Extraction of ore minerals. Ore minerals of Russia

Diamonds are mined in Russia - the hardest natural material

Minerals are the main wealth of Russia. It is on this sphere that the well-being of the people and the solution of many economic issues. Natural resources provide both the country's internal needs for raw materials and the ability to supply them to other countries.

Russia has the most powerful mineral resource potential in the world, which allows it to occupy a leading position on the planet in terms of explored reserves of the most important minerals. Stocks natural resources distributed very unevenly throughout the country. Most of them are concentrated in Siberia - the main pantry of the country.

Russia is the leading country in terms of reserves of coal, iron ore, potash salts and phosphates. In addition, it is well known that there are many oil fields in our country. Oil and natural gas are the basis of the country's fuel and energy balance. Oil and gas fields are concentrated in 37 constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The largest oil reserves are concentrated in the central part of Western Siberia.

Russia is also the world leader in iron ore mining. The world's largest iron ore deposits are located in the area of ​​the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA). Only three KMA iron ore open pits provide almost half of the total volume of ore mined in Russia. There are smaller iron ore deposits on the Kola Peninsula, in Karelia, in the Urals, in the Angara region, in South Yakutia and in other areas.

Russia has reserves of various non-ferrous and rare metals. In the north of the Russian Plain and in the mountains of southern Siberia there are deposits of titanomagnetite ores and bauxites. Copper ores are concentrated in the North Caucasus, the Middle and Southern Urals, in Eastern Siberia. Copper-nickel ores are mined in the Norilsk ore basin.

Gold is mined in the bowels of Yakutia, Kolyma, Chukotka, mountains of Southern Siberia. Our country is also rich in sulfur, mica, asbestos, graphite, various precious, semi-precious and ornamental stones. Salt is mined in the Caspian, Cis-Urals, in the Altai Territory and in the Cis-Baikal region. Also in Russia, diamonds are mined - the hardest natural material.

Did you know that diamonds and coal share the same chemical formula and identical in chemical composition? In addition, they are different - from colorless to dark gray. In Russia, diamonds were first discovered in the Middle Urals, then in Yakutia and later in the Arkhangelsk region. Precious and semi-precious stones Ural is famous. Emeralds, malachites, jasper, aquamarines, rock crystal, alexandrite, topazes and amethysts are found here.

Russia supplies the world market with 30-40% of produced gas, more than 2/3 of oil, 90% of copper and tin, 65% of zinc, almost all raw materials for the production of phosphate and potash fertilizers.

Minerals of Russia

Russia is one of the largest powers in the world in terms of total natural resource potential. It is especially rich in minerals. Among the countries of the world, Russia leads in terms of reserves of fuel and energy resources.

The mineral resource complex of the Russian Federation provides about 33% of GDP and 60% of federal budget revenues.

Russia receives more than half of foreign exchange earnings from the export of primary mineral raw materials, primarily oil and natural gas. The subsoil of the Russian Federation contains a significant part of the world's proven reserves of the most important types of minerals (diamonds, nickel, natural gas, palladium, oil, coal, gold and silver). The population of Russia is only 2.6% of the total population of the Earth, but our country provides more than half of the world's production of palladium, a quarter of nickel, natural gas and diamonds, over 10% of oil and platinum.

Extraction and processing of minerals is the basis of the economy of all the most prosperous subjects of the Russian Federation. In many outlying regions of Russia, extractive enterprises are city-forming and, including service organizations, provide up to 75% of jobs. Oil, natural gas, coal, ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metals, diamonds provide a stable socio-economic situation in the regions of the north of the European part of Russia, the Urals, Western Siberia, Kuzbass, the Norilsk mining hub, Eastern Siberia and the Far East.

The distribution of mineral resources throughout the country is associated with the peculiarities and differences in tectonic processes and the conditions for the formation of minerals in previous geological epochs.

Ore minerals are confined to mountains and ancient shields. In piedmont troughs and on platform troughs, and sometimes in intermountain depressions, there are deposits of sedimentary rocks - oil and gas. The position of deposits of coal is approximately the same, but coal and oil rarely occur together. Our country occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of reserves of many minerals (and first in natural gas reserves).

In the cover of the ancient platform on the East European Plain, there are various minerals of sedimentary origin.

Limestone, glass and construction sand, chalk, gypsum and other mineral resources are mined on the Central Russian and Volga Uplands. Coal and oil are mined in the Pechora River basin (Komi Republic). There are brown coals in the Moscow region (to the west and south of Moscow) and other minerals (including phosphorites).

Iron ore deposits are confined to the crystalline basement of ancient platforms.

Their reserves are especially large in the area of ​​the Kursk magnetic anomaly, where high-quality ore is mined in quarries (Mikhailovoskoye deposit, Belgorod group of deposits). A variety of ores are confined to the Baltic Shield on the Kola Peninsula (in the Khibiny). These are deposits of iron ore (in the Murmansk region - Olenegorskoe and Kovdorskoe, and in Karelia - Kostomukshskoe), copper-nickel ores (in the Murmansk region - Monchegorskoe). There are also deposits of non-metallic minerals - apatite-nepheline ores (Khibiny near Kirovsk).

One of the important iron ore regions of Russia is still the Urals, although its reserves are already heavily depleted (Kachkanarskaya, Vysokogorskaya, Goroblagodatskaya groups of deposits in the Middle Urals, as well as Magnitogorskoye, Khalilovskoye, Novo-Bakalskoye - in the Southern Urals, etc.).

Siberia and the Far East are rich in iron ores (Abakanskoye, Nizhneangarskoye, Rudnogorskoye, Korshunovskoye deposits, as well as deposits in the Neryungri region in the south of Yakutia, in the Zeya River basin on Far East and etc.).

Deposits of copper ores are concentrated mainly in the Urals (Krasnoturinskoye, Krasnouralskoye, Sibaevskoye, Blyavinskoye, etc.) and, as noted earlier, on the Kola Peninsula (copper-nickel ores), as well as in the mountains southern Siberia(Udokan), etc.

In the area of ​​development of deposits of copper-nickel ores, as well as cobalt, platinum and other metals in the north of Eastern Siberia, a large city of the Arctic - Norilsk has grown.

Recently (after the collapse of the USSR) in different regions of Russia, it is necessary to start developing deposits of manganese, titanium-zirconium and chromium ores, the concentrates of which were previously completely imported from Georgia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

Siberia and the Far East are regions of the Russian Federation exceptionally rich in ore and non-ore minerals.

The granite intrusions of the Aldan shield are associated with reserves of gold (placer deposits in the basins of the Vitim, Aldan, Yenisei, Kolyma rivers) and iron ores, mica, asbestos and a number of rare metals.

Industrial diamond mining is organized in Yakutia. Tin ores are represented in the Yanskoye Highlands (Verkhoyansk), in the Pevek region, Omsukchan (on the Kolyma Highlands), and in the Far East (Dalnegorsk).

Polymetallic ores are widely represented (Dalnegorsk, Nerchinsk deposits, etc.), copper-lead-zinc ores (in Ore Altai), etc. Deposits of non-ferrous metals are also represented in the Caucasus Mountains - the Sadon lead-pink deposit (Republic of North Ossetia) and tungsten-molybdenum in Tyrnyauz (Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria). Of the deposits and areas of distribution of raw materials for the chemical industry (non-metallic), it should be noted: Kingisepp in the Leningrad Region and Vyatsko-Kama in Kirov region(phosphorites), in lakes Elton, Baskunchak and Kulundinskoye, as well as in Usolye-Sibirskoye (table salt), Verkhnekamskoye deposit - Solikamsk, Berezniki (potash salt) and many others.

In the south of Western Siberia there are large reserves of coal.

In the spurs of the Kuznetsk Alatau there is an extensive Kuznetsk coal basin. It is this pool that is currently the most used in Russia.

Russia also owns the southeastern part of the Donetsk coal basin (most of which is located on the territory of Ukraine) and coal is mined there (Rostov region).

In the north-east of the European part of the country is the Pechora coal basin (Vorkuta, Inta - Komi Republic). There are huge reserves of coal in the Central Siberian Plateau (Tunguska basin) and in Yakutia (Lena basin), but these deposits are practically not used due to difficult natural and climatic conditions and poor development of the territory.

These are promising deposits. Many coal deposits are being developed in Siberia and the Far East (South-Yakutskoye - in Yakutia, Uglegorskoye - on Sakhalin, Partizanskoye - near Vladivostok, Urgalskoye - on the Bureya River, Cheremkhovskoye - near Irkutsk, etc.). The coal deposits in the Urals (Kizelovskoye) have not yet lost their significance, although lignite is still represented here to a greater extent (deposits - Karpinskoye, Kopeyskoye, etc.). The largest, well-known and currently developed brown coal deposit is the Kansko-Achinsk deposit in the Krasnoyarsk Territory.

Since the last century, oil has been produced in the North Caucasus (Grozny and Maykop oil and gas regions - the Republics of Chechnya and Adygea).

These fields are closely connected with the oil-bearing basins of the northern part of the Caspian Sea in Kazakhstan, as well as on the Absheron Peninsula in Azerbaijan.

In the 1940s, oil and gas fields in the Volga and Cis-Urals (Romashkinskoye, Arlanskoye, Tuimazinskoye, Buguruslanskoye, Ishimbaiskoye, Mukhanovskoye, etc.) began to be developed, and then the deposits of the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province in the north-east of European Russia (oil - Usinskoye , Pashninskoye, gas condensate - Voyvozhskoye, Vuktylskoye).

It was only in the 1960s that the deposits of the West Siberian Basin, which is now the largest region of oil and gas production in Russia, began to be quickly developed.

The largest gas fields of Russia (Yamburgskoye, Urengoyskoye, Medvezhye, Balakhninskoye, Kharasaveyskoye, etc.) are concentrated in the north of Western Siberia (Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District), and oil fields (Samotlorskoye , Megionskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Surgutskoye and other deposits). From here, oil and gas are supplied through pipelines to other regions of Russia, neighboring countries, as well as to European countries.

There is also oil in Yakutia, it is being produced on the island of Sakhalin. It should be noted the discovery of the first industrial accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Khabarovsk Territory (Adnikanovskoye field). For the Far East, with its chronic shortage of energy resources, this event is very important.

The volume of explored mineral reserves in Russia is estimated at $10 trillion, and unexplored resources - at least $200 trillion.

According to this indicator, Russia is ahead of the United States by about 4 times.

Until now, it has been generally accepted that all or almost all of Russia's minerals are located in the Urals, the Far East and Siberia, and the European part of the country, especially its North-West region, is a poor region in this respect. But, the North-West region is also a unique territory in terms of minerals.

In recent years, new fields have been discovered in the Russian Federation: natural gas on the shelf of the Barents Sea (Shtokmanovskoye), gas condensate - on the shelf of the Kara Sea (Leningradskoye), oil - on the shelf of the Pechora Bay.

The first diamond deposits associated with kimberlite pipes were first found near St. Petersburg and only 10–15 years later in the Arkhangelsk region (the famous Lomonosov pipes).

In addition, there are large reserves of non-metallic minerals in the North-West (especially in Karelia and in the north of the Leningrad region). Large reserves of uranium ores have been found in the Kursk-Ladoga crater.

In the field of mining, the following problems can be identified.

The mineral resource base of the country has a relatively low investment attractiveness due to the unfavorable geographic and economic location of many mineral deposits and the relatively low quality of mineral raw materials, their low competitiveness in modern economic conditions.

Therefore, it is necessary to conduct an effective policy aimed at the rational use of the mineral resource base. For these purposes, the "Energy Strategy of Russia for the period up to 2020" was developed, which reflects the state's policy on the main issues of developing the fuel and energy complex, its raw materials (primarily oil and gas) component.

In the Russian Federation, the problem of replenishing reserves at mining enterprises in the main mining regions of the country has sharply escalated.

According to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, for the period from 1994 to 1999, the replenishment of reserves extracted from the subsoil by their increments amounted to 73% for oil, 47% for gas, 33% for copper, 57% for zinc, and 41% for lead.

Over 70% of oil companies' reserves are on the verge of profitability.

If ten years ago the share of oil reserves involved in the development with a well flow rate of 25 tons / day was 55%, now this share is made up of reserves with well flow rates of up to 10 tons / day, and oil reserves of highly productive fields, giving about 60% of production, have been developed over than 50%.

The share of reserves with a depletion of more than 80% exceeds 25%, and the share with a water cut of 70% is more than a third of the developed reserves. Hard-to-recover reserves continue to grow, the share of which has already reached 55-60% of the developed ones.

The development of coal raw materials is carried out at a pace that does not correspond to their potential.

The development of mining and the growth of coal consumption should take place in a rational combination with the production and consumption of other energy carriers, taking into account the reserves of each of them, their distribution throughout the country, the cost of production and transportation to the consumer, etc.

Large mining and processing plants (GOK), which form the basis of the iron ore industry in Russia - Lebedinsky, Mikhailovsky, Stoilensky, Kachkanarsky, Kostomushsky, Kovdorsky - are provided with reserves for 25-35 years or more.

The underground mines of Siberia and the Kursk magnetic anomaly are sufficiently provided with reserves.

Minerals in Russia

At the same time, a number of iron ore enterprises have unfavorable raw material bases. So, at the Olenegorsky GOK, the main quarry - Olenegorsky - is provided with reserves for only 15 years, Kirovogorsky - for 20 years.

In 12-13 years, rich ores will be completely worked out in the quarries of Mikhailovsky and Stoilensky GOK.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia was left practically without industrial deposits of manganese ores.

Their explored reserves amount to 146 million tons, and there is no production on an industrial scale. The largest of the known deposits - Usinskoye in the Kemerovo region with reserves of 98.5 million tons of poor refractory carbonate ores is classified as a reserve group, the rest of the deposits are not planned for development. The predominant type of ores is hard-enriched carbonate, which accounts for about 91% of the balance reserves, the rest is easily enriched oxide and oxidized ores.

Our country still ranks first in the world in terms of explored reserves and production of nickel.

In the early 1990s, Russia accounted for 95% of explored reserves and 91% of nickel production in the CIS countries. Since the main type of nickel deposits is copper-nickel sulfide, many of the problems of developing the mineral resource base and nickel production, mentioned above for copper, are also valid for nickel, especially in the Norilsk region.

In order to expand the mineral resource base of nickel, it is necessary to intensify exploration work in the areas of operating enterprises, as well as the search for deposits in promising areas of Karelia, the Arkhangelsk, Voronezh, Irkutsk and Chita regions, as well as Buryatia.

As scientists predict, in the coming years, the state of its own production of lead and zinc will worsen even more.

In addition to the decommissioning of zinc mining capacity at the Ural copper-zinc deposits, reserves at the developed lead-zinc deposits in other regions will decrease by 2010.

by 80-85%. An analysis of the state of the resource bases of mining enterprises shows that until 2005, 11 mines in the regions of the North Caucasus, Western and Eastern Siberia are leaving the number of operating mines. It remains relevant to carry out exploration work in the areas of operating enterprises for additional exploration of the flanks and deep horizons at the developed deposits of Nerchinskoye, Sadonskoye, Altai GOK, PO Dalpolimetall, as well as the discovery of new deposits of rich lead-zinc ores in these and other promising areas - Buryatia, Primorye , Krasnoyarsk Territory, Altai.

The need for tin is almost a third higher than its production, and the difference was previously covered by imports.

The current situation in the tin-mining industry seems rather difficult. A number of enterprises are poorly provided with explored reserves. These include enterprises developing reserves of tin primary and alluvial deposits in the Magadan Region and the Chukotka Autonomous District, where a number of mining—concentratingcombines.

The situation on the world tin market in the future will become more and more unfavorable for consumers. The price of refined tin on the London Metal Exchange is constantly increasing. The further worsening of the situation on the world market is explained by the fact that the countries that are the main consumers of tin (USA, Western European countries, Japan) do not have their own raw material resources, and its demand, according to the forecast, will increase.

It is estimated that tungsten mining mines are provided with reserves for an average of 34 years, but for individual mines, the duration of production varies from 8 to 40 years.

At the same time, large reserves of low-grade ores of the Tyrnyauz and Inkur deposits account for 76% of all reserves of the developed deposits. The reserves life of five mines with rich deposits and one with an average quality of ores is 8-14 years.

This means that in 10-15 years, half of the tungsten mining enterprises will have depleted their reserves, and the remaining mines will develop mostly low-grade ores.

Russia, unfortunately, lags far behind the advanced industrialized countries in terms of consumption of tantalum, niobium, strontium and other rare, as well as rare earth metals.

In particular, in terms of consumption of niobium and rare earths, our country lags behind the United States by 4 and 6 times, respectively. Meanwhile, Russia has a fairly large raw material base of rare and rare earth metals, but it is poorly developed. In recent years, rare earth and tantalum production has practically ceased, and niobium production has been reduced by 70% compared to 1990. combine(Murmansk region) of tantalum and niobium concentrates, more than half of metallic niobium and all tantalum were produced at plants in Estonia and Kazakhstan.

The crisis state of the Russian economy is manifested in the ongoing decline in production and domestic consumption of almost all strategic types of raw materials and primary products from them.

Oil and coal production, steel production, production of aluminum, nickel, lead, zinc, other non-ferrous and precious metals, diamonds, phosphate and potash fertilizers decreased in the 90s to a critical level (by 30-60%), and rare and rare earth minerals by 90-100%. The situation is also aggravated by the extremely insufficient, and for most types of raw materials, the complete absence of new mining capacities and the catastrophic curtailment of geological exploration.

Russia lags behind other developed countries in per capita consumption of mineral resources.

Thus, in terms of per capita consumption of the most important minerals - copper, lead, zinc, tin - Russia occupies 9-11th place in the world, in terms of molybdenum, nickel, aluminum, zirconium and tantalum - 4-6th place, in terms of phosphate concentrate and fluorspar, respectively, 7th and 6th place in the world.

But it is precisely these indicators that characterize the level economic development country, and in the end result - the national independence and authority of the state in the international arena.

When developing a strategy for the development of the mineral resource base, the time factor should be taken into account as a determining factor.

The experience of developing the territories of Russia shows that the preparation of a resource base in volumes that are profitable for industrial development requires 10-15 years, subject to the concentration of significant funds. The modern resource base, even in developed areas, is characterized by a complex structure, and under the current tax system, at least 50% of prepared reserves turn out to be unprofitable for industrial development.

It is sad, but we have to admit that the state has withdrawn itself both from the development of the mineral resource base and from the management of the fuel and energy complex, which leads to the development of negative processes in the entire economy.

Thus, the problem of developing the fuel and energy complex and its mineral resource base is one of the most important for the Russian economy, the solution of which determines both the prospects for the development of the country and its national security.

ORE DEPOSITS

Rocks surrounding the deposit or included in it, containing no metal (useful mineral) at all or containing, but in an amount insufficient for industrial processing, is called waste rock.

The boundary between ore and non-ore minerals is conditional.

Many minerals that used to be used immediately after being mined are now undergoing complex processing to extract all of their useful components. Sometimes a mineral, such as limestone, is not processed, sometimes it is used as a chemical raw material. Therefore, now the term "ore" is losing its original meaning. It is also applied to many non-metallic minerals. In this sense, the concept of "ore" we will use further.

The choice of development system and technology from the features that characterize the field is most influenced by its shape (morphology), size and conditions of occurrence.

The shape of the ore bodies can be divided into three groups:

isometric, i.e.

e. equally developed in all three directions in space;

columnar, i.e., elongated in one direction;

vein type - elongated in two directions.

The first type of isometric ore bodies includes stocks and pockets. Often they have an irregular shape, but all three dimensions in space are more or less equal to each other. Stocks differ from nests in large sizes, measured in tens and hundreds of meters.

A typical nest-like deposit is the Khaidarkan mercury deposit (Central Asia).

Many primary diamond deposits have a columnar shape. In South Africa, diamond pipes extend to a depth of several kilometers with transverse dimensions measured in hundreds of meters.

In the Krivoy Rog basin, ore bodies with a length exceeding the thickness by more than six times are classified as columnar.

Lentils and lenses are transitional forms from the first to the third group.

A typical representative of this type of ore bodies are the Ural copper-pyrite deposits. The lenticular deposit of copper pyrite Rio Tinto (Spain) consists of lenses with a length of 300 to 1700 m and a thickness of up to 100 - 250 m.

The ore bodies of the third group - bedded and veined - are limited by more or less parallel planes (surfaces) and have a thickness that varies within relatively small limits.

The cores are often irregularly shaped and inconsistent in power.

Ore deposits of the same group, which differ from the layers in a less consistent shape and thickness, are called sheet-like.

There are also more complex forms of ore bodies - saddle-shaped, dome-shaped, etc.

In most cases, the deposit is represented by not one, but several ore bodies.

These co-occurring ore bodies are separated from one another by waste rock; sometimes they intersect, join together and separate again. In this case, one ore body is the main one, and the rest are its offshoots.

Deposits are often disturbed by faults, shifts, they are bent, crushed, crushed, as a result of which their development becomes more complicated.

The more irregular the deposit in shape, the more tectonic disturbances it has, the more difficult its development, the more heavy losses ore it happens.

In addition to the shape of the deposit, an important feature is the nature of its contact with the host rocks.

The contact in some cases is pronounced sharply, and the ore body is distinctly separated from the host rocks. In other cases, the transition from ore to waste rock occurs gradually, and the boundaries of industrial mineralization can only be established by sampling.

Development of deposits with distinct contacts is usually easier. Sometimes the presence of mineralization in the host rocks, on the contrary, favorably affects the development, since the ore during breaking is clogged not with empty, but with ore-bearing rocks.

Depending on the nature of the distribution ore minerals distinguish: solid ores, consisting of ore minerals mixed with a certain amount of rock, and usually having sharp boundaries with host rocks; disseminated ores are relatively rare inclusions of ore minerals in an ore rock, usually having distinct boundaries with host rocks.

Both types of ores occur in many deposits; usually in the middle part of the ore body the ores are solid, and on the periphery they are disseminated. At the Leninogorsk lead-zinc mines, solid sulfide ores gradually become poorer as they approach the contact of the footwall and pass into hornfelsed disseminated ores. At the Degtyarsky copper deposit, solid copper pyrite or pyrite ores pass in places into disseminated lead ores.

Some deposits of Krivbass in their central part or on one side are represented by continuous rich ores, which are gradually replaced by disseminated ores and then weakly ferruginous side rocks in the direction of the lying side.

One of the main factors determining the choice of system is the angle of incidence.

According to the dip angle, the deposits are divided into horizontal and gently dipping with an angle of dip from 0 to 25°; inclined with an angle of incidence from 25 to 45° and steeply dipping with an angle of incidence of more than 45°. This division is associated with a significant change in development conditions and application at different angles of incidence. various ways clearing excavation and delivery of ore.

The thickness of the ore body is measured as the distance between the hanging and recumbent sides of the deposit.

If this distance is measured along the normal, then the power is called true, but if it is measured vertically or horizontally, then the power is called vertical and horizontal, respectively. Vertical power is used for gently dipping ore bodies, horizontal - for steeply dipping.

In a stock-like deposit, the thickness is considered to be the smaller of its horizontal dimensions.

The larger horizontal dimension is called the stem length. Sometimes the power of the rod is considered its vertical size, and the horizontal power is called the width. The latter is expedient when the stock (array) has significant horizontal dimensions and relatively small vertical dimensions.

The thickness of ore bodies can change along strike and with depth gradually or abruptly, regularly or randomly.

Volatility of power is typical for ore deposits. Abrupt power changes make development difficult.

For deposits with variable thickness of ore bodies, the extreme limits of its fluctuations are indicated, as well as the average thickness for individual sections of the deposit.

By thickness, ore bodies can be divided into five groups.

Very thin, less than 0.6 m thick, during the development of which the stoping excavation is accompanied by undermining of the host rocks.

The safety rules allow for a minimum width of the clearing space of 0.6 m, and a height (with a gentle occurrence of ore bodies) of 0.8 m.

Thin - with a thickness of 0.6 to 2 m, during the development of which a stoping excavation can be carried out without undermining the host rocks, but horizontal preparatory workings in most cases require their undermining.

Average thickness - from 2 to 5 m. The upper limit of the thickness corresponds to the maximum length of the simplest type of lining during the cleaning excavation - struts, racks.

The development of deposits of medium thickness can be carried out without undermining the host rocks both during the stoping excavation and during the development workings.

Thick ones - from 5 to 20 m, in which a stoping excavation can be carried out along the strike to the full thickness with a steep drop.

Very thick - more than 20 - 25 m. The mining excavation in these ore bodies is usually carried out across the strike.

The depth of the deposit also largely determines the choice of development method.

The depth of occurrence is indicated from the surface vertically to the upper and lower boundaries of the deposit. The distance between the lower and upper boundaries of the deposit along the vertical or along the slope of the formation determines the depth of its distribution.

Deposits with a depth of more than 800 m are considered to be deep-lying. At this depth, peculiar manifestations of rock pressure begin, which are expressed in the shooting of rocks and rock bumps.

The ore area of ​​a deposit is the area of ​​its horizontal section.

The depth of occurrence and distribution of the deposit, the ore area, the length along the strike, as well as the angle of incidence, can be different in different parts of the deposit.

Therefore, different development systems are often used in separate areas of the same field.

Of all the physical and mechanical properties of ores and host rocks, strength and stability have the greatest influence on the choice of mining system and mining technology.

The strength of rocks, determined by the combination of many of their physical and mechanical properties (hardness, viscosity, fracturing, layering, the presence of foreign inclusions and interlayers), affects the choice of development system, machines and tools used in mining, the productivity of mining machines and the productivity of miners , on the consumption of materials and the cost of production.

For the first time, the classification of rocks according to the “strength coefficient” was created by the famous Russian scientist prof.

MM. Protodyakonov (senior). It is still widely used in domestic practice and literature.

Indicators of rock stability that would allow determining the amount of permissible outcrop have not yet been established. Therefore, when choosing a development system, a method for maintaining a goaf and an area of ​​permissible outcrop, approximate characteristics of rocks are used in terms of their stability.

According to the stability of the ores and host rocks can be divided into the following five groups.

Very unstable - they do not allow the exposure of the roof and sides of the working without fastening at all and, as a rule, require the use of advanced lining.

Minerals

During the development of ore deposits, such rocks (quicksand, loose and loose rocks saturated with water) are very rare.

Unstable - allow a slight exposure of the roof, but require strong maintenance of it after the excavation.

Medium stability - they allow exposure of the roof over a relatively large area, but with prolonged exposure they require maintenance.

Stable - allow very significant exposure of the roof and sides and need to be maintained only in certain places.

Very stable - they allow huge exposure both from below and from the sides and can stand for a long time without collapsing, without support.

The rocks of this group are less common than the two previous groups. The rocks of the 3rd and 4th groups are the most common in the development of ore deposits.

The lumpiness of broken ore (the size of the pieces resulting from breaking) is characterized by its granulometric composition, i.e.

e. the quantitative ratio of pieces of various sizes in the total mass of broken ore. The size of pieces that have an irregular shape is usually expressed as an average size in three mutually perpendicular directions.

There are various gradations of lumpiness. The most simple and convenient is the following gradation.

Ore fines - from ore dust to pieces with transverse dimensions of 100 mm. When developing vein deposits, ore is sometimes sorted, waste rock is sampled from it, in this case a special gradation is distinguished - unsorted fines with pieces less than 50 mm in size.

Ore of medium size - from 100 to 300 mm.

The ore is lumpy - from 300 to 600 mm.

The ore is very lumpy - more than 600 mm.

The lumpiness of the ore during breaking depends, on the one hand, on the physical and mechanical properties of the ore in the massif, in particular, on its structure, and on the other hand, on the breaking method used, the diameter of blast holes and boreholes, their location, type explosive, blasting method, etc.

A standard piece of ore is a piece with the maximum allowable size, which can be issued from the mined block for loading into haulage vessels.

During underground mining of ore deposits, it varies on average from 300 to 600 mm and sometimes reaches 1000 mm.

The size of the conditioned piece has big influence a choice of equipment for all production processes of extraction, delivery, loading, transportation.

Pieces of ore that exceed the standard dimensions are called oversized.

The weight amount of oversized pieces in the total mass of broken ore, expressed as a percentage, is called the oversized output.

Ore deposits, in comparison with coal deposits, have a number of features arising from their geological origin.

They significantly affect the content and technological solutions in the development of an ore deposit.

The main features are:

high strength and abrasiveness of ores, most of which have a strength factor of 8 - 12, and stronger ones - 15 - 20.

This necessitates the use of underground work in most cases of explosive breaking associated with drilling and loading boreholes and boreholes;

a variety of sizes and variability of the elements of occurrence of ore bodies, which significantly affects the adoption of technological decisions, schemes for stripping and preparation, as well as the choice of mining systems;

variability of the content of useful components and the mineralogical composition of ores in terms of the volume of the deposit, which makes it necessary to average the quality of the ore mass coming from different blocks;

less destructibility of broken ore during its gravity movement along ore passes with a length of up to 100 m or more.

This has an impact on the features of the opening of deposits and the preparation of blocks;

lower reliability of information about mining and geological conditions and the flow of technological processes, which makes it difficult to monitor their implementation;

a wide range of stability of ores and host rocks, which predetermines the variety of technological solutions;

the ability of some ores to caking and self-ignition, which limits the use of mining systems with the storage of broken ore;

the high value of most ores, which leads to more stringent requirements for the completeness and quality of the extraction of minerals;

the absence of methane emissions in most mines, which allows the use of open fire and equipment in normal operation in underground conditions.

Previous34353637383940414243444546474849Next

VIEW MORE:

The mineral reserves in Russia are large.

502 bad gateway

In the reserve of iron ore, it ranks first in the world. The balance reserves of iron ore are estimated at 90-100 billion tons, the prognostic ones are much more. Most of the explored reserves of iron ore are located in the European part of Russia.

The most important iron ore basin is the KMA (Kursk magnetic anomaly) basin.

The balance reserves of KMA (according to various sources) amount to 40-50 billion tons, most of which are concentrated in the Belgorod and Kursk regions.

In the European part of Kostomuksha, Kovdor and Olenegorsk there are iron ore deposits, the balance reserves of which are estimated at 4 billion Euros.

The iron ore of the Urals is concentrated in Goroglagodatsky, Kachkanar, Serov, Bakal Orsk-Khalilov and other areas.

Eastern regions account for more than 10 billion tons of balance reserves. The main iron deposit of Tashtagolsky (Kemerovo region). Bakchar, Southern Kolpashevskoye (Tomsk). Abakansky, Nizhneangarsk, Teisko (Krasnoyarsk) Korshunov Rudnogorsk, Tagorskoe (Irkutsk region) Garinsky (Amur region). Kimkanskoe (Khabarovsk Territory), Aldan basin (Republic of Sakha).

The main roles of manganese ore remained outside of Russia (Ukraine, Georgia).

Ore deposits are located in the Urals (midnight mine) in Russia, Western Siberia (Usinsk deposit), Far East (Khingan).

In the Perm Territory (Saranovskoye deposit) there are chromite ores.

Ore non-ferrous metals contain a much smaller amount of a useful component. Therefore, if the poorest iron ores contain at least 20% iron, copper ores with a copper content of 5% are considered rich.

to heavy Non-ferrous metals are commonly referred to as zinc, lead, nickel, chromium, tin, easily metals, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, alloying (used as additives for steel) - tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium.

Group nobly metals - silver, gold, platinum.

Deposits of copper ore, which is located in the Urals (Krasnoural'sk, Kirovograd, Degtyarsk, Karabashsky Gaisky, Blyavinskoe and other applications), in Eastern Siberia (Talnakhsky, Norilsk, Udokan deposits) in the Murmansk region (Pechenga Monchetundra) for the North Caucasus (Urupskaya deposit ).

Deposits of silver (polymetallic) ores in most cases are characterized by a complex composition.

In addition to zinc and lead, they contain copper, silver, tin, gold, etc.

The main polyethylene ores are concentrated in Eastern Siberia(Ozernoye, Khapcheranga, Kili, Garevskoye), in the Far East(Dalnegorsk field), Western Siberia (Salair, Zmeinogorsk deposit), on North Caucasus(Deposit Sadon).

The raw materials for the production of nickel and cobalt are nickel (containing copper and nickel) and cobalt ore.

The main reserves of these ores are concentrated in Eastern Siberia (Talnakh, Oktyabrsky, Khova Aksinskaya field), Urals (upper Ufalej, Khalilov and other deposits) on the Kola Peninsula (nickel). As for nickel reserves, Russia ranks first in the world.

The main deposits of tin ore are associated with the Pacific ore belt and were located in the Far East (ESE-Khaya, Deputatskoe, Omsukchanskoe, Sun, Hrustalnenskoe deposit) and partly in Transbaikalia (Hapcheranga, Sherlovaya Gora).

Ores, tungsten and molybdenum are found in the North Caucasus (Tirnyauz), Eastern Siberia and the Far East (Dzhida, Davenda, East-2).

Bauxites, nefolines and alunites are used as raw materials for aluminum production.

Aluminum ores are present in many areas, which are the basis for the aluminum industry. In European Russia, bauxite deposits have been found in Tikhvin, Leningrad), Arkhangelsk (Northern Onega), Belgorod (Vislovsky) deposits in the Komi Republic (bauxite region of southeastern Timan). In the Murmansk region - Nepheline deposits in the Khibiny mountains. There are bauxite dumps in the Urals in the Sverdlovsk region (Krasnaya Shapochka, Cheremukhovskoye). There are deposits of bauxite and non-cellulose; In western and eastern Siberia (diaries of Salairsky, Kiya-, Shaltyrsky, Nizhneangarsk, Bokson, Goryachegorsky).

The role of titanium and magnesium ores was determined in the Urals, Siberia and the Komi Republic.

Silver is limited to areas of distribution of polymetallic ores.

The main gold reserves are concentrated in the Republic of Sakha (box Aldan Ust-Nera, Kular), in the Magadan region (Kolyma region), Chukotka in Eastern Siberia (Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk and Chita regions).

The main sources of platinum are associated with deposits of copper-nickel ores (Norilsk, Murmansk region).

Group mining and chemical resources includes phosphate ores, potassium and common salts, sulfur and others, which form the raw material base of the chemical industry.

Phosphate ores - apatite and phosphorite, which are raw materials for the production of phosphate fertilizers. Higher reserves of apatite concentrate in the Khibiny mountains are phosphates located in the central region (Egorievskoye), Volga-Vyatka (Vyatka-Kama deposit), Middle Black regions of Siberia and the Far East.

In terms of potassium salt reserves, Russia ranks first in the world.

Root potash deposit (Solikamsk, Berezniki) located in the region and Permian salt deposits in addition to the above in Orenburg (Sol-Iletsk fields), Astrakhan (i.e. Elton Baskunchak), Western and Eastern Siberia (Mikhailovskoe, Usol- Siberian deposit) .

Russia has large and diverse resources mineral construction materials, which are the basis for the development of the building materials industry and the construction industry.

Almost all natural building materials are available in all economic regions.

Thus, the Russian potential of mineral resources is very impressive. The cost of research in some varieties of minerals in Russia is estimated at 20-30 trillion rubles.

U.S. dollar. Forecast estimates are 140 trillion. dollars. According to calculations, the reserves of coal, iron ore, potash salts and raw phosphorus in Russia are guaranteed for two or three centuries.

Natural substances and types of energy that serve as the means of existence of human society and are used in the economy are called .

One of the varieties of natural resources is mineral resources.

Mineral resources - these are rocks and minerals that are used or can be used in national economy: to obtain energy, in the form of raw materials, etc. Mineral resources serve as the mineral resource base of the country's economy. Currently, more than 200 types of mineral resources are used in the economy.

Often synonymous with mineral resources is the term "minerals".

There are several classifications of mineral resources.

Based on the consideration of physical properties, solid (various ores, coal, marble, granite, salts) mineral resources are distinguished, liquid (oil, mineral water) and gaseous (combustible gases, helium, methane).

By origin, mineral resources are divided into sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic.

Based on the scope of the use of mineral resources, combustible (coal, peat, oil, natural gas, oil shale), ore (rock ores, including metallic useful components and non-metallic (graphite, asbestos) and non-metallic (or non-metallic, non-combustible: sand, clay , limestone, apatite, sulfur, potassium salts) Precious and ornamental stones are a separate group.

The distribution of mineral resources on our planet is subject to geological patterns (Table 1).

Mineral resources of sedimentary origin are most characteristic of platforms, where they occur in the sedimentary cover, as well as in foothill and marginal foredeep.

Igneous mineral resources are confined to folded areas and places where the crystalline basement of ancient platforms comes to the surface (or close to the surface). This is explained as follows. The ores were formed mainly from magma and hot aqueous solutions. Typically, the rise of magma occurs during periods of active tectonic movements, therefore, ore minerals are associated with folded areas. On platform plains, they are confined to the basement; therefore, they can occur in those parts of the platform where the thickness of the sedimentary cover is small and the basement comes close to the surface or on shields.

Minerals on the map of the World

Minerals on the map of Russia

Table 1. Distribution of deposits of the main minerals by continents and parts of the world

Minerals	Continents and parts of the world
			North America	South America		Australia
Aluminum
Manganese
Floor and metals
Rare earth metals
Tungsten
non-metallic

Potassium salts
Rock salt
Phosphorites
Piezoquartz
ornamental stones

Sedimentary origin is primarily fuel resources. They were formed from the remains of plants and animals, which could accumulate only in sufficiently humid and warm conditions favorable for the abundant development of living organisms. This occurred in the coastal parts of shallow seas and in lacustrine-marsh land conditions. Of the total mineral fuel reserves, more than 60% is coal, about 12% is oil, and 15% is natural gas, the rest is oil shale, peat and other fuels. Mineral fuel resources form large coal and oil and gas bearing basins.

coal basin(coal-bearing basin) - a large area (thousands of km 2) of continuous or intermittent development of coal-bearing deposits (coal-bearing formation) with layers (deposits) of fossil coal.

Coal basins of the same geological age often form coal accumulation belts extending over thousands of kilometers.

More than 3.6 thousand coal basins are known on the globe, which together occupy 15% of the earth's land area.

More than 90% of all coal resources are located in the Northern Hemisphere - in Asia, North America, Europe. Africa and Australia are well supplied with coal. The most coal-poor continent is South America. Coal resources have been explored in almost 100 countries of the world. Most of both total and explored coal reserves are concentrated in economically developed countries.

The largest countries in the world in terms of proven coal reserves are: USA, Russia, China, India, Australia, South Africa, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Poland, Brazil. Approximately 80% of the total geological reserves of coal are in only three countries - Russia, the USA, China.

The qualitative composition of coals is essential, in particular, the proportion of coking coals used in ferrous metallurgy. Their share is greatest in the fields of Australia, Germany, Russia, Ukraine, USA, India and China.

Oil and gas basin— the area of ​​continuous or insular distribution of oil, gas or gas condensate deposits, significant in terms of size or mineral reserves.

Mineral deposit called a section of the earth's crust in which, as a result of certain geological processes, an accumulation of mineral matter occurred, which, in terms of quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence, is suitable for industrial use.

oil and gas bearing More than 600 basins have been explored, 450 are being developed. The main reserves are located in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in Mesozoic deposits. An important place belongs to the so-called giant fields with reserves of over 500 million tons and even over 1 billion tons of oil and 1 trillion m 3 of gas each. There are 50 such oil fields (more than half - in the countries of the Near and Middle East), gas - 20 (such fields are most typical for the CIS countries). They contain over 70% of all stocks.

The main part of oil and gas reserves is concentrated in a relatively small number of major basins.

The largest oil and gas basins: Persian Gulf, Maracaibe, Orinok, Gulf of Mexico, Texas, Illinois, California, Western Canadian, Alaska, North Sea, Volga-Ural, West Siberian, Daqing, Sumatran, Gulf of Guinea, Sahara.

More than half of the explored oil reserves are confined to offshore fields, the continental shelf zone, and sea coasts. Large accumulations of oil have been identified off the coast of Alaska, in the Gulf of Mexico, in the coastal regions of the northern part of South America (the Maracaibo basin), in the North Sea (especially in the waters of the British and Norwegian sectors), as well as in the Barents, Bering and Caspian Seas, off the western coasts Africa (Guinean washed down), in the Persian Gulf, near the islands of Southeast Asia and in other places.

The countries of the world with the largest oil reserves are Saudi Arabia, Russia, Iraq, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Venezuela, Mexico, Libya, and the USA. Large reserves are also found in Qatar, Bahrain, Ecuador, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Indonesia, Brunei.

The availability of proven oil reserves with modern production is 45 years in the world as a whole. On average for OPEC, this figure is 85 leg; in the USA it barely exceeds 10 years, in Russia it is 20 years, in Saudi Arabia it is 90 years, in Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates it is about 140 years.

Countries leading in terms of gas reserves in the world, are Russia, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Large reserves are also found in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, USA, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Algeria, Libya, Norway, the Netherlands, Great Britain, China, Brunei, Indonesia.

The provision of the world economy with natural gas at the current level of its production is 71 years.

Metal ores can serve as an example of igneous mineral resources. To metal ores include ores of iron, manganese, chromium, aluminum, lead and zinc, copper, tin, gold, platinum, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, etc. Often they form huge ore (metallogenic) belts - Alpine-Himalayan, Pacific, etc. and serve as a raw material base for the mining industry of individual countries.

Iron ores serve as the main raw material for the production of ferrous metals. The iron content in the ore averages 40%. Depending on the percentage of iron, ores are divided into rich and poor. Rich ores with an iron content above 45% are used without enrichment, while poor ones undergo preliminary enrichment.

By the size of the general geological resources of iron ore the first place is occupied by the CIS countries, the second - by foreign Asia, the third and fourth are shared by Africa and South America, the fifth - is occupied by North America.

Iron ore resources are located in many developed and developing countries. According to them total and proven reserves Russia, Ukraine, Brazil, China, Australia stand out. There are large reserves of iron ore in the USA, Canada, India, France, and Sweden. Large deposits are also located in the UK, Norway, Luxembourg, Venezuela, South Africa, Algeria, Liberia, Gabon, Angola, Mauritania, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan.

The provision of the world economy with iron ore at the current level of its production is 250 years.

In the production of ferrous metals, alloying metals (manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum), used in steelmaking as special additives to improve the quality of the metal, are of great importance.

By reserves manganese ores South Africa, Australia, Gabon, Brazil, India, China, Kazakhstan stand out; nickel ores - Russia, Australia, New Caledonia (islands in Melanesia, southwestern part Pacific Ocean), Cuba, as well as Canada, Indonesia, Philippines; chromites - South Africa, Zimbabwe; cobalt - DR Congo, Zambia, Australia, Philippines; tungsten and molybdenum USA, Canada, South Korea, Australia.

Non-ferrous metals are widely used in modern industries. Ores of non-ferrous metals, unlike ferrous ones, have a very low percentage of useful elements in the ore (often tenths and even hundredths of a percent).

Raw material base aluminum industry constitute bauxites, nephelines, alunites, syenites. main view raw materials - bauxites.

There are several bauxite-bearing provinces in the world:

• Mediterranean (France, Italy, Greece, Hungary, Romania, etc.);
• coast of the Gulf of Guinea (Guinea, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Cameroon);
• Caribbean coast (Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Suriname);
• Australia.

Stocks are also available in the CIS countries and China.

Countries of the world that have largest total and proven bauxite reserves: Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, Australia, Russia. The provision of the world economy with bauxites at the current level of their production (80 million tons) is 250 years.

The volumes of raw materials for obtaining other non-ferrous metals (copper, polymetallic, tin and other ores) are more limited in comparison with the raw material base of the aluminum industry.

Stocks copper ores concentrated mainly in Asia (India, Indonesia, etc.), Africa (Zimbabwe, Zambia, DRC), North America (USA, Canada) and CIS countries (Russia, Kazakhstan). Resources of copper ores are also available in countries Latin America(Mexico, Panama, Peru, Chile), Europe (Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia), as well as in Australia and Oceania (Australia, Papua New Guinea). Leading in copper ore reserves Chile, USA, Canada, DR Congo, Zambia, Peru, Australia, Kazakhstan, China.

Provision of the world economy with explored reserves of copper ores with the current volume of their annual production is approximately 56 years.

By reserves polymetallic ores containing lead, zinc, as well as copper, tin, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, gold, silver, selenium, tellurium, sulfur, the leading positions in the world are occupied by the countries of North America (USA, Canada), Latin America (Mexico, Peru), as well as Australia. The resources of polymetallic ores are located in the countries of Western Europe (Ireland, Germany), Asia (China, Japan) and the CIS countries (Kazakhstan, Russia).

Place of Birth zinc are available in 70 countries of the world, the availability of their reserves, taking into account the growth in demand for this metal, is more than 40 years. Australia, Canada, USA, Russia, Kazakhstan and China have the largest reserves. These countries account for more than 50% of the world's zinc ore reserves.

World deposits tin ores are found in Southeast Asia, mainly in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Other large deposits are located in South America (Bolivia, Peru, Brazil) and in Australia.

If we compare economically developed countries and developing countries in terms of their share in resources different types ore raw materials, it is obvious that the former have a sharp preponderance in the resources of platinum, vanadium, chromites, gold, manganese, lead, zinc, tungsten, and the latter in the resources of cobalt, bauxite, tin, nickel, and copper.

uranium ores form the basis of modern nuclear energy. Uranium is very common in earth's crust. Potentially, its reserves are estimated at 10 million tons. However, it is economically profitable to develop only those deposits whose ores contain at least 0.1% uranium, and the production cost does not exceed $80 per 1 kg. The explored reserves of such uranium in the world are 1.4 million tons. They are located in Australia, Canada, the USA, South Africa, Niger, Brazil, Namibia, as well as in Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

Diamonds are usually formed at depths of 100-200 km, where the temperature reaches 1100-1300 ° C, and the pressure is 35-50 kilobars. Such conditions favor the metamorphosis of carbon into diamond. Having spent billions of years at great depths, diamonds are brought to the surface by kimberlig magma during volcanic explosions, thus forming primary deposits of diamonds - kimberlite pipes. The first of these pipes was discovered in southern Africa in the province of Kimberley, after this province they began to call the pipes kimberlite, and the rock containing precious diamonds, kimberlite. To date, thousands of kimberlite pipes have been found, but only a few dozen of them are profitable.

Currently, diamonds are mined from two types of deposits: primary (kimberlite and lamproite pipes) and secondary - placers. The main part of diamond reserves, 68.8%, is concentrated in Africa, about 20% - in Australia, 11.1% - in South and North America; Asia accounts for only 0.3%. Diamond deposits have been discovered in South Africa, Brazil, India, Canada, Australia, Russia, Botswana, Angola, Sierra Lsona, Namibia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, etc. Botswana, Russia, Canada, South Africa, Angola, Namibia and DR Congo.

Nonmetallic mineral resources- these are, first of all, mineral chemical raw materials (sulfur, phosphorites, potassium salts), as well as building materials, refractory raw materials, graphite, etc. They are widespread, occurring both on platforms and in folded areas.

For example, in hot dry conditions, salts accumulated in shallow seas and coastal lagoons.

Potassium salts are used as raw materials for the production of mineral fertilizers. The largest deposits potash salts are found in Canada (Saskatchewan basin), Russia (the Solikamsk and Bereznyaki deposits in the Perm Territory), Belarus (Starobinskoye), Ukraine (Kalushskoye, Stebnikskoye), as well as in Germany, France, and the USA. With the current annual production of potash salts, proven reserves will last for 70 years.

Sulfur It is used primarily to produce sulfuric acid, the vast majority of which is used in the production of phosphate fertilizers, pesticides, and also in the pulp and paper industry. In agriculture, sulfur is used to control pests. The United States, Mexico, Poland, France, Germany, Iran, Japan, Ukraine, Turkmenistan have significant reserves of native sulfur.

Stocks certain types minerals are not the same. The need for mineral resources is constantly growing, which means that the size of their production is growing. Mineral resources are exhaustible, non-renewable natural resources, therefore, despite the discovery and development of new deposits, the availability of mineral resources is declining.

Resource availability is the ratio between the amount of (explored) natural resources and the amount of their use. It is expressed either in the number of years that a particular resource should last at a given level of consumption, or in its per capita reserves at current rates of extraction or use. The resource supply with mineral resources is determined by the number of years for which this mineral should be enough.

According to the calculations of scientists, the world's general geological reserves of mineral fuel at the current level of production can be enough for more than 1000 years. However, if we take into account the reserves available for extraction, as well as the constant growth in consumption, this provision can be reduced by several times.

For economic use the most profitable are territorial combinations of mineral resources that facilitate the complex processing of raw materials.

Only a few countries in the world have significant reserves of many types of mineral resources. Among them are Russia, the USA, China.

Many states have deposits of one or more types of world-class resources. For example, the countries of the Near and Middle East - oil and gas; Chile, Zaire, Zambia - copper, Morocco and Nauru - phosphorites, etc.

Rice. 1. Principles of rational nature management

The rational use of resources is important - more complete processing of extracted minerals, their integrated use, etc. (Fig. 1).

Minerals are formations of the earth's crust, consisting of minerals, the chemical and physical properties of which allow them to be used in the industrial and domestic sphere. Without the variety of substances that the Earth is rich in, our world would not be so diverse and developed. Technological progress would be unattainable and prohibitively complex. Consider the concept, types of minerals and their characteristics.

Concepts and terms related to the topic

Before analyzing the types of minerals, it is necessary to know the specific definitions related to this topic. So it will be easier and easier to deal with everything. So, minerals are mineral raw materials or formations of the earth's crust, which can be of organic or inorganic origin and used in the production of tangible objects.

A mineral deposit is the accumulation of a certain amount of mineral matter on the surface or in the bowels of the Earth, which are divided into categories depending on the field of application in industry.

An ore is a mineral formation that has arisen in natural conditions and consists of such components and in such a ratio that its use is possible and expedient for the industrial and technical sphere.

When did mining start?

It is not known exactly when the first mining took place. According to historians, the ancient Egyptians opened the veil. The expedition was sent to the Sinai Peninsula in 2600 BC. They were supposed to mine mica. However, there was a breakthrough in the knowledge of the ancient inhabitants about raw materials and materials: copper was found. The mining and processing of silver is known from the history of Greece. The Romans learned about metals such as zinc, iron, tin, and lead. Having founded mines from Africa to Britain, the Roman Empire mined them, and then used them to make tools.

In the 18th century, after the industrial revolution, minerals became urgently needed. In this connection, their production developed at a rapid pace. Modern technologies are based on the discoveries of that particular period. In the 19th century, the famous “gold rush” took place, during which a huge amount of the precious metal, gold, was mined. In the same places (South Africa), several diamond deposits were discovered.

Characteristics of minerals by physical state

It is known from the lessons of physics that substances are capable of being in one of four states of aggregation: liquid, solid, gaseous and plasma. In ordinary life, everyone can easily observe the first three. Minerals, like any other chemical compounds, can be found on the surface of the Earth or in its depths in one of three states. Thus, the types of minerals are primarily divided into:

• liquid (mineral water, oil);
• solid (metals, coals, ores);
• gaseous (natural gas, inert gas).

Each of the groups is an important and integral part of industrial life. The diversity of resources allows countries to develop in the technical and economic sphere. The number of mineral deposits is an indicator of the wealth and well-being of the country.

Industrial types, classification of minerals

After the discovery of the first mineral rocks, a person seriously thought about what benefits they could bring to his life. With the birth and development of industry, a classification of mineral deposits was formed based on their use in the technical field. Consider these types of minerals. Table contains full information about their characteristics:

Industrial types deposits and minerals, their components

Type of mineral deposit	The groups in it	Fossil types
Combustible (fuel)	Solid state	Peat, coal
	Liquid/gaseous state	Gas, oil
metal	Black metals	Manganese, chromium, titanium, iron
	Non-ferrous metals	Lead, copper, cobalt, aluminum, nickel
	noble metals	Platinum, gold, silver
	Rare metals	Tin, tantalum, tungsten, niobium, molybdenum
	radioactive compounds	Thorium, radium, uranium
non-metallic	Mining raw materials	Mica, magnesite, talc, limestone, graphite, clays, sands
	Chemical raw materials	Fluorite, phosphorite, barite, mineral salts
	Construction Materials	Marble, gypsum, gravel and sand, clays, facing stones, cement raw materials
	Semi-precious stones	Precious and ornamental stones

Considered types of minerals together with reserves fresh water are the main characteristic of the wealth of the land or a particular country. This is a typical gradation of mineral resources, with the help of which all natural substances used in the industrial and domestic sphere are grouped depending on physical and chemical properties. Let's take a look at each category separately.

fossil fuels

What type of mineral is oil? What about gas? A mineral is more often represented as a solid metal than an incomprehensible liquid or gas. They are familiar with metal from early childhood, while the understanding of what oil or even household gas is comes a little later. So, to what type, according to the classifications already studied, should oil and gas be attributed? Oil - to the group of liquid substances, gas - to the gaseous. Based on their application, unequivocally, to fuel or, in other words, fuel minerals. After all, oil and gas are used primarily as a source of energy and heat: they run car engines, they heat living quarters, they cook food with their help. The energy itself is released by burning fuel. And if you look even deeper, then this is facilitated by carbon, which is included in all fossil fuels. What type of minerals oil belongs to, figured out.

What other substances are included? These are solid fuel compounds formed in nature: hard and brown coal, peat, anthracite, oil shale. Consider a brief description of them. Types of minerals (combustible):

• Coal was the first fuel used by man. The main source of energy used on a large scale in production, it was thanks to this fossil that the industrial revolution took place. It is formed due to the remains of plants without air access. Depending on the specific gravity of carbon in coal, its varieties are distinguished: anthracites, brown and hard coal, graphites;
• oil shale was formed at the bottom of the sea about 450 million years ago from the remains of vegetation and animals. Consists of mineral and organic parts. When dry distilled, it forms a resin that is close to oil;
• peat is an accumulation of incompletely decomposed plant remains in wetlands, more than half of its composition is carbon. It is used as fuel, fertilizer, thermal insulation.

Combustible natural substances are the most important types of minerals. Thanks to them, mankind has learned to produce and use energy, and also created many industries. Currently, the need for fossil fuels is very acute for most states. This is a large segment of the world economy, on which the well-being of countries around the world depends.

Metal minerals: types, characteristics

We know the types of minerals: fuel, ore, non-metallic. The first group has been successfully studied. We are moving further - ore, or metal, fossils - for the sake of which industry was born and developed in general. Since ancient times, man has understood that metal gives in Everyday life much more opportunities than its absence. AT modern world it is already impossible to imagine life without any metal. In household appliances and electronics, in homes, in the bathroom, even in a small light bulb - it is everywhere.

How are they mined? Only noble metals, which, due to their chemical properties, do not react with other simple and complex substances, can be found in their pure form. The rest actively interact with each other, turning into ore. The mixture of metals, if necessary, is separated or left unchanged. Alloys formed by nature "take root" thanks to mixed properties. Iron, for example, can be made harder by adding carbon to the metal to form steel, a strong compound that can withstand heavy loads.

Depending on the individual characteristics, as well as the field of application, ore minerals are divided into groups: ferrous, non-ferrous, noble, rare and radioactive metals.

Black metals

Ferrous metals are iron and its various alloys: steel, cast iron and other ferroalloys. It is used in the production of a wide variety of areas: military, shipbuilding, aircraft building, mechanical engineering.

Many iron products are used in everyday life: kitchen utensils are made of steel, many elements of plumbing are covered with it.

Non-ferrous metals

The group of non-ferrous metals includes a large number of minerals. The name of the group comes from the fact that many metals have a specific color. For example, copper is red, aluminum is silver. The remaining 3 types of minerals (noble, rare, radioactive), in fact, are a subspecies of non-ferrous metals. Many of them are mixed into alloys, because in this form they have better properties.

Non-ferrous metals are classified into:

• heavy - highly toxic with a large atomic weight: lead, tin, copper, zinc;
• light, with low density and weight: magnesium, titanium, aluminum, calcium, lithium, sodium, rubidium, strontium, cesium, beryllium, barium, potassium;
• noble, due to their high resistance, practically do not enter into chemical reactions, they are beautiful in appearance: platinum, silver, gold, rhodium, palladium, ruthenium, osmium;
• small (rare) - antimony, mercury, cobalt, cadmium, arsenic, bismuth;
• refractory possess high temperature melting and wear resistance: molybdenum, tantalum, vanadium, tungsten, manganese, chromium, zirconium, niobium;
• rare earth - the group consists of 17 elements: samarium, neodymium, lanthanum, cerium, europium, terbium, gadolinium, dysprosium, erbium, holmium, ytterbium, lutetium, scandium, yttrium, thulium, promethium, terbium;
• scattered are found in nature only in the form of impurities: tellurium, thallium, indium, germanium, rhenium, hafnium, selenium;
• radioactive ones independently emit a stream of radioactive particles: radium, plutonium, uranium, protactinium, californium, fermium, americium and others.

Of particular importance to mankind are aluminum, nickel and copper. Developed countries are striving to increase their production, since the amount of these non-ferrous metals directly affects the technical progress in the aircraft industry, astronautics, atomic and microscopic devices, and electrical engineering.

Non-metallic natural elements

Let's sum up a little. The main categories from the table "Types of minerals" (fuel, ore, non-metallic) have been studied. What elements are classified as non-metallic, i.e., non-metallic? This is a group of hard or soft minerals found in the form of individual minerals or rocks. Modern science knows more than a hundred such chemical compounds, which are nothing more than a product of natural processes.

In terms of the scale of their extraction and use, non-metallic minerals are ahead of only fuel types of minerals. The table below contains the main rocks and minerals that make up the non-metallic group of natural resources, and their brief description.

Nonmetallic minerals

Group of non-metallic minerals/rocks	Type of rock/mineral	Characteristic
Mining raw materials	Asbestos	Fireproof rock. Used for the manufacture of fire-resistant materials, roofs, fire-fighting fabrics.
	Limestone	Sedimentary rock, widely used in construction. When it is fired, quicklime is obtained.
	Mica	Rock-forming mineral. According to the chemical composition, it is subdivided into aluminum, magnesian-ferruginous lithium micas. Used in modern technology.
Chemical raw materials	Potassium salts	Sedimentary rocks containing potassium. It is used as a raw material for the chemical industry and in the manufacture of potash fertilizers.
	Apatite	Minerals containing large amounts of phosphate salts. Used for the manufacture of fertilizers, as well as in the production of ceramics.
	Sulfur	Occurs as native sulfur ore and in compounds. It is used mainly for the production of sulfuric acid, in the vulcanization of rubber.
Construction Materials	Gypsum	sulfate mineral. It is used in various fields of human activity.
	Marble	A rock based on calcite. Used in electrical engineering, for the manufacture of plaster and mosaics, monuments.
Semi-precious stones	Precious	They have a beautiful pattern or color, shine, and can be easily polished and cut. They are used for making jewelry and other decorations.
	Semi-precious
	ornamental

Non-metallic types of minerals are very important for various industries, construction, and are also necessary in everyday life.

Classification of resources by exhaustibility

In addition to the gradation of minerals according to their physical condition and characteristics, they consider indicators of their exhaustibility and renewability. The main types of minerals are divided into:

• exhaustible, which at some point may run out and be unavailable for production;
• inexhaustible - relatively inexhaustible sources of natural resources, for example, solar and wind energy, oceans, seas;
• renewable - fossils that, at a certain level of exhaustibility, can be partially or completely restored, for example, forests, soil, water;
• non-renewable - if the resources have been completely exhausted, it is usually not possible to renew them;
• replaceable - fossils that can be replaced if necessary, for example, fuel species.
• irreplaceable - those without which life would be impossible (air).

Natural resources require careful handling and rational use, since most of them have an exhaustible limit, and if they are renewable, it will not be very soon.

Minerals play an important role in human life. Without them, there would be no technical and scientific discoveries, and no ordinary life in general. The results of their extraction and processing surround us everywhere: buildings, transport, household goods, medicines.

There are many natural deposits of substances important to humans. These are resources that are exhaustible and should be conserved. Without their development and production, many aspects of people's lives would be extremely difficult.

Minerals and their properties are the object and subject of study of mining geology. The results obtained by her are used in the future for the processing and production of many things.

Minerals and their properties

What are generally called minerals? These are rocks or mineral structures that are of great economic importance and are widely used in industry.

Their diversity is great, so the properties for each species are specific. There are several main options for the accumulation of the considered substances in nature:

• placers;
• layers;
• veins;
• rods;
• nests.

If we talk about the general distribution of fossils, then we can distinguish:

• provinces;
• districts;
• pools;
• Place of Birth.

Minerals and their properties depend on the specific type of raw material. This is what determines the scope of their use by humans, as well as the method of extraction and processing.

Types of minerals

There is more than one classification of the considered raw materials. So, if the basis is based on the signs of the state of aggregation, then such varieties are distinguished.

1. Mineral solid. Examples: marble, salt, granite, metallic ores, non-metallic.
2. Liquid - underground mineral waters and oil.
3. Gas - natural gas, helium.

If the division into types is based on the use of minerals, then the classification takes the following form.

1. combustible. Examples: oil, combustible coal, methane and others.
2. Ore or igneous. Examples: all metal-containing ores, as well as asbestos and graphite.
3. Nonmetallic. Examples: all raw materials that do not contain metals (clay, sand, chalk, gravel and others), as well as various salts.
4. Gemstones. Examples: precious and semi-precious, as well as (diamonds, sapphires, rubies, emeralds, jasper, chalcedony, opal, carnelian and others).

According to the diversity presented, it is obvious that minerals and their properties are a whole world that is being explored by a huge number of geologists and miners.

Main deposits

Various minerals are distributed throughout the planet quite evenly according to geological features. After all, a significant part of them is formed due to platform movements and tectonic eruptions. There are several main continents that are richest in almost all types of raw materials. It:

• North and South America.
• Eurasia.
• Africa.

All countries that are located in the designated territories widely use minerals and their properties. In the same areas where there is no raw material, there are export deliveries.

In general, of course, it is difficult to determine the general plan of deposits of mineral resources. After all, it all depends on the specific type of raw material. One of the most expensive are precious (containing noble metals) minerals. Gold, for example, is found everywhere except in Europe (of the continents listed above plus Australia). It is valued very highly, and its extraction is one of the most common occurrences in mining.

Eurasia is the richest in combustible resources. Mountain minerals (talc, barite, kaolin, limestones, quartzites, apatites, salts) are distributed almost everywhere in large quantities.

Mining

Various methods are used to extract minerals and prepare them for use.

1. Open path. The necessary raw materials are extracted directly from the quarries. Over time, this leads to the formation of extensive ravines, therefore, it is not sparing for nature.
2. The mine method is more correct, but expensive.
3. Fountain method of pumping oil.
4. pumping method.
5. Geotechnological methods of ore processing.

The development of mineral deposits is an important and necessary process, however, leading to very deplorable consequences. After all, resources are finite. Therefore, in recent years, special emphasis has been placed not on large volumes of extraction of mineral resources, but on their more correct and rational use man.

Ore (igneous) rocks

This group includes the most important and largest minerals in terms of production. An ore is such a formation of a mineral nature that contains a large amount of one or another desired metal (another component).

Places of extraction and processing of such raw materials are called mines. Igneous rocks can be classified into four groups:

• colored;
• noble;
• non-metallic components.

Let us give examples of some ore mineral resources.

1. Iron.
2. Nickel.
3. Argentite.
4. Cassiterite.
5. Beryl.
6. Bornite.
7. Chalcopyrite.
8. Uraninite.
9. Asbestos.
10. Graphite and others.

Gold is an ore mineral

There are among the ore and special minerals. Gold, for example. Its production has been relevant since ancient times, because it has always been highly valued by people. Today, gold is mined and laundered in almost every country in whose territory there are at least small deposits of it.

In nature, gold occurs in the form of native particles. The largest ingot was found in Australia weighing almost 70 kg layer. Often, due to the weathering of deposits and their erosion, placers are formed in the form of sand grains from this precious metal.

It is extracted from such mixtures by washing and sifting. In general, these are not too common and voluminous minerals in terms of content. That is why gold is called a precious and noble metal.

The centers for the extraction of this ore mineral are:

• Russia.
• Canada.
• South Africa.
• Australia.

fossil fuels

This group includes such mineral resources as:

• brown coal;
• oil;
• gas (methane, helium);
• coal.

The use of minerals of this kind is a fuel and raw material for the production of various chemical compounds and substances.

Coal is such a fossil that lies at a relatively shallow depth in wide layers. Its quantity is limited in one particular deposit. Therefore, having exhausted one pool, people move to another. In general, coal contains up to 97% pure carbon. It was formed historically, as a result of the death and compaction of plant organic remains. These processes lasted millions of years, so now there are a huge amount of coal reserves all over the planet.

Oil is also called liquid gold, which emphasizes how important it is as a mineral resource. After all, this is the main source of high-quality combustible fuel, as well as its various components - the basis, the raw material for chemical syntheses. The leaders in oil production are such countries as:

• Russia.
• Algeria;
• Mexico.
• Indonesia.
• Venezuela.
• Libya.

Which is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, it is also an important industrial fuel. It belongs to the cheapest raw material, therefore it is used on a particularly large scale. The leading countries in production are Russia and Saudi Arabia.

Non-metallic or non-metallic species

This group includes such minerals and rocks as:

• clay;
• sand;
• pebbles;
• gravel;
• crushed stone;
• talc;
• kaolin;
• barite;
• graphite;
• diamonds;
• quartz;
• apatite;
• phosphorite and others.

All varieties can be combined into several groups according to the area of ​​\u200b\u200buse.

1. Mining and chemical minerals.
2. Metallurgical raw materials.
3. Technical crystals.
4. Construction Materials.

Gemstones are often included in this group as well. The areas of use of minerals of non-metallic nature are multifaceted and extensive. These are agriculture (fertilizers), construction (materials), glass-making, jewelry, engineering, general chemical production, paint production, and so on.

Remember which minerals are ore What is the origin of ore minerals?

DISTRIBUTION OF ORE RESOURCES. Minerals and rocks containing various metals lie in the bowels of Ukraine - from aluminum and iron, which are the most common in the earth's crust, to rare elements that occur only occasionally or are scattered in small quantities as impurities with other minerals. Reserves of some ores have no commercial value. And in terms of reserves of iron, manganese, titanium and uranium ores, Ukraine ranks first among European countries. These ores are mined in large volumes. Our state provides for its own needs and sells ore mineral resources to other countries. Ukraine also has significant reserves of mercury ores (2nd place in Europe).

Most ore deposits are associated with the rocks of the Ukrainian shield, as well as the ancient (Donetsk) and young (Carpathian) folded regions (Fig. 77

ORES OF FERROUS METALS. Ukraine is a unique country in the world in terms of reserves and deposits of iron and manganese ores, from which ferrous metals (cast iron, steel) are smelted. The largest deposits of these minerals are located nearby - within the Dnepropetrovsk and neighboring regions.

The total reserves of iron ore amount to more than 27 billion tons. The Krivoy Rog iron ore basin (Krivbass) is the main mining region in Ukraine and one of the largest in the world (Fig. 76). It includes a number of deposits stretching over 100 km across the Dnepropetrovsk, Kirovograd and Nikolaev regions. The industrial development of the basin began in the 19th century. Highest value for the economy they have rich (with an iron content of more than 46%) and high-quality ores - red iron ore (hematites), which contain almost no harmful impurities.

They are mined by mining. Poor ores (ferruginous quartzites), in which the iron content is less (from 20%), are developed by an open method (in quarries). Iron ores with a high metal content also occur in the Kremenchug (Poltava region) and Belozersk (Zaporozhye region) iron ore regions. They are mined both by quarry and mine methods. In the future, the Priazovsky iron ore region (Zaporozhye region) may become promising. But in the Kerch iron ore basin (Crimea), ore was no longer mined.

Manganese ores are used as a raw material for the production of high-quality steel grades. Their reserves in Ukraine amount to more than 2.5 billion tons. They are concentrated in

The Dnieper manganese ore basin is one of the largest in the world in terms of reserves and production. From the end of the 19th century Ore mining is carried out by open and mine methods in the western part of the basin - the Nikopol deposit ( Dnipropetrovsk region) (Fig. 78).

At the same time, twice as many ore reserves have been explored in the Velikotokmakskoye deposit (Zaporozhye region).

Ferrous metal ores also include chromite ores, small deposits of which were found in the Bug region (Kirovograd region).

ORES OF NON-FERROUS METALS. Titanium and its alloys are light and resistant metals, and therefore are essential materials in aircraft, rocket and shipbuilding, and the production of chemical reactors. Deposits of titanium ores are concentrated within the Ukrainian shield. The largest explored deposits are Irshanskoe (Zhytomyr region) and Samotkanskoe (Dnepropetrovsk region).

From the end of the 19th century in Ukraine, mercury ores were mined in one of the largest in Europe Nikitovsky deposit (Donetsk region), but their development was stopped. In the Po-Bugsky nickel-ore region (Kirovograd region), nickel ores are mined and cobalt ores are explored. In Ukraine, there are many deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, which are not yet developed. Some of them were discovered relatively recently, and the reserves of metals are being specified there, others are well explored and prepared for exploitation. These include deposits of polymetallic, aluminum ores, gold, molybdenum, and many rare metals. Among the deposits of polymetallic (lead-zinc) ores, the largest is Beregovskoye (Transcarpathian region). Deposits of aluminum ores have been found in Transcarpathia, in the Dnieper and Azov regions. However general reserves These types of raw materials are insignificant, so they are not mined.

Geological exploration work carried out in recent years indicates that in the bowels of Ukraine

there are industrial reserves of gold, silver, copper, many rare and rare earth metals. Thus, gold was found in the Carpathian and Donetsk regions, on the southern slopes of the Ukrainian Shield. In Transcarpathia, it was mined in the Muzhievsky deposit. Large reserves of native copper have been discovered and are being explored in Volhynia.

URANIUM ORES. A special place among ore minerals is occupied by uranium ores. It is an important fuel and energy resource. Three uranium deposits are being exploited in Ukraine, but much more have been explored. Most of the deposits are in the Kirovograd region, among them Novokonstantinovskoye. It belongs to the world's leading reserves. The total reserves of uranium ores, for which Ukraine is among the top ten countries in the world, make it possible to meet the needs of operating domestic nuclear power plants for 100 years.

REMEMBER

In terms of reserves of iron and manganese ores, Ukraine is one of the leading countries in the world. iron ore mined in the Krivoy Rog basin and the Kremenchug region, manganese ore - in the Dnieper basin.

Of non-ferrous metal ores, Ukraine has significant reserves of titanium and mercury ores, reserves of other ores are limited or have no commercial value.

Ukraine has large reserves of uranium ores, with which it can provide itself in the long term.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. Name the ore minerals, the reserves of which Ukraine occupies a leading position in Europe and the world.

2. What tectonic structures are mainly associated with deposits of ore minerals?

3. Where is iron ore mined in Ukraine? Which ores are considered rich in iron content, and which are poor?

5. What non-ferrous metal ores are mined in Ukraine? Where are their deposits located?

6. Are there any ore minerals in your locality (region)? If so, where are they mined?

7*.Describe Ukraine's prospects for the extraction of its traditional ore resources and the development of new mineral deposits.

This is textbook material.