the beginning of the new era, the official practice of buying honorary titles and academic degrees was established. It was the easiest way for the rich to acquire the right to move into the category of non-service officials. They also enjoyed certain privileges, for example, the right to pay off corporal punishment, the right to mitigate punishment for a crime committed by offsetting rank, etc.

In medieval China, the old tribal aristocracy largely lost its positions to the new service aristocracy - the bureaucracy. The educated class group - shenshi became a powerful conservative force, a pillar of the central government, which traditionally exploited tax-paying peasants. Shenshi were divided into two categories. The first was made up of a relatively small stratum of people directly involved in power - the ruler's entourage, his dignitaries and the entire hierarchical bureaucratic state apparatus, the second - a huge army of candidates for this stratum who received a Confucian education but did not have positions. They were not directly vested with state powers, but played a huge role locally, in communal administration, which greatly contributed to the centralization of China's state power.

Formally, the path to a bureaucratic position was open to everyone who received an education according to the canons of Confucian science and passed the exams. In fact, only the children of the rich, the officials themselves, could get an education and especially a bureaucratic rank. This arrangement continued until the 8th century. a system of recommendations by local rulers for the official position of "worthy people".

The division into nine official ranks, which was based on the system of payment for the service of an official in grain (in the amount of 200 to 10 thousand tributes *), developed back in the period of the Warring States. These nine ranks, each of which consisted of two classes, were invariably preserved along with the division into higher, middle and lower officials. Not only the post, a place in the official hierarchy, but also the prestige and salary of an official depended on the rank. At the end of the III century. the salaries of officials in grain and money were replaced by allotments of land plots of various sizes, which were transferred to tenants for processing. The rent thus replaced the salary. From the 8th century until the revolution of 1911-1913. officials received a salary in grain and money. Service allotments and "feeding" could only serve as an addition to their remuneration. It was equated to the status of an official in China and the status of Taoist and Buddhist monks.

Tribute - 103.5 liters of grain.

Representatives of the second unprivileged estate-class group belonged to the common people, "petty people." These are mainly small farmers and artisans, on whom the main burden of tax payments and labor duties lay. In the III-VIII centuries, during the existence of the state allotment system, the bulk of the peasants actually turned into tenants of state lands.

The third estate-class group of "mean people" included the free and deprived of rights - public and private slaves. The collapse of the allotment system, the development of large-scale land ownership led to an increase in the number of landless and land-poor tenant farmers, who were often attached to the land.

The incomplete estate group consisted until the 13th century. from persons who were dependent on "strong houses". They were used as armed forces, semi-serf tenants, farm laborers, domestic servants. Tenants of private lands and laborers, like slaves, had to unquestioningly obey the orders of the owner. They were beaten with sticks, put in private prisons, and sometimes killed with impunity. They did not have the right to go to court with a complaint against the owner. State bodies stood guard over the interests of landowners, assisted them in the search for and return of fugitive tenants and farm laborers who did not pay rent on time or did not work out the terms specified in the contract. It was only in 1727 that arbitrary punishment by the owners of workers dependent on them was formally prohibited.

History and SID

Ancient China. The specifics of the social structure Introduction Ancient Chinese civilization developed in the V-III millennia BC. e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Yellow River basin was the main territory for the formation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese...

Ancient China. The specifics of the social structure

Introduction

ancient Chinese civilization that developed in the VIII millennium BC. e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Huang He basin was the main territory for the formation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese, one of the centers of the early world civilizations.

The state structure of China had features of despotism. All power belonged to the emperor. The administrative apparatus was based on the principle of centralized management. The social structure of China had a rather complex system. All its inhabitants were considered vassals of the emperor, but each estate was distinguished by its own peculiarities of behavior, rights and duties.

Since its inception, Chinese society has begun to acquire uniqueness and, in fact, individuality among neighboring and distant states.It was the specifics of the social structure that I took as the basis of my essay. It is quite difficult to consider the centuries-old history in detail, so I will explore the social structure of the main periods of China and conclude with a general thematic summary.

Key periods:

1. Shang (Yin) period - 1812 centuries BC;
   
2. Zhou period - 12th c. BC. - 221;
   
3. The period of strengthening of the kingdom of Qin - 246 BC - 207 BC;
   
4. Han period (206220 BC)

Problem : Changing the specifics of the social structure of Ancient China over the main time points.

Tasks:

1. Studying the social structure at these stages
2. Comparison of social structures that existed in different periods
3. Summarizing about general development social structure of ancient China.

The social structure of the Shang (Yin) period - 1812 centuries. BC

The most ancient period of Chinese history is the period of the state of Shang-Yin. According to traditional Chinese chronology, this era usually refers to the XVIII-XII centuries. BC e.

The remnants of the tribal system existed in China for a very long time - tribal groups continued to exist in China for millennia, which contributed to the transition of the tribal rank by inheritance in certain tribal groups and that the peculiar "positions" of the chiefs of the clans were inherited in certain tribal groups.

As for the custom of blood feud, it persisted in China until the Confucian era. confucius spoke

“The one whose father or mother was killed should sleep on straw, having a shield instead of a pillow. He must firmly resolve not to live under the same sky with the murderer. If he meets him in the market or at court, then he should not go for his weapon, but should immediately fight with him.

Not less than importance had a large patriarchal family. Its main features were: the dominance of husband and father, the enslavement of women, aggravated by polygamy, a pronounced cult of ancestors.

The ancient council of elders, which existed in the Yin era, also dates back to ancient times, which has preserved significant remnants of the tribal system. The Council of Elders existed under the king and consisted of ancestors and tribal leaders. Perhaps the power of the council of elders was great and allowed itself to limit the power of the king in some respects. It is very possible that this ancient organization later developed into a tribal aristocracy and, relying on large wealth, significant political power, this aristocracy eventually formed the ruling class of slave owners.

The process of class stratification that took place in the depths of rural communities, the development of trade and war led to the emergence of slavery and the aggravation of class contradictions. Thus, the Shan-Yin era should be considered the time of the emergence of the most ancient class slave-owning society.

In Shang society, the difference between the ruling elites with their environment (administrative apparatus, artisans, warriors, servants) and the productive peasant masses is visibly presented.

The zone centered in the capital was under the direct control of the ruler - Van and the Shang Central Administration. Wang and his entourage lived in the center of the zone, there was also a place for the dwelling of soldiers, officials, artisans and servants. Palaces and workshops, barns and warehouses, barracks and fields were located in the capital. Wang and his servants often took part in the work on large fields, and the harvest was intended both for ritual and cult needs, and for replenishing government barns.

The vast territory of regional possessions was controlled by the representatives of the Shan Wang, that is, his relatives and close associates. These territories were often subjected to raids by neighboring barbarian tribes, thereby enclosing the capital, led by the bath, from raids from outside.

All residents of this state had to faithfully serve the bath, take part in hostilities, and also present gifts, trophies, especially prisoners, who were most often sacrificed to Van's ancestors at the next calendar date of sacrifices. The practice of inheriting the position of the ruler - Van was still in the process of formation. The transfer of power from father to son was not immediately established in this society, the throne passed from brother to brother and from uncle to nephew.

The supreme sovereignty and sacred holiness of the Shan ruler - Van were above all for all the Shans.

The social structure of the Zhou period - 12th century. BC. - 221 BC

There was a time when the Zhou tribes entered the realm political influence Yin (Shang) as a subordinate territory. The strengthening of the Chou people was marked by the fact that the military clashes between Yin and Zhou took a turn in the direction of the latter.

Gradually, a powerful coalition of Western tribes was formed, led by the Zhou tribe. Over time, the Zhou people adopted the culture and way of life of the Yin state. The Zhou learned from the Yin how to make weapons and other combat items from bronze, chariots, etc.

After the final defeat of the Yin people, the Chou people granted the nobility (from the Yin bath) land ownership along with their population. The leaders of the Yin tribes were not touched, thus remaining to occupy their posts. In general, the Zhou conquest did not cause fundamental changes in the system of administration of the territories subordinated to the Wang.

The entire free population of Zhou was divided into five social groups, which were located in relation to each other according to the principle of hierarchy (in ancient China it was more clearly expressed than in other ancient Eastern societies). Zhou baths occupied the highest level of the hierarchy, as it was customary to say “the only one among people”, they were despotic rulers (I speak in the plural, because during this period there were quite a few of them, but the essence of the unlimited power of the ruler did not change. The next layer was Zhuhou , the rulers of hereditary possessions, were undeniably an aristocracy. Average rank is Dafu , heads of tribal groups, which in their totality constituted the population of the Zhuhou hereditary possession. Fourth group shea , heads of large families that were part of the above tribal group. Last group - commoners.
The specificity of this or that rank was in the material benefits that could be used this person. First of all, the amounts of food and drink, the cut of clothes, the number of livestock and slaves are different. “During the life of a person, differences are observed in headdress, clothing, the number of fields and the size of the dwelling; after death in the size of the inner and outer coffin, shroud and grave pit ”Strict rules were established regarding the decoration of the dwelling, something that common people should not allow themselves. The same applied to food: “It was believed that the wang could eat the meat of an ox, a ram and a pig, zhuhou only beef, dafu pork, shi fish, and common people did not have the right to eat meat at all.Social differences were also reflected in the vocabulary of the ancient Chinese language to denote the same concept, there were different words used depending on the speaker's belonging to a certain rank.

Man's belonging to the higher social groups was established on the basis of kinship. The eldest son inherited the rank of his father, and all other sons descended one step below. But this rule did not affect the layer of commoners, because it was impossible to go lower.

As for land ownership, Wang was the supreme owner of the entire land area. But the land was cultivated by commoners. Why?

The landowning structure, as well as the social one, has its own hierarchy, each layer grants land to the one below it.On this basis, the following conclusion can be drawn: private property as such did not exist in Zhou society.

The social structure of the kingdom of Qin - 246 BC - 207 BC

Until the 4th century BC. we know little about the Qin kingdom. At that time, little was mentioned about her, because she almost did not fight between the kingdoms.

Due to the loss of land fertility, the Qin kingdom carried out the creation of an irrigation system, thereby significantly increasing its agricultural production.

Under King Xiao Gong (361338 BC), important land use reforms were carried out:

1. Pledge and purchase of land legalized
2. The custom of blood feud was forbidden.
3. Restrictions on the size of land holdings have been abolished.

This is what led to the undermining of the rural community. Shang Yang issued laws regarding slaves as land labor. He adopted many reforms in the military field of the state: capturing the enemy raising the rank of a warrior, i.e. the right to land and slaves.

The old hereditary nobility was deprived of all privileges and removed from power. Only military holders of ranks were considered full-fledged free citizens, it was forbidden by law to enslave them. But over time, the rank could be bought or exchanged. Such changes entailed the features of the military-bureaucratic despotism of the state.

The state of Qin turned into the strongest military power and went on the offensive against neighboring countries. It expanded its states at the expense of other possessions. The first "emperor" - "shihuangdi" - Qin Shi Huangdi, ascended the throne of the Chinese warrior. It was believed that he was the "Son of Heaven" and his power became even more deified than under the rulers of the Vans.

This difficult period in Chinese history is called the most cruel. Endless wars, conquests, the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China, the construction of which lasted ten years and cost the empire incredible hardships and loss of life.

Qin Shi Huangdi introduced new cruel orders into the state system. No citizen had the right to call himself Wei, Yan, Qin. Everyone is equal from nobles to commoners. The emperor established a single name for the entire population - “black-headed”, without sparing anyone, he even lowered his sons to the lowest rank, turning them into ordinary people. The empire was dominated by the military-bureaucratic nobility, mainly from among the new rich big businessmen and merchants. The purchase of positions and ranks of nobility was legalized. The emperor converted family members of the criminal in three generations into slaves, as well as families connected by mutual responsibility, so that entire groups of villages passed into slavery.

During this period, there was a catastrophic impoverishment of the farmers, the seizure of property from the peasants, the introduction of large taxes on land even in the layers of the aristocracy, the state was depleted.

But after the death of Qin Shi Huangdi, everything led to a civil war - the uprisings united not only the enslaved masses, the poor from the communal peasants - representatives of the ruling class, mainly from the noble families of the former, were added to them. kingdoms People managed to gain freedom.

This ends the time of slave-owning Ancient China,

replaced by feudal society.

The social structure of the Han period (206220 BC)

The growth of large private land ownership, the rise of handicraft production, the developmenttrade and monetary relations accelerated the decomposition of the community and the development of slaveholding relations. There were two main forms of slavery in ancient China, public and private.

The main source of state slavery was the enslavement of convicts. The authorities very, often resorted to punishment to increase free work force(the enslaved had their faces tattooed with a green line around their eyes)

The most widespread was private slavery, the main source of which was debt slavery. The impoverished community members, clinging to their patches of land, were forced to give their sons into slavery, if only to somehow retain their arable allotment, the possession of which made them full members of the community.

In the empires of Qin and Han in China, the slave trade flourished. The number of private slaves served as a measure of wealth. Large slave owners had hundreds and thousands of slaves. It was considered especially honorable to receive slaves as a gift from the emperor, but only the closest dignitaries were awarded this honor. The scope of slave labor was quite extensive. The state used slaves in the ore and salt mines, in handicraft workshops and in various hard jobs. A significant number of slaves were kept in the palaces as servants. However, most of all slave labor was used in private households. In developing industries such as handicrafts and trade, slaves were the main labor force.

In the social structure, such layers as farmers are very firmly establishedpeasants, merchants, military stratum of the population, aristocracy. Formally, of all categories of the population, only officials and holders of the ranks of nobility were exempted from duties.

As for the aforementioned feudal society, it already appeared in China in the first centuries of our era in connection with the economic and political strengthening of large private landowners and the emergence of a privately dependent small peasant economy. New social categories of direct producers appeared, called binke and butqu.

In the Han Empire, the bureaucratic stratum gained considerable strength. Significant changes have taken place in the status of the bureaucracy. Representatives of various social strata, mainly from the most prosperous part of society, who occupied administrative posts during the Qin Empire, tried in every possible way to consolidate their position, to preserve for their family or patronymic the preemptive right to fill official positions.

Little by little, the country was getting out of slaveholding dependence, which led to the formation of politics and economics. The Chinese united state, since the time of our era, has been considered one of the largest and most powerful countries.

Conclusion

Having studied the features of the social system of each of the selected periods, I can draw the following conclusion. The first three periods are considered the hardest time in the formation of the Chinese state, endless wars, policy restructuring within the state brought drastic changes in the social structure.

The system of a slave-owning society did not, in essence, move the state forward. Ancient China was treading water, not entering the world stage.

During the birth of Chinese civilization, only the conception of social structures took place, information is available only about the power position of Wang, the next period of the Zhou society carries the stratification of the population into ranks, the difference between which was clearly expressed, during the Qin period the entire social structure breaks down, due to the emergence of a new cruel emperor who subjugated the Chinese lands. The beginning of the Han Dynasty is the restoration of the system, after the Qin period, the system of the slave structure was strengthened, the slaves were criminals, traitors, debtors, the poor, some peasants. A huge number of the Chinese population was enslaved. But already by the beginning of our era, a certain restructuring took place, which gave rise to the feudal principle of structure.

Feudalism - a type of agrarian society in which land ownership is conditional on military or other service, in feudal society there is a hierarchy of political power based on contractual rights and obligations, usually with a monarch at the head, unfree peasants cultivate the land like serfs.

Bibliography

1. "History of the Whale". alternative history. Tutorial.Author L.S. Vasiliev
2. "Forms of Social Organization of the Ancient Chinese".Author Kryukov M.V.
3. Educational-methodical complex on the history of the ancient world. Author Denisov V.I.
4. www .wikipedia.org/wiki/History of China

When studying the social structure of the Chinese population, it must be taken into account that the society of this country is still in a state of transition. In the late 1970s, under Deng Xiaoping, the state began to implement a whole range of reforms, the last stage of which fell on the 1990s. These transformations led to the formation of a fairly developed market, the emergence various forms property and some reduction in ideological oppression in public life.

Society has changed with the economy. The emergence of capitalist-style enterprises led to the emergence of classes of businessmen and wage workers. And the weakening of censorship caused an increase in the number of intelligentsia. Another important consequence of the reforms was social mobility. The opportunities opened up began to be actively used by the inhabitants of the countryside, who, under Mao Zedong, were tied to their native villages.

However, the reforms that went against China's usual way of life gave rise to a number of serious problems that still remain unresolved. The country continues to operate conflicting command-administrative and market economies. The Chinese have lost a number of former moral values, property stratification has intensified. In connection with the emergence of the population's right to entrepreneurial activity and the formation of new production areas, new groups began to form in society. These social strata that appeared in the post-reform period have not yet fully formed a sense of their own identity, a certain social status and a strong self-consciousness.

The main categories of Chinese society

The main classes of Chinese society include the following:

• Officials. From the time of Mao Zedong to the present day, cadre workers have occupied an important place in the social structure of China. The state bureaucracy is huge and clumsy, but the number of civil servants is increasing every year.
• Big businessmen. Quite remarkable is the fact that the vast majority of China's big businessmen did not come from small and medium-sized businesses, but from the bureaucracy.
• Military. China has the largest military in the world this moment there are almost 2.5 million people in active service). Military science in China is considered very prestigious.
• Hired workers employed in state enterprises and in the sphere of large business. The number of people belonging to this class increased significantly in the post-reform period after the emergence of new private enterprises.
• Representatives of small and medium businesses. The market reforms of the 1990s enabled many Chinese to enter private enterprise. In general, small enterprises are established in rural areas or are associated with the transportation of finished goods.
• Peasantry. It is considered the least socially protected category of the population. However, the position of the peasant may be different, depending on the province where he lives, and some other factors.
• Intelligentsia. Under Mao, intellectual labor was despised. This attitude was especially pronounced in the era of the “cultural revolution”, when a wave of repressions swept across the country, directed, among other things, against the intelligentsia. However, after Deng Xiaoping's reforms, this class began to revive.

Social stratification in the Chinese village

Today, China remains a predominantly agricultural country. The level of urbanization in China is less than 45%. Therefore, the village has its own complex social structure, which should be given special attention. Today, the following population groups live in the Chinese village:

• peasant farmers (more than 60% of all villagers);
• seasonal workers;
• managers of rural collective enterprises;
• individual entrepreneurs;
• village officials;
• workers not directly involved in the production of agricultural products (doctors, teachers, technicians, builders);
• housewives.

Compared with the pre-reform period, the current situation of the villagers has improved significantly. This is evidenced by such indicators as: the growth of life expectancy, the scope of construction, the acquisition of the latest agricultural equipment. This is due, firstly, to the opportunity that has opened up for rural residents to move to cities and earn money there, supplying families with money left in the villages. Secondly, with the collapse of the people's communes, which hampered the development of private initiative. And, thirdly, with the spread of such a production organization as a family contract.

Until the 1970s, China's planned economy did not allow the peasantry to engage in any commercial activity. But in the course of the reforms, a project was developed that allowed each peasant household to become an independent working unit. In a matter of years, 90% of households have passed into the status of family contracts. The transformations were immediately followed by an increase in production and an increase in the well-being of the rural population. Economic success at the same time meant an increase in the prestige of peasant labor and the complication of the social structure of rural society. Family detachments, operating as separate enterprises, began to attract hired workers to work. Over time, larger collective enterprises began to spring up in the village. For the proper functioning of such complex organizations, of course, a class of managers was required, as well as a layer of highly qualified specialists in the technical, veterinary and agricultural fields. And during the 1990-2000s, these classes gradually took shape.

Over the past 40 years, Chinese society has been undergoing a transformation. Obviously, this process will continue for some time and will lead to profound structural changes.

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China and the documents of the Communist Party of China (CCP) operate with large socio-structural communities as the most significant for Chinese society and for managing it: such concepts familiar to socialist "constitutionalism" as classes, workers, peasants, intelligentsia, peoples are used. Thus, in the introduction to the Constitution it is written that "in the cause of socialist construction it is necessary to rely on the workers, peasants and intelligentsia ...". Indeed, during the period when the ideals of the “big cauldron” and “iron bowl” dominated, the needs of the population were leveled and their interests were artificially maintained homogenous, classes acted as the most socially significant structures of Chinese society.

The economic reform stimulated awareness of the specificity of the interests of various strata and groups. Sociological studies show that representatives of various segments of the population increasingly identify themselves not with any class, but with other sociocultural communities: young people are becoming more and more clearly aware of their specific interests, ethno-confessional communities are being formed, personnel specialists, employees of the state apparatus, teachers are increasingly writing about the transformation of the intelligentsia into the most progressive social force. Due to the huge population of the PRC, each of these communities is equal in size to the population of a large European state.

Unemployment is a real and acute social problem in the PRC. And although according to the second and fourth parts of Art. 42 of the Constitution, “the state creates conditions for employment in various ways, improves protection and working conditions, and also, on the basis of the development of production, increases wages and the material well-being of workers”, and in addition, “carries out the necessary labor training of citizens before they are put to work”, implementation The state of these constitutional duties in China (as, indeed, in many other countries) is still very far from complete.

According to Art. 43 of the Constitution, the state improves the conditions for rest and health promotion of workers, establishes for workers and employees working time and vacation system. In the labor legislation of the People's Republic of China, working hours and the vacation system are indeed regulated, and the improvement of conditions for recreation and health promotion is a task that can hardly ever be considered completed. This is a typical “material guarantee”, for the results of which no one can ask anyone.

In Art. 44 and 45 of the Constitution formulated the tasks of the state, and sometimes society in the field of social security. Thus, the state, in accordance with the law, establishes the procedure for the retirement of workers and employees, despite the fact that "the state and society provide for pensioners." The state is entrusted with the task of developing social insurance, public assistance and medical and sanitary services, the state and society must provide for disabled military personnel, provide material assistance to the families of fallen heroes, provide benefits to the families of military personnel, help the blind, deaf, dumb and other citizens with disabilities in finding a job, obtaining funds for a living, receiving education.

Despite the vast predominance of the main ethnic group Han (as the Chinese call themselves) in the population of China, the country is still among the multinational, especially since sometimes, with a relatively low percentage of the population, the number of individual peoples is many millions of people who sometimes live on vast territories. In the field of inter-ethnic relations, especially during the period of the “cultural revolution”, many crimes were committed related to forced Sinicization. Therefore, the Constitution could not ignore this problem. In Art. 4 formulated the basic principles of the national policy of the state: equality of nationalities, the prohibition of national discrimination and oppression, actions that undermine the cohesion of nationalities, freedom to use and develop the national language and writing, preserve and change mores and customs; state guarantee of the legitimate rights and interests of small nationalities, assistance to their areas of residence in accelerating the pace of economic and cultural development, regional autonomy in areas of their compact residence.

Part one Art. 49 obliges the state to protect marriage, family, motherhood and childhood, and the second part of Art. 46 - to ensure the comprehensive moral, mental and physical development of youth, adolescents and children. In Art. 48 states that women enjoy equal rights with men in all areas of political, economic, cultural, social and family life, and the state protects the rights and interests of women, provides them with equal pay for equal work with men, educates and promotes cadre workers from among women . To what extent this is being implemented can be seen at least from the fact that in the leadership of the country for half a century after the victory of the communists in the civil war there were no and no women, with the exception of Jiang Qing, who came to the fore during the "cultural revolution". "due to the fact that she was the wife of the leader of the PRC, Mao Zedong.

In Art. 9 (part two) and 26, special attention is paid to the environmental protection activities of the state and its health improvement activities environment. Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries: Textbook: In 4 vols. T. 4. Part Special: countries of America and Asia / Ed. ed. prof. B. A. Strashun .- M .: Publishing house NORMA (Publishing group NORMA - INFRA * M), 2001.S. 435

The Constitution of the PRC contains many norms traditional for a socialist state, and yet the constitutional model of the economy of a socialist state in the PRC has a modernized character.

The constitutions of the socialist countries, as a rule, contained a description of the socialist economic system, or the socialist economic system. This characterization (depending on the assessment by the corresponding communist party of the stage at which the country was) was given in two versions: in the first version, the socialist economy was spoken of as a fait accompli, while the second version of the constitutional characterization of the economic system reflected the transition to a socialist economy. The wording of the PRC Constitution combines both approaches. On the one hand, the first part of Art. Article 6 of the Constitution reads: “The basis of the socialist economic system of the Chinese People's Republic- socialist public ownership of the means of production, that is, public property and the collective property of the working masses. From this provision, we can conclude that the socialist economic system has already taken shape. However, the new, third, part of the same article echoes the provision contained in the introduction about the country’s long stay at the initial stage of socialism and establishes: “At the initial stage of socialism, the state supports an economic system in which public property dominates and other forms of property develop in parallel, but adheres to a system in which distribution according to work dominates while coexisting with other modes of distribution. The inconsistency of these provisions reflects the course of the CCP to move away from the traditional for the socialist countries forcing the development of socialist relations to their well-known conservation at the achieved level for an indefinite time, combined with the development of market relations.

Since efforts are being made in China to form a market sphere for the functioning of state enterprises and other business entities, the question of the relationship between the plan and the market has been reflected at the constitutional level. Until March 1993 Art. Article 15 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states: “The state, on the basis of socialist property, conducts a planned economy. With the help of comprehensively balanced economic plans and the auxiliary role of market regulation, the state guarantees proportional, harmonious development National economy". Until the XIV Congress of the Communist Party of China (1992), market socialism like the Yugoslav model was declared unacceptable for China, but starting from the XIV Congress, party documents already speak of a socialist market economy. According to the Chinese author Zuo Changqing, the main features new system socialist market economy are reduced to the following: distribution of resources using the market mechanism; independence of economic enterprises; clear definition of property rights; creation of a market for factors of production; indirect macroeconomic control of the government; development of legislation regulating economic activity.

The socialist nature of the Chinese economy is manifested, according to Chinese economists, primarily in the dominance of state property in the national economy of the country and the leading role of the principle of distribution according to work. At the same time, the wording of the Constitution also makes it possible to emphasize the market nature of the transformations, "allows for various interpretations, its interpretation may vary depending on the objectives of the economic policy of the Chinese leadership and the practical needs of the reform."

The political setting of the CCP to create a socialist market economy received constitutional formalization. Article 15 of the Constitution, as amended in 1993, reads: “The State implements a socialist market economy. The state strengthens legislative activity in the field of economy, improves macroregulation. The state, in accordance with the law, prohibits any organization or individual from disturbing the economic order of society.

The peculiarity of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China lies in the fact that it regulates such a seemingly private institution of the economy as a family contract. Part one Art. 8 of the Constitution as amended in 1999 establishes: “Rural collective economic organizations carry out a two-level economic system, the basis of which is a family contract. In the countryside, various forms of cooperative economy in the form of production, supply and marketing, credit, consumer and other forms of cooperation represent the socialist sector of the economy, based on the system of collective property of the working masses.

There is also another feature of the Constitution - the admission of foreign capital.

In accordance with the socialist tradition in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China great attention paid to the regulation of economic policy and economic-but-organizational activities of the state. The Constitution provides for or follows from it such goals of the state's economic policy as: improvement of macroregulation (Article 15); strengthening of legislative activity in the field of economics (art. 15); ensuring the integrity of the economic system of society (prohibition of its violation - art. 15); protection of various forms of ownership (Art. 11, 12, 13); rational distribution of means of accumulation and consumption (Article 14); improvement of economic management and enterprise management systems (art. 14); increasing productivity and improving the organization of labor (Article 14).

In addition, the Constitution reflects the state's economic strategy for using the achievements of science and technology, creating conditions for their development (Article 14).

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China also establishes the basis for the competence of state bodies in the economic sphere.

The political system of the People's Republic of China is notable for its considerable originality.

First, by virtue of its socialist nature, it includes specific institutions that are typical for socialist countries (the Communist Party, the People's Front, etc.), both the state and various formal public formations function and interact under the leadership of the CCP.

Secondly, in the PRC, there is a specific interweaving of formal and informal institutions, while the formal significance of individual institutions of the political system, including those officially promoted, as a rule, does not coincide with the real one. For example, formal questions national security fall within the competence of a specially created NPC state body - the Central Military Council. It is known, and in the People's Republic of China this is considered quite a consequence of the peculiarities of a socialist state, that in practice the decisions of this body are preceded by the decisions of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee. An analysis of the adoption of specific decisions allows sinologists to assume that national security policy is determined by a small group of senior military, party and retired figures, and members of the Politburo act as consultants to these powerful politicians.

In China, such a very peculiar power structure is also preserved, as a formally non-existent, almost never gathering together, but quite real "Areopagus of patriarchs" of the CPC (less than 10 people). Most of them are over 80 and some are over 90 years old and do not hold government or party posts, but those who officially hold leadership positions in the CCP and the PRC consider their opinion and consult with them, moreover, without their consent. it is impossible to make important political decisions in the party and the state.

Thirdly, the functioning of the political system is greatly influenced by the phenomenon of personal connections (“guan xi”). This leading internal mechanism of the PRC political system is rooted in the distant past of the Chinese traditional culture. It is quite difficult, and often impossible, to analyze and identify its impact on the functioning of the political system due to a number of reasons, including the closeness of Chinese society. However, it is necessary to keep it in mind, since the action of all institutions is carried out mainly through “guan xi”, and not in the European sense, but it is not difficult for the Russian reader to understand this Chirkin V.E. Constitutional law of foreign countries. Textbook.- M.: Jurist, 2000. S. 390.

From a formal point of view, the political system of the PRC includes institutions of various levels and significance: the CCP, others political parties and formally non-political organizations, the state and the popular front.

The party system of the PRC consists of 9 parties: the CCP and the so-called democratic parties. The CPC is characterized in the documents as the "ruling party" and the democratic parties as "parties participating in political life."

The Chinese Communist Party is defined in Chinese literature as the vanguard of the working class, the spokesman for the interests of the country's multinational people, and the leading force in building socialism in the PRC. This is also reflected in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. The introduction to the PRC Constitution emphasizes the special importance of the CPC: firstly, the success of socialism became possible only thanks to the leadership of society by the CCP, and secondly, the leadership of "the peoples of all nationalities of China" is entrusted to the CPC in the future. In its activities, the CPC is guided by Marxism-Leninism, the ideas of Mao Zedong and the theory of Deng Xiaoping. The main task of the party is now recognized as "socialist modernization" and the transformation of China into a "socialist state with a highly developed culture and democracy." The phenomenon of the CPC, which retained its position in the conditions when most of the former socialist countries abandoned the socialist path of development, and the communist parties were removed from power, is to a certain extent explained not only by the specific conditions of China, but also by the tactics of the CPC leadership, which demonstrated a flexible approach to Marxism-Leninism, was able to abandon a number of dogmatic provisions (on the incompatibility of socialism and the market, on the class struggle as a decisive link, etc.) and transformed the ideological and theoretical platform of the CPC by using traditional Confucian values ​​and the ideas of national patriotism.

The structure of the CPC is built on the basis of a traditional scheme for communist parties and at the same time takes into account Chinese specifics. The most important elements of the structure of the CPC are: the National Congress of the CPC, central committee(CC) CPC, its Politburo, Military Council, Central Commission of Advisors, Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, Secretariat and General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee.

The political system of the PRC is characterized by a close intertwining of the functions of the CPC and the state. True, as in our time, in the PRC, the task was set to distinguish between party and state functions, but this is understood primarily as the abolition of political groups of ministries and departments and the transfer of party committees of enterprises and institutions to the subordination of territorial party bodies. As for the practice of developing the CCP's political guidelines that are binding on the entire society, as well as combining leadership positions in the upper echelons of power with membership in the Politburo and other governing bodies of the CPC, it remains. That is why the development of, for example, five-year plans is carried out first of all in the CPC Central Committee, and only then they are adopted by the NPC. An example of this kind is the adoption at the 5th plenum of the CPC Central Committee in September 1995 of the “Proposals of the CPC Central Committee on the development of the 9th five-year plan and long-term goals until 2010 of economic and social development countries”, which defined all the main points of the documents adopted later (in March 1996) at the 4th session of the National People's Congress (NPC) - the Ninth Five-Year Plan and China's Economic and Social Development Program until 2010.

The official Chinese literature emphasizes mainly the ideological and political nature of the leadership of the CCP. "Having concentrated the will of the Chinese people, the party develops its position and political guidelines, which then, according to the legal procedure, on the basis of the decision of the NPC, become the laws and decisions of the state." Thus, the decisions made are presented as the quintessence of the aspirations of the people, which the CCP captures and formulates. The party leadership is striving to stop any attempts to downplay the role of the CCP. In the report of the CPC Central Committee at the XIV Congress of the CPC (October 1992), it was noted that "any views and actions that cast doubt on its leading role, contribute to downplaying or denying its significance as a ruling party are fundamentally erroneous and extremely harmful."

Scientific studies, especially by Western Sinologists, highlight the fact that the leading role of the CPC is based not only and not so much on its authority, but on its undivided leadership of the Armed Forces. It is in the organs of the CPC that the real supreme power in the country is concentrated at all levels of government.

"The feature and advantage of China's political system" in official Chinese documents is the existence of 8 small democratic parties. They are: Chinese Kuomintang Revolutionary Committee, Chinese Democratic League, China Association for Democratic National Development, China Association for the Promotion of Democracy, Peasant Workers' Democratic Party of China, Zhongguo Zhigongdang (Pursuit of Justice Party), Jiusan Society (September 3rd Society) , Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League.

These parties are organizationally independent: each has its own charter, elected bodies, its own social base and press organ. "However, this independence is purely formal, since they all recognize the leadership of the CCP, carry out its policy and carry out its directives." Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries: Textbook: In 4 vols. T. 4. Part Special: countries of America and Asia / Ed. ed. prof. B. A. Strashun .- M .: Publishing house NORMA (Publishing group NORMA - INFRA * M), 2001. S. 437

With regard to these parties, a course is being pursued for "long-term existence and mutual control, frank expression of one's opinions to each other and readiness to share glory and shame." The main forms of interaction between the CPC and democratic parties are: meetings in the CPC Central Committee with the participation of representatives of democratic parties (moreover, meetings must be held before the plenums of the CPC Central Committee and CPC congresses, convening sessions of the NPC and the CPPCC), cooperation within the CPPCC, a special department of the CPC Central Committee (department of unified front) and his local authorities supervise the activities of democratic parties. In addition, the PRC retains the permission to have dual membership (in the CCP and the Democratic Party). More than 25,000 representatives of democratic parties are deputies of the National People's Congress and local people's congresses, occupy leading positions in government bodies, but, "as a rule, the leaders of these parties are appointed to secondary roles in leadership, to the positions of deputy ministers, deputy chairmen of the people's governments, etc.”

In Chinese literature, there is a certain revitalization of the activities of democratic parties after a long break, the resumption of convocations of congresses. But this still does not mean a real multi-party system, since it is impossible to talk about their real participation in the exercise of political power. The phantom of a multi-party system lends considerable originality to China's political system. The documents of the 14th Congress of the Communist Party of China emphasized that it is necessary to take into account the specifics of China, which excludes "a multi-party system and Western-style parliamentarism."

The established "system of multi-party cooperation and political consultations under the leadership of the CCP" is officially regarded as "a feature and advantage of China's political system." In foreign literature, as in Russian, special attention is paid to the actual one-party system and the absence of real political pluralism, i.e., the opposition. It has been noted in the Russian literature that modern China there is practically no broad social base for the opposition. Despite the obvious contradictions between socio-economic pluralism and the CCP's political monopoly, they should not be exaggerated. The one-party political mechanism still retains the ability to ensure the development of the country and the continuation of transformations, including the implementation of democratic advances in the political field.”

In the PRC, the issue of reforming the political system is topical. The question of the need to democratize the social system, overcome bureaucracy and lawlessness, eliminate feudal remnants, abandon the traditional life-long tenure in leadership positions, and promote talented youth was raised as early as the 13th Congress of the CCP. However, the well-known student speeches and the negative experience of a number of post-socialist countries led the Chinese leadership to the idea of ​​a gradual and phased implementation political reform while not allowing the weakening of the leading role of the CPC and its monopoly in power. The CPC is regarded as the guarantor of stability, and maintaining stability as one of the most important tasks of the state and society. China's official literature emphasizes that without order it is impossible to carry out a reform program: “In the event of any turmoil or disaster, the people's right to existence will inevitably be threatened. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure stability in the country, to continue to follow a line that has proven itself to be effective "Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries: Textbook: In 4 vols. Vol. 4. Part Special: countries of America and Asia / Ed. ed. prof. B. A. Strashun .- M .: Publishing house NORMA (Publishing group NORMA - INFRA * M), 2001.S. 438

Back to article CHINA

class structure. Like other Eastern societies, traditional China has had a political structure with extraordinary power for centuries. The only source of power was the emperor, who exercised his rule according to the will of heaven. Gradually, however, institutions developed to ensure the smooth functioning of the state apparatus and to prevent the development of forces that could oppose imperial power.

The mechanisms of formation of the apparatus of officials played a primary role. The skill level of officials was tested through a series of different examinations. Holders of academic degrees and officials elected from among them occupied prestigious positions in society. In addition to scholar-officials, or shenshi, in accordance with Chinese social theory, three more classes were distinguished: peasants, artisans, and merchants. Generally speaking, representatives of all these classes were called commoners. Below these classes on the hierarchical ladder were "mean people". This category included persons who performed duties despised by society. Children and descendants of these people were not allowed to take state exams. Slavery also existed in China, but rarely played a prominent role.

Centers for social integration. Family and clan. Big family and the family clan included wide range relatives, some of whom might even belong to other classes. Ideally, and sometimes it happened in real life, the clan was a strong community that cared for its members, including even the most distant relatives, and making sure that the most gifted children of clan members received an education. The clan was held together by observance of the obligatory ceremonies of honoring the ancestors and a sense of pride in their ancestry. The family often held together due to the common ownership of the land and the presence of ancestral temples on this land, in which memorial tablets were kept that praised the dead and served as an object of worship for relatives.

The problem of marriage was solved in the family circle. The marriage union was arranged with the help of matchmakers. Traditionally, the consent of the children was not asked, and marriage was almost mandatory for everyone. Only Buddhist monks, some Taoist priests, and a few extremely poor men remained single.

Village and city. The village community represented the lowest form of social integration. The cities where the administration was located were usually the site of trade bazaars and fairs that united the population of the area for both social and economic purposes. The city's entertainment establishments, including restaurants, tea houses, and liquor stores, also served as centers of social life. Tea shop owners often hired professional storytellers to attract customers. The theater was very popular, as well as a variety of gambling.

Associations and associations. The guilds played the most important role, since until 1911 they organized and regulated all entrepreneurial activity in the field of industry and trade. They were divided into two types: by crafts and by provinces. The former regulated the teaching of crafts, set standards and quality levels, and determined prices. The provincial guilds represented merchants from one province or one city doing their business in another province or city. There were also many secret societies. Some of them were formed for mutual assistance, others pursued political goals.

religious beliefs. Folk religion included elements of animism and polytheism. People believed that the world was inhabited by many spirits. So, the spirits of evil - "gui" - were considered to bring illness and disaster. These evil spirits could be protected or driven away different ways, including spells and special ceremonies. The universe was considered a combination of two elements - "yin" and "yang". "Yin" meant darkness, evil, feminine. The embodiment of these qualities was evil spirit"gui". "Yan" meant warmth, light, goodness, masculinity; things that embodied these qualities could be used to protect against "gui". In general, in the view of the Chinese, the world of spirits and gods was a copy of the world of people and the state with the same hierarchy of authority and power. Each city had its own god, to some extent corresponding to the local magistrate. Above the whole universe towered "tian" - "heaven", corresponding to the emperor on earth.

In addition to this widespread religion with its spirits and numerous gods, there were five major religious doctrines: Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. Confucianism, which was more of an ethical and political doctrine than a religion, for long time- since the end of the 3rd c. BC. and before the formation of the republic in 1912 - enjoyed the support of the state. Confucian philosophy contained the main provisions of the family and moral code. Rejected after the formation of the republic, in the 20th century. Confucianism came to its end. Classical Confucian works in the list of required literature for schools were moved from first to second or third place. Taoism as a religion had Chinese roots, but was influenced by Buddhism. Some of the Taoist writings, written with a philosophical bent, are of great intellectual significance. Taoism also has its temples, its pantheon of gods, and its doctrine of a future life with rewards and punishments for the past. Buddhism came from India and became widespread in China; hundreds of Buddhist temples and monasteries with thousands of monks were built here. Muslims live everywhere in China, especially in the northwestern and southwestern regions. Christianity, introduced to the Chinese by missionaries from Europe and America, became widespread in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but the number of Christian believers is only 1% of the country's population.

china: traditional chinese society

Back to the article CHINA Class structure. Like other Eastern societies, traditional China has had a political structure with extraordinary power for centuries. The only source of power was the emperor, who exercised his rule according to the will of heaven. Gradually, however, institutions developed to ensure the smooth functioning of the state apparatus and to prevent the development of forces that could oppose imperial power. The mechanisms of formation of the apparatus of officials played a primary role. The skill level of officials was tested through a series of different examinations. Holders of academic degrees and officials elected from among them occupied prestigious positions in society. In addition to scholar-officials, or shenshi, in accordance with Chinese social theory, three more classes were distinguished: peasants, artisans, and merchants. Generally speaking, representatives of all these classes were called commoners. Below these classes on the hierarchical ladder were "mean people". This category included persons who performed duties despised by society. Children and descendants of these people were not allowed to take state exams. Slavery also existed in China, but rarely played a prominent role. Centers for social integration. Family and clan. The extended family and family clan included a wide range of relatives, some of whom might even belong to other classes. In the ideal case, and sometimes it happened in real life, the clan was a solid community that cared for its members, including even the most distant relatives, and made sure that the most gifted children of the clan members received an education. The clan was held together by observance of the obligatory ceremonies of honoring the ancestors and a sense of pride in their ancestry. The family often held together due to the common ownership of the land and the presence of ancestral temples on this land, in which memorial tablets were kept that praised the dead and served as an object of worship for relatives. The problem of marriage was solved in the family circle. The marriage union was arranged with the help of matchmakers. Traditionally, the consent of the children was not asked, and marriage was almost mandatory for everyone. Only Buddhist monks, some Taoist priests, and a few extremely poor men remained single. Village and city. The village community represented the lowest form of social integration. The cities where the administration was located were usually the site of trade bazaars and fairs that united the population of the area for both social and economic purposes. The city's entertainment establishments, including restaurants, tea houses, and liquor stores, also served as centers of social life. Tea shop owners often hired professional storytellers to attract customers. The theater was very popular, as well as a variety of gambling. Associations and associations. The guilds played the most important role, since until 1911 they organized and regulated all entrepreneurial activity in the field of industry and trade. They were divided into two types: by crafts and by provinces. The former regulated the teaching of crafts, set standards and quality levels, and determined prices. The provincial guilds represented merchants from one province or one city doing their business in another province or city. There were also many secret societies. Some of them were formed for mutual assistance, others pursued political goals. religious beliefs. Folk religion included elements of animism and polytheism. People believed that the world was inhabited by many spirits. So, the spirits of evil - "gui" - were considered to bring illness and disaster. These evil spirits could be protected from or warded off in a variety of ways, including spells and special ceremonies. The universe was considered a combination of two elements - "yin" and "yang". "Yin" meant darkness, evil, feminine. The embodiment of these qualities was the evil spirit "gui". "Yan" meant warmth, light, goodness, masculinity; things that embodied these qualities could be used to protect against "gui". In general, in the view of the Chinese, the world of spirits and gods was a copy of the world of people and the state with the same hierarchy of authority and power. Each city had its own god, to some extent corresponding to the local magistrate. Above the whole universe towered "tian" - "heaven", corresponding to the emperor on earth. In addition to this widespread religion with its spirits and numerous gods, there were five major religious doctrines: Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. Confucianism, which was more of an ethical and political doctrine than a religion, for a long time - starting from the end of the 3rd century. BC. and before the formation of the republic in 1912 - enjoyed the support of the state. Confucian philosophy contained the main provisions of the family and moral code. Rejected after the formation of the republic, in the 20th century. Confucianism came to its end. Classical Confucian works in the list of required literature for schools were moved from first to second or third place. Taoism as a religion had Chinese roots, but was influenced by Buddhism. Some of the Taoist writings, written with a philosophical bent, are of great intellectual significance. Taoism also has its temples, its pantheon of gods, and its doctrine of a future life with rewards and punishments for the past. Buddhism came from India and became widespread in China; hundreds of Buddhist temples and monasteries with thousands of monks were built here. Muslims live everywhere in China, especially in the northwestern and southwestern regions. Christianity, introduced to the Chinese by missionaries from Europe and America, became widespread in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but the number of Christian believers is only 1% of the country's population.