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Introduction
The history of Russian statehood today, like hundreds of years ago, is of great interest, being the subject of heated discussions.
Understanding the logic and patterns of the historical development of Russian statehood is not only of cognitive, but also of modern importance in terms of understanding the foundations and prospects for the development of our society and state.
scientists, politicians, public figures attempts have been repeatedly made to generalize and analyze the stages of historical development passed by our state, using the results obtained for further state building, transformations in various spheres of state activity. The ruling circles of Russia, periodically needing confirmation of the correctness of their policy, relied on the thesis of the unity of Russian and European values, traditions, or on the idea of an exceptional, original path of our state in world history: on the one hand, Peter's "Westernization", on the other, the famous formula official nationality of the times of Nicholas I "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Nationality".
Today the world is changing qualitatively, the achievements of scientific and technological progress have accelerated the processes of human integration, the "globalization theory" has emerged and become popular. Under these conditions, Russia, like every other country, must clearly understand its place, which, of course, requires the efforts of scientists of various specializations. Statehood is a property of the state (political) power of a national-territorial entity, expressing the real or potential ability to embody and protect the sovereignty of a nation or another ethnic group in one form or another. Statehood is a broader concept than the state.
The political system of a society or the political organization of a society is a set of interactions (relations) of political subjects related to the exercise of power (government) and the management of society organized on a single normative-value basis. This concept combines a variety of actions and relationships between ruling groups and subordinate, governing and controlled, dominant and subordinate, theoretically generalizes the activities and relationships of organized forms of power relations - state institutions and institutions, as well as ideological and political values and norms governing political life members of this society. The concept of "political system" denotes the structures of political activity and relations characteristic of a particular society and the types of political process.
The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that the political system of society is a system of interconnected and interacting associations (organizations) of people based on various forms of ownership, reflecting the interests and will of social classes, strata, groups and nations, exercising political power or fighting for its implementation. within the law through the state. The study of these fundamentals is very relevant today.
The purpose of this work is to study the problems and ways to solve the development of the Russian statehood and political system.
1. give a concept of the features of the development of Russian statehood;
2. consider the general, particular and singular in the development of Russian statehood;
3. identify the problems of development of the political system;
4. analyze the problems and ways to solve this problem in the Russian Federation.
The object is the Russian statehood and political system.
The subject is the norms of the Russian legislation concerning the Russian statehood and political system.
CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE RUSSIAN STATEHOOD
1.1 The concept of statehood. General characteristics of modern Russian statehood
Speaking about modern Russian statehood, it is necessary, first of all, to define the concept of "statehood". This is a new category for domestic science and practice. The question arises: are the concepts of “state” and “statehood” identical?
In legal literature, these concepts are often used as identical. But more often statehood is used in a broader and more voluminous sense, which is not limited to state structures. There is no clear definition of statehood.
So, I.L. Bachilo, analyzing the factors influencing the development of Russian statehood, characterizes the latter as a form of "expression of the organized will of the people to create and ensure modern forms hostels and joint activities within certain boundaries of the territory, composition of the population, respect for the sovereignty of one’s own and other peoples ... ”Bachilo I.L. Factors influencing statehood // State and law. 2013. No. 7. - S. 26..
Some vagueness of the position regarding the concept of "statehood" is observed in A. B. Vengerov when considering the functions of the state. He writes that the functional characteristics of the state "allows us to study not only the state of a specific type, type, form of a particular people, in a particular historical period, but also the statehood of this people" Korzhikhina T.P., Senin A.S. . History of Russian statehood. - M., 2015. - S. 70 ..
The trend of a broad understanding of statehood, which is not limited solely to the state, can also be traced in the works of Yu.A. Vedeneev, who is engaged in last years study of Russian statehood.
The scientist does not try to give a definition of statehood. However, analyzing the processes of creating a new Russian statehood, he clearly distinguishes between the system of state power, the state organization itself and the socio-economic, political, spiritual integrity of the system, processes and conditions due to the transition not just to a new organization of state power, but to a new system of all kinds. public relations. Highlighting the phases (stages) of the formation of Russian statehood, Yu.A. Vedeneev considers not only “purely” political processes, but also the processes that accompany them, and sometimes economic, social and other factors prevailing in this development, for example, the reform of economic liberalization, which affected the living conditions and even the very existence of the main social groups and strata of the population Russia. In a similar way, he explores situational and opportunistic factors that can turn this development in a different direction and often lead to political, national and other social conflicts within society.
Yu.A. Vedeneev characterizes the construction of modern Russian statehood as a "global transformation of the civilizational foundations of the country's existence" Vedeneev Yu.A. Theory and practice of transitional processes in the development of Russian statehood // State and Law. 2015. No. 1. - P. 107. Thus, he does not limit statehood to political reforms and reorganization of state power.
The concept of "statehood" is much broader and deeper than the concept of "state", but, of course, statehood includes the state as its component, is associated with the concept of "state power", but is not limited to it, to state bodies, state structures.
Statehood is a complex set of elements, structures, institutions of public authority, as well as components of a non-political nature, due to the originality (specificity) of the socio-economic, political, spiritual and moral conditions for the life of a particular people or association of peoples at a certain stage of development of society.
Statehood is a property, quality, state of society at a particular historical stage, a qualitative characteristic of its elements and institutions, which constitutes the main content and a certain feature of society. At the same time, the state of society, the structure of social relations are influenced not only by state power, its structures, but also by other institutions, including non-political ones, such as economic, social, spiritual, information and other systems, as well as the international situation.
So, firstly, statehood is a complex concept that reflects the qualitative state of a state-organized society. Such a characterization of statehood makes it possible to comprehensively and objectively highlight the stages and trends of its historical development, to identify the institutional stability of the most important processes and patterns, to predict further movement, and in general to develop a unified view of Russian statehood.
Secondly, statehood has a national-spiritual nature, national-cultural orientation, as it reflects the spiritual and other social values accumulated by a given people.
And in this capacity, Russian statehood has typological features corresponding to the ethno-cultural uniqueness of Russia. This, in turn, requires a well-founded concept of its state-legal development, taking into account the national identity of the country. Forgetting or ignoring national and cultural aspects can lead to the wrong choice of the path and means of transforming Russian society, to the disorganization of its life.
Consideration of Russian statehood in its numerous connections, aspects, functions, etc. makes it possible to form a holistic view of Russian reality, to approach the establishment of the place of this statehood in the world community from a broader position, to focus on the study of the statehood of Russia as a cultural and historical phenomenon.
Failure to take this circumstance into account can lead to dangerous negative consequences and even to the collapse and death of the Russian statehood.
Thirdly, statehood is a concrete historical phenomenon, since it characterizes the state of society at a certain stage of development. Yu.A. Tikhomirov rightly believes that the indicators of changes in society are not only the change of power, the form of the state, its regime, and other state-legal institutions. “Values, methods, party relations, procedures, etc. are changing,” he writes. Even within a certain qualitative state, changes in state states are obvious, the dynamism of which must be taken into account” Tikhomirov Yu.A. State at the turn of the century // State and law. 2013. No. 2. - S. 26 ..
The elemental composition of the concept of "statehood" includes such components that, in the process of functioning of statehood, maintain the balance of the entire system, its preservation and strengthening. The criterion for the effectiveness of action individual elements a certain qualitative state of society appears. This does not mean that statehood can only be analyzed in statics. Undoubtedly, its development causes certain qualitative changes in the statehood itself. However, this does not exclude at the same time the preservation of a specific qualitative state of statehood in time, for example, at separate stages or in certain periods.
Statehood as a social structure is a multifaceted and multifaceted complex entity. This implies the isolation in its composition, firstly, of the elemental composition, and secondly, of the social ties between the elements.
The central link of statehood is the state, which determines the entire system of political relations, including the political system of society.
Other components of statehood are:
The economic structure of society, where the leading place belongs to property relations;
Social organization of society, including national, confessional, other interpersonal relations;
Spiritual and cultural organization of society;
Legal system.
An information system should be singled out as an element of statehood. As you know, the development of many countries of the world was marked in last decade transition from the production of material goods to the production of services and information. Admittedly, this transition has acquired a wide scope, which has allowed Western researchers to characterize modern society as informational. In particular, it is noted that human activity in production is increasingly reduced to the consumption of information and knowledge. Information becomes the main production resource of society and gives rise to the power of the "highest level", not only more perfect than the power of capital or brute force, but also more democratic in nature.
An independent component of statehood is a person - the subject of social development, the bearer of the most important types of social relations and values, the main goal of the functioning of statehood. Human development is now becoming the main condition for any economic progress.
Western theorists determine the leadership of certain states on the world stage not by increasing the mass production of goods, but through the maximum development and use of human potential. At the same time, material values and priorities are increasingly being replaced by sociologized values and priorities. This means that human needs serve as the main guideline for the development of society.
The elemental composition of statehood is determined by the components necessary for the functioning of society as an integral state-legal, socio-economic, national-cultural and informational entity. These components constitute a kind of subsystems that are relatively independent and, at the same time, in their interaction allow society to function as an integrative whole.
The connections between the individual components of the structure of statehood are revealed in the process of functioning of some of them, including in the process of their regular interaction.
None of the components contains the Criteria for the development of statehood as a whole. This criterion is due to the interconnectedness of all components. Each of them makes its own "contribution" to the qualitative state of society at a particular historical period of time, has its own purpose and its own functions, different from the purpose and functions of other components of statehood. The action of all components in the aggregate allows statehood to act as a self-developing integral organism. Failures in the operation of some components invariably affect the functioning of others and disrupt the stability in the development of statehood, can cause a state of stagnation, and then a crisis of the entire system. Ultimately, if the conflicts between the structural components are significant, the system may degrade, sever ties within it, and even the complete collapse of the statehood.
This conclusion is based on the interpretation of social development processes accepted in sociology as a successive change in a number of “nodal points” that make up the following development cycles:
a) sustainable development- self-maintenance of institutions and elements of social relations;
b) stable development - the ability of the system to independently cope with imbalances due to internal reserves. However, the development of the system does not take place;
c) a state of crisis - leads to an imbalance and the appearance of degradation phenomena;
d) a state of catastrophe - occurs when the links between the components are broken, leading to the destruction of the system;
e) decay - the death of a system with the destruction of all or most of its components.
This scheme is applicable to the functioning of statehood and its components.
Ideas about statehood as a complex, integral organism have not been widely developed in domestic science. But this is certainly a promising area of research.
Consideration of statehood in dynamics as a historical process of successive changes in states, forms, institutions, etc. leads to the problem of historical continuity of statehood.
In the literature, the opinion was expressed that the statehood of Russia was never interrupted Kvashnina T.V., Kashanin A.A. Fundamentals of Russian law. - M .: Infra-M - NORMA, 2013. - P. 65 .. Arguing with this point of view, V.N. Sinyukov notes that one should not “confuse Russian statehood with specific discontinuous forms of the state of ethnic groups of the same name. Kievan Rus, Muscovy, the Russian Empire, the RSFSR, the USSR, modern Russia are very different states in terms of territory, socio-economic, political system, and form of government.
At the same time, pointing out that the state-legal history of Russia is filled with various, often opposite, trends, forms, institutions, influences, reforms, revolutions, etc., V.N. Sinyukov recognizes the continuity of the new statehood and the previous stages of the historical development of Russia Sinyukov V.N. On the form of federation in Russia // State and Law. 2013. No. 5. - S. 32.
The same opinion is shared by I.L. Bachilo, tracing the development of Russian statehood from the abolition of serfdom to the starting conditions for the formation of a new statehood in Russia at the end of the 20th century. Bachilo I.L. Factors influencing statehood // State and law. 2013. No. 7. - S. 21-22 .. And even Yu.A. Vedeneev, believing that modern Russia is in a transitional state of post-totalitarian statehood, when its constituent elements disintegrate and a new integrity is formed on their ruins, considers the transition to democratic statehood to be logically conditioned by the previous development of the country, in particular, the process of administrative modernization and functional adaptation of state institutions to the conditions socio-political crisis Krasnov Yu.S. Russian statehood: the evolution of government institutions and the problems of their modernization. M., 2011. - S. 15 ..
The problem of continuity in the sphere of statehood is practically not developed in the legal literature. This topic has been the subject of research by historians of state and law and some jurists. Statehood, like the legal system, is characterized by continuity. At the same time, continuity has both internal (intratype) and external (intertype) aspects. Intratype succession, as a rule, is not in doubt. In particular, in relation to modern Russian statehood, it is argued that the first phase of its development, which covered the period from June 1990 to November 1991, was essentially a phase of borrowing, duplication at the republican level of the structures of the union state, representative institutions, models of executive power and etc.
Of great importance in the development of statehood is the continuity of the processes taking place in society, the accumulation of certain traditions that correspond to the material and spiritual foundations of certain regions of the country. The denial of continuity, the desire to immediately transfer the country to other tracks strengthen the separation of the state from civil society, and make the state mechanism itself destructive, destructive.
Serious controversy raises the question of the possibility of external succession. G.V. Shvekov understood external (inter-type) continuity as “transferring to some extent the legal experience of the past into a new type of law” Shvekov G.V. Continuity in law. M., 2013. - P. 4. Yu.A. Tikhomirov interprets external succession only as international succession Tikhomirov Yu.A. State at the turn of the century // State and law. 2013. No. 2. P. 27. According to N.I. Tsimbaev, the Soviet statehood cannot be considered the successor of the pre-revolutionary Russian statehood, nor is the current “democratic” statehood of Russia Tsimbaev N.I. To the horizon - the earth! (On understanding the history of Russia) // Questions of Philosophy. 2013. No. 1. - P. 33. The public consciousness of Russia must get rid of both the belief in the historical predetermination and predetermination of the Russian path to the future, and the hope of starting life from scratch.
However, the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 are not a dead end in Russian history and do not carry only a negative historical meaning. Many scientists believe that the Soviet period in the history of our state "fulfilled its historical mission and, despite gross mistakes, cruelty and miscalculations, is positive in many areas of activity" Yanovsky R. G. Search for a people's idea // Sociological research. 2013. No. 5. - S. 17..
The new statehood inevitably inherits and perceives the achievements of the past, and also borrows the most rational, proven institutions and elements of statehood from world experience. The search for forms and institutions corresponding to the current state of Russia is impossible without studying and evaluating the previous experience of the country's development, in isolation from the factors of historicism in the development of the state culture of society. N. Berdyaev prophetically exclaimed: “The ancient world did not completely die, and the medieval world did not completely die, although for both of them the historical hour of change has come” Berdyaev N. The New Middle Ages. Reflection on the fate of Russia and Europe. - M., 2011. - S. 41 ..
In the modern world, there is an increase in integration processes in many areas of public life and in the legal sphere. This indicates the perception of mutual experience. However, the measure of borrowing someone else's and one's own past experience cannot be unlimited. It is determined by the historical, philosophical, political, religious and other roots of the previous statehood of a given people, the socio-cultural realities of a particular country, the difficulty of perceiving foreign cultural ideas and ideas, and other factors.
Continuity is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, but it is natural. The desire in the first years of reforming Russian society to destroy everything connected with the Soviet period, and then to build a new society on the cleared place turned out to be a utopia. Any experience cannot be evaluated only negatively. It carries a useful load in the sense that it warns against mistakes, miscalculations, failures, unjustified ways and means of solving state and social problems. “Legal reception,” writes V.N. Sinyukov, is an objective factor of legal progress. Without interconnections, mutual enrichment of legal cultures, this progress is impossible. However, the measure and form of legal reception need a careful, cautious approach and careful preliminary study from the standpoint of taking into account the social context of the recipient country” Sinyukov V.N. Russian legal system. - Saratov, 2014. - S. 305 ..
This provision also applies to statehood. The limits of borrowing other experience in state building depend on how it meets the conditions of life, culture, customs, traditions and mentality of the people. Otherwise, the deformation of one's own statehood and even its complete loss are inevitable.
The processes of succession make it possible to consider the development of statehood as an integral phenomenon and correctly evaluate it within the framework of cultural and historical analysis, and determine a development strategy.
So, statehood is much more specific and deeper than the state. The latter, as a form of organization of state power, constitutes the core of statehood. The essence of the state, its social purpose, goals, objectives, functions directly affect the development of statehood. The state is the initiator and organizer of various kinds of reforms, the bearer of sovereignty, the guardian of national culture. But the role of the state in the development of statehood should not be exaggerated. Here the influence of institutions and mechanisms of philosophical, religious, national, and other social content is great.
It is noted in the literature that the last decade of the political history of Russia is characterized by a crisis and a sharp weakening of statehood, a noticeable decrease in the effectiveness of state power.
The reasons for the weakening of state power are called:
Lack of trust and support from the citizens of the existing government, its institutions, politicians who are at the head of the state. Hence the state's loss of a social base, a decrease in prestige and the ability to lead society;
The unpreparedness of state structures for independent functioning in the new conditions, when there are no instructions from the party apparatus, which the state power was obliged to follow in order to carry out the will and policy of the CPSU;
The inability of the Russian state in its current state to ensure order and legality, including the protection and protection of the rights and freedoms of people, to perceive its appointment as a service to man. Only a weak state cannot achieve strict observance of laws, establish work law enforcement on the basis of general democratic, humanistic principles;
The practical non-execution of the adopted laws, the stability of legal nihilism not only in the lower levels of the state apparatus, among its officials but also in the higher echelons of power. Some lawyers assess the legal state of the Russian statehood as growing, uncontrolled legal inflation, as the erosion of a single legal space, as a loss of the prestige of the law in society;
Lack of a scientifically substantiated program for a phased systemic reform of society. Despite the abundance of various kinds of programs and concepts, it should be noted that they are very declarative, vague, and in some cases unrealistic due to lack of material resources. In addition, there are no clear guidelines for their implementation in terms of the timing of the reforms, their goals, final results, social consequences; in general, there is no clear prospect for further movement. The success of the reforms directly depends on taking into account the specifics of their perception by the population of the country, the compliance of the ongoing actions with the expectations of the people, the effective benefits of the reforms for the broad masses, and not for individuals.
Finally, the development of statehood is significantly damaged by the uncritical borrowing of Western experience and models that are alien to the Russian mentality, the inability to develop an independent way of reforming the country. This trend was especially pronounced in the early stages of the reforms, when the conviction prevailed: it is worth transferring the proven experience of Western democracy to Russian soil and the success of any reforms will be guaranteed, and the Western countries will provide the necessary support for the ongoing activities. Former press secretary of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Kostikov writes the following in his memoirs: “Yeltsin proceeded from the then widespread idea that the West is simply obliged to save Russian democracy.” Kostikov VV Roman with the President. Notes of the press secretary. - M., 2013. - S. 51 ..
Recently, however, some domestic scientists and politicians rightly point out that Western models and experience can be used in Russian society only taking into account the mentality of our people, the specifics of its psychology, traditions, spirituality and culture. Increasingly, the question arises about the suitability of the Western model of a liberal democratic state for Russian reality.
The writer A.I. Solzhenitsyn. “Now,” he wrote, “we have a self-hypnosis that we don’t need to look for our own way, to think about anything, but only to adopt as soon as possible,“ as it is done in the West. But in the West it is done - oh, how differently! each country has its own tradition” Solzhenitsyn A.I. How can we equip Russia. Powerful considerations. - M., 2000. - S. 8 ..
1.2 General, special and singular in the development of Russian statehood
Formation of a new social order in modern Russia significantly differs from similar processes that took place at one time in many Western states, the so-called "first echelons" of capitalist development. At the same time, one can point to general patterns that are inherent in countries that have made the transition to a new type of social relations.
In philosophical literature, the concept of "patterns of social development" has a different meaning.
In the universal sense, this concept denotes all forms of connections and relationships of objective reality, which is not a chaotic conglomerate of events and processes, but a single, inseparable whole. Regularity is always a deterministic process and is broader than the concept of the law of social development. Social patterns are necessary, essential, stable links between various aspects, phenomena, processes of social life, expressing the progressive tendencies of the movement of society at a specific historical stage.
The concept of "patterns of social development" allows us to analyze society as an integral social organism and at the same time as a historical process.
Common for many states patterns of transition to a new type of social relations include:
The establishment of a free market, private property as the basis of an individual's economic freedom, the elimination of non-economic forms of coercion, the growth of the total national income per capita, the formation of a middle class, the expansion of opportunities for economic choice, freedom of entrepreneurial activity, etc.;
Adoption of a democratic system of government, democratic reorganization of the political system with an emphasis on the priority of human rights and freedoms, pluralism of opinions, beliefs, ideas, interests, coalitions, etc., the rule of law in all spheres of society;
Creation of a civil society, without which democracy in the political sphere and transformations in the economy are impossible;
Expanding ties with other countries and peoples, creating an open society.
The conditions for such transformations are not the same for different states and are not only subjective, but also objective. Therefore, the reform of existing social relations takes place according to its own special laws.
For Russia and other post-socialist states are specific:
The transition from a totalitarian regime to a democratic one, or to its first stage - a liberal-democratic regime. The primary task was the destruction of totalitarianism as a form of government, regime and state structure. Only after the undermining of the foundations of totalitarianism in the political sphere was it possible to move to market relations as a way of managing;
reform initiative from above, not from below. Hence the idea, without fundamentally changing anything, to “correct” socialism, endow it with a “human face”, soften the totalitarian manifestations of the regime, modify some political institutions, for example, the electoral system, representative bodies of power, reduce the huge state apparatus, etc.
The implementation of major reforms from above, at the initiative of the state authorities, is a historical feature of Russia. This applies to the reforms of Peter I, and to the abolition of serfdom, and to the judicial reform of 1864, etc. Philosophers call this an “inverted scheme of development”, when the role of the subject of reforms is played by state power, in contrast to European countries, where there were developed social forces interested in transformations. Hence the conclusion is drawn about the unpreparedness of Russian society for cardinal changes; for the most part it does not accept them and is not interested in wide distribution. Moreover, the initiative of the state authorities to reform the life of society often encounters obstacles in the person of the people. The state is forced to involve the state apparatus and bureaucratic structures in the process of implementing reforms, which causes distrust of the people in state events, since in Russia there has always been a gap between the government and society.
Hence, the specific essential feature of modern Russian statehood is:
First, the existence along with democratic elements of authoritarian methods and means. The danger of such a symbiosis lies in the fact that it can lead to the restoration of totalitarian statehood, the emergence of anti-democratic political forces, the growth of contradictions in society and, as a result, to conflict situation. And in the absence of traditions of democratic resolution of any conflicts, explosions are possible, which, by their destructive force, can lead to undermining the foundations of Russian statehood.
Secondly, the multi-ethnic composition of Russian society. This is also characteristic of some multi-ethnic post-socialist states, such as the former Yugoslavia.
It is important to keep in mind that Russia has evolved into something more than a country. This is a kind of civilization, where a patchwork of ethnic groups, cultures, confessions, ways of life, social subjects of different eras, unequal advancement different peoples to modernity led to a special alienation and at the same time a special closeness of beliefs, customs, attitudes towards work, property and power.
The transitional state of Russian statehood aggravated interethnic relations, causing the processes of sovereignization of ethnic groups, attempts to create "pure" ethnic states. Therefore, the process of reforming Russian society poses complex tasks of achieving a consensus of interests of different peoples, establishing their equal access to power, changing relations between the Center and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and forming a new type of federative ties and relations.
As you know, interethnic problems throughout the world are among the most acute and difficult to solve. And this factor complicates the transition of Russia and other post-socialist states with a multinational composition of the population to a new social system, introduces originality into the general patterns of such a transition.
Thirdly, a long period of transitional statehood. Among the conditions in which Russian statehood develops, the lack of an appropriate environment for the development of democratic processes, the weakness of civil society, the distrust of power on the part of the masses, the lack of political skills and political culture among parties, movements and the population as a whole are of particular importance.
Among these conditions, of paramount importance is the increase in the value of the state, state power as a guarantor of sustainable law and order and the security of society. This will require a reorientation of state power towards new values and priorities, new social ideals. Power should be a unifying symbol of the country, its unity, its potential, prestige and self-respect.
Only in this capacity can state power gain the trust and support of the people. As a result, it is possible to overcome the alienation of the broad masses from the state, persistent negativism in relation to any government.
Fourth, the active role of the state in the formation of market relations. In the classical Western states, the market developed spontaneously, since there were appropriate conditions and prerequisites for this: the economic independence of individuals based on private property; personal freedom, due to the elimination of class distinctions and benefits; high level economic development and etc.
The active intervention of the state in the process of institutionalization of the market economy is what all post-socialist countries have in common with developing states. The latter have made significant progress in creating a market due to the activation of state power in the economic sphere, the protectionist policy of the state. This is evidenced by the experience of a number of Latin American (Chile), African (Morocco, Egypt) countries, as well as countries of the Asia-Pacific region (South Korea, Malaysia). Economic successes and serious market transformations are also possible under authoritarian regimes. The regime of General Pinochet in Chile is a prime example of this. Therefore, the thesis that the establishment of a market economy presupposes the establishment of democracy as its precondition seems debatable.
Meanwhile, as is well known, democratic reforms in Russia began with the political sphere. Perhaps this explains the failure of reforms during the perestroika period in the USSR.
Extensive discussion held during 1996-1997. on the pages of the journal "Problems of Philosophy", on the problems of democracy and democratic reorganization of various states, led to the conclusion that Western models of statehood in their original Euro-centric version cannot be institutionalized in countries with a different socio-cultural image, with a different mentality.
Therefore, the transition in the modern period to a new social system is invariably associated with a certain transitional period of statehood, with the emergence of mixed forms of government, state structure, regimes, with a special kind of hybridization of the essential features of statehood, combining both traditionally democratic institutions, norms, values, and elements of totalitarianism. . The transitional state of statehood is unstable and can lead to unpredictable results. Therefore, throughout the transitional period, the active intervention of the state in many spheres of public life remains.
Thus, analyzing modern Russian statehood from the standpoint of the categories of general, special and individual (individual), it should be stated that, as a form of organizing the life of society, Russia is in the general mainstream of those laws of social development that are inherent in the world community. However, the peculiarities of the country's socialist past, the common historical destinies of Russia and a number of post-socialist states determine the specifics of the progressive development of this group of states. From the point of view of the commonality of the patterns of economic and political modernization of the Russian statehood, it is more correct to compare it with the new statehood of the former Soviet republics of the Soviet Union, and in some aspects with other countries.
New sovereign nation-states existing in the territory former USSR, in their founding documents - declarations of state sovereignty and constitutions proclaimed the formation of a new social system and the creation of a new model of statehood.
In the economic sphere, the transition to market relations, pluralism of forms of ownership, freedom of entrepreneurship and competition are proclaimed.
In the political field, the belonging of state power to the people, the active role of the state within the country and in the international arena, the rule of law, the principle of separation of powers, the secular nature of the state, multi-party system, ideological diversity, etc.
The commonality of goals and objectives in the process of creating a new statehood is due to a number of factors, including the common historical past of the former Soviet republics, the recognition of the most important democratic institutions and humanistic values of the world community, the desire for integration into global community on the basis of equal partnership, all-acceptance of the world democratic experience.
Russian statehood has its own individual, unique features. It develops, preserving many traditional values and cultural features, i.e. modernized while maintaining its identity.
Currently, there is an in-depth study of traditional Russian identity, specific national features and general Russian mentality, which determine the “specialness” of the Russian state-legal reality and the specifics of the “state-legal spirit” of Russia. This allows us to determine the attitude of Russian society to Western values and models that are being introduced into its life.
In the literature, four basic elements of traditional Russian society are called:
Orthodoxy as a form of collective consciousness;
Autocracy;
Community, or communal communism;
The transfer of traditional forms of organization to new territories (“colonization”).
A special type of the spiritual and material organization of Russia, the presence of its own mentality among its peoples, the peculiarity of the economic structure, and other features are noted. For all its originality, Russia cannot but be influenced by global trends in political and legal life. However, not any democratic institutions may be viable in Russia, but only those that correspond to the domestic political and legal culture, the way of life of society. This means that it is possible to carry out reforms in Russia that are synchronized with its spiritual and psychological structure.
Among the features of Russian identity are:
Lack of prudence, rational organization of one's own life, unwillingness to foresee events;
Social apathy, laziness, patience and stoic resignation to fate;
Underdevelopment of a sense of self-worth;
Spirituality, striving for high moral ideals;
The presence in the culture of a pronounced religious and ideological component;
Collectivism, communality, catholicity;
Low value status of private property;
Patriarchal attitude to state power;
Adherence to the traditions of direct democracy, mainly everyday (communal self-government, zemstvo, people's council, etc.);
Weak consciousness of individual rights, etc.
Failure to take into account these specific national traits in the choice of ways for the development of Russian statehood can lead the country into a historical dead end, dooming reforms to failure.
Russian statehood must be approached not only from the standpoint of political, economic, social, but also cultural, i.e. it is necessary to see in the Russian statehood a great cultural value, a condition for the life and even the survival of the Russian people. Among the factors that determine the features of Russian statehood, A.B. Vengerov points to peasant, national, geopolitical questions, the question of "threads", i.e. consumption of alcoholic beverages, wine and vodka monopoly, and the issue of modernization of Russia, i.e. choosing a historical path of development History of the domestic state and law: Proc. allowance. Part 1. - M., 2014. - S. 40-41 ..
This issue has not only theoretical, but also practical significance, including for the development of a scientifically based concept for the development of modern Russian statehood, the organization and activities of state power in the new conditions, for substantiating the methodology for reforming society, the prospects for its movement.
The literature raised the question of whether it is possible to transform the mentality of the people, including the Russian mentality. According to some scientists, through education, public discussion, discussion of reform programs and bills, it is possible to change private, historical dead-end forms of stereotypes, leaving the deep values of the mentality intact. According to others, it is possible to borrow technology, the organization of financial institutions, the principles of the constitution, but it is much more difficult to change the habits, psychology, mentality, only with the help of which new order of things.
If, under the influence of Western samples and models, through the assimilation of the values of the West, it is possible to gradually change the Russian mentality, then this means that socio-economic and political transformations in Russia will fall on the soil corresponding to the nature and essence of reforms.
Supporters of this position believe that under the influence of the socio-cultural basis of the West in the modern world, its globalization is taking place and this process cannot bypass Russia.
Without denying the influence of various cultures on Russian statehood as part of the world system of statehood, it should be emphasized that history knows no examples of a nation changing its national specifics influenced by other people. Moreover, the greatest progress in the modernization of society is achieved by those peoples who, without abandoning their own national traditions and the specifics of culture, master the experience of other states and peoples on its basis. As an example, they usually refer to Japan, which operates according to the principle: Japanese ethics plus Western technology, or to South Korea, which, along with the achievements of Western civilization, mainly of a technical nature, strictly follows national traditions and customs.
Thus, the national mentality is a quality immanently inherent in a particular nation. Experiencing a certain impact in the process of historical development from various kinds of factors, the mentality remains to a certain extent conservative in its deep, essential, defining qualities. And this is reflected in the susceptibility of society as a whole to various innovations and transformations.
Thus, at the current stage, Russian society will have to solve a historically important task: which path will be the most acceptable and correct for the country, will lead to the desired result.
political system Russian statehood
CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN STATEHOOD AND THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
2.1 Problems of development of the political system in the Russian Federation
The political system of Russia is largely determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation adopted in 1993. The Constitution declares Russia to be a democratic federal legal social state with a republican form of government. The only source of power in the Russian Federation is its multinational people. It is important to emphasize that the political system of the Russian Federation is not built according to the national principle, but taking into account the presence of a multinational population in Russia. The federal Russian political system expresses the will and interests of all peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation The Constitution of the Russian Federation (adopted by popular vote on December 12, 1993) .2008 N 7-FKZ, dated 02/05/2014 N 2-FKZ, dated 07/21/2014 N 11-FKZ)// SZ RF, 08/04/2014, N 31, art. 4398. .
The federal structure of the Russian Federation is based on its state integrity, the unity of the system of state power, the delimitation of the subjects of jurisdiction and powers between the state authorities of the Russian Federation and the state authorities of the subjects of the Russian Federation, the equality and self-determination of peoples in Russia Alekseev S.S. State and law. - M., 2014. - S. 90 ..
The multinational Russian people exercise their power directly, as well as through state authorities and local self-government bodies.
The leading element of the Russian political system is the social state, whose policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of all citizens.
The state bodies of the Russian Federation carry out their activities on the basis of the principle of separation of power into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. Each of these three systems of authorities and administration is independent and is guided by the provisions of the Constitution, federal laws and other legal acts.
In Russia, legislative power is elected democratically - the State Duma, the Federation Council, the head of state and executive power - the President, who appoints the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma and, together with the latter, forms the composition of the government.
The judiciary of the Russian Federation is independent and is subject only to the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law. Judges of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation are appointed by the Federation Council on the proposal of the President of the Russian Federation.
To a certain extent, the prosecutor's office adjoins the judicial system of power. The Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation is appointed and dismissed by the Federation Council and on the proposal of the President of the Russian Federation.
Russian Federation Krasnov B.I. Political systems // Sots.-polit. magazine - 2015. - No. 5. - P. 8. - the state is secular. No religion can be established as a state or obligatory one. Religious associations are separated from the state. Citizens of the Russian Federation are guaranteed freedom of conscience, religion, including the right to profess a religion or not to profess any Marchenko M.N. The political system of society. / Political science. Lecture course. M.: MGU, 2013. - S. 148 ..
The system of federal bodies of state power in Russia is complemented by a system of state bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation - republics, territories, regions, cities of federal significance, an autonomous region, autonomous regions. The subjects of the Russian Federation determine their structure independently in accordance with P. Sharan. Comparative political science. - M., 2015. - Part 1. - P.49. with the fundamentals of the constitutional system of Russia and the general principles of the organization of representative, executive and judicial bodies of power established by federal law.
A very significant element of the Russian political system are local governments. Their role is defined by the Constitution of Russia. They independently manage municipal property, form, approve and execute the local budget, and protect public order. Local self-government bodies may be endowed by law with separate state powers with the transfer of material and financial resources necessary for their implementation.
Local self-government is carried out in urban, rural settlements and other territories, taking into account historical and other local traditions.
An essential element of the Russian political system is the presence in its composition of various political parties, socio-political movements, electoral political blocs and unions. It suffices to refer to the participation in the elections of deputies of the State Duma in 1995 by more than forty political associations of this kind. The Russian Constitution proclaims political diversity and a multi-party system. But prohibits the creation and activity public associations whose goals or actions are aimed at forcibly changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed groups, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred Fundamentals of the theory of political systems. - M.: Nauka, 2011. - S. 124 ..
In the political system of Russia, a special place is occupied by political traditions. Their study cannot be started either from the October Revolution, or from the time of Peter I, their roots and formation must be sought even in the activities of the Kyiv princes and Moscow sovereigns. A characteristic political traditional setting in Russian society was autocratic, autocratic government. Russia borrowed the Byzantine idea of cooperation between church and state, which led to the subordination of the church to the state. Strengthening autocracy Fundamentals of political science. Course of lectures. - M., 2015. - P. 183. The idea of Moscow as the third Rome (there will not be a fourth Rome), the idea of \u200b\u200bthe divine origin of royal power contributed. Despite numerous attempts - from Tsar Alexei to Alexander II, in Russia it was not possible to limit autocratic power by the Constitution, to establish the rule of law. Such essential principles functioning of the political system as the separation of powers and the independence of the judiciary, proved to be incompatible with the autocracy. Only the judicial reform of 1864 approved independent justice, separated the court from the administration. But October 1917 liquidated the "bourgeois judicial system." Local courts were introduced, consisting of a judge and two assessors elected by the Council. In addition, revolutionary tribunals operated at different levels, which carried out reprisals without trial, in an administrative manner.
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Russia in its entire history has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian state, the Muscovite state, the Russian Empire, the Soviet state and the Russian Federation.
1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the main principles of statehood in Russia, the merging of its northern and southern centers, the growth of the military-political and international influence state, the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and the loss of centralized control, which is natural for early feudal monarchies.
The spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state was destined to be Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun. Under him, in 988, Russia adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After that, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature developed.
However, by the end of the XII century, a number of independent states were formed in Russia. Due to their fragmentation, in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. As a result, in the 14th century Ancient Russia how the state community ceases to exist.
Since the 14th century, the importance of the Moscow principality, which acted as the center of the "gathering of Russian lands", has been growing in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. A special role in this process was played by the reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state.
2. Muscovy existed from the middle of the 15th to the end of the 17th century. In this era, the final liberation of the Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, the main state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy took shape. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the sovereign of Moscow was the solemn wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of the organs government controlled, the judiciary, the army, the church. The formation of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its success in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. Ensuring the growth of the international prestige of the Muscovite state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory through successful conquests and the colonization of new lands in the east.
All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the Time of Troubles. Our Fatherland was on the verge of disintegration and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige.
During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the prerequisites for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire.
3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.
The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, defining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with its decisive influence on the life of all sectors of society and strict regulation of all its aspects.
After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered the era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats were replaced on the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. The all-powerful temporary workers then acquired great importance in the management of the empire.
The reign of Catherine II (1762-1796) was marked by a declared policy of "enlightened absolutism", an unprecedented increase in the privileges of the nobility as a noble estate of the Russian Empire, and at the same time an unprecedented scale of feudal arbitrariness.
Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the nobility led to another palace coup and the assassination of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions.
Russia entered the 19th century with a brilliant façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing internal political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the vast empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted Patriotic War 1812, which, as it were, divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by "constitutional quests", and the second - by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevshchina. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government from the Russian noble intelligentsia.
The policy of Nicholas I (1825-1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the middle of the 19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the "great reform", declaring the abolition of the serfdom of the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in the sphere of central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, the reorganization of the army and navy, and the democratization of the education system.
However, these reforms did not eliminate the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized public consciousness revolutionary intelligentsia.
The attempts of Alexander III (1881-1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.
The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat Nicholas II (1895-1917) was marked by the unprecedented scope of the revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.
4. The Soviet state existed from February 1917 until the end of 1991 and is associated with the formation of the foundations of Soviet statehood in the era of revolutionary transformation Imperial Russia to the Russian Republic. This stage in the development of our state absorbed the crisis of the central state power and the disintegration of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss by the Provisional Government of the democratic prospects for state development and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, on the wave of which the Bolsheviks led by V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new order, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire.
For 30 years (from the beginning of the 1920s to 1953) the “great leader and father of peoples” I.V. Stalin.
Thanks to innumerable victims and the unparalleled heroism of several generations of Soviet people, the Soviet state in the shortest possible time acquired a powerful economic potential and became a powerful industrial power, which allowed the USSR not only to survive, but also to defeat fascism during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945).
At the same time, the victory in the war became the beginning of a large-scale rivalry between the two state-political and economic systems in the international arena - the USSR and the United States of America (USA). In the post-war period, under the conditions cold war"an unprecedented arms race unfolded, which was based on Soviet-American rivalry.
The Soviet leaders, the heirs of Stalin, realizing the need and inevitability of reforming the outdated model of a totalitarian state, but fearing the loss of party nomenklatura power in the country, tried to carry out transformations without changing the foundations of the socialist system. Attempts to reform during the "thaw" led to the resignation of the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) N.S. Khrushchev (1964), and the policy of "perestroika" of the last General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev ended with the collapse of the USSR as a single totalitarian state and the collapse of the party-Soviet system.
Theoretical approaches to the study of the history of Russian statehood
A state is a set of citizens living in a certain territory.
The state is the main institution of the political system of society, organizing, directing and controlling the joint activities and relations of people and their groups.
Theoretical approaches to the study of the origin of the state: 1) Theological - the state was created by God (A. Augustine, F. Aquinas). 2) Political-philosophical approach (antiquity) - the state-means of solving common affairs. (Plato, Polybius). 3) The theory of the social contract (England of the 17th century) The state as a means of curbing human aggressiveness (T. Gobba, J. Locke). 4) Class approach (19th century) The state is a consequence of the division of society into classes and an instrument of oppression of one class by another. 5) Organizational-structural (20th century) The state is an impersonal mechanism, which is the source of law and law.
Public administration- purposeful action of the state. bodies for planning, organization, motivation, control, adoption and implementation of management decisions. The state apparatus is a system of connected elements of a connected mechanism and relevant institutions and bodies.
State bodies: 1) Higher bodies (subordinate directly to the bearer of supreme power): boyar duma, Zemsky Sobor, senate, state council, president, parliament, government, courts. 2) Central bodies (sectoral and multi-sectoral institutions of executive power that implement managerial decisions at the national level): sovereign's court (Kievan Rus), orders (Ivan4), collegiums (Peter1), ministries, people's commissariats. 3) Regional and local (local state authorities + local self-government): destinies (Ancient Russia), districts (Moscow Russia), Provinces (Peter 1), republics, regions.
Characteristics of the political system: 1) The form of government is a way of organizing the highest authorities: MONARCHY, REPUBLIC. 2) The form of government - a way of organizing the territory of the state and the interaction of higher and central bodies with local ones: FEDERATION, UNITARY STATE, CONFEDERATION. 3) Type of political regime - a way of interaction between the state and civil society: DEMOCRACY, AUTHORITARISM, TOTALITORISM.
3. East Slavic society and the formation of the prerequisites for the formation of the state
There are two theories of the origin of the Slavs:
1. Migration, according to which the Slavs are an alien people.
A) Danube-Balkan, according to which the Slavs originally lived in the Danube basin;
B) Scythian-Sormatian (19th century Sobalevsky). The Slavs were immigrants from Western Asia, they were descendants of the Scythians and Sormati.
C) Baltic (Chess, Gumilyov). The Slavs were immigrants from the Baltic states.
2. Autochthonous theory, according to which the Slavs are an indigenous people. The founders are the Czech scientist Niederle and the Soviet scientist Academician Rybakov.
The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture, in the North - an appropriating economy, in the South - cattle breeding.
An early form of social organization of the Slavs was the tribal community. Then it was transformed into a neighboring community, each family ran its own household. Separate neighboring communities united into tribes.
Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state:-The growth of common interests among the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes, their desire to unite for joint defense against external enemies; -Growth in the number of cities in which representatives of different tribes and clans settled, which led to the erosion of tribal traditions and the gravitation of the urban way of life towards state forms; -Complication of relations between clans and tribes, the need for political arbitration to coordinate relations between them. -Increase in economic relations and trade between clans and tribes, the need for a single settlement equivalent, a common monetary unit.
The historical process was the change of socio-economic formations, and the main content of the historical process was the class struggle between the exploiters and the exploited. The state is not singular.
According to the materialist theory of state formation, the improvement of labor tools led to an increase in agricultural production and the emergence of a surplus product, therefore this led to the beginning of social stratification.
Stages of the division of labor in primitive society: 1) Separation of producing forms of economy from appropriating ones. 2) The emergence of a craft. 3) Separation of trade. 4) The emergence of elite strata of the population.
The main cell of the East Slavic society was the neighboring community (“Verv”), which existed until the beginning of the 20th century. The phase of transition from primitive to class society is called military democracy - a form of organization of power, in which adult and healthy men capable of carrying weapons were full-fledged subjects. (Among the Eastern Slavs, 6-9 centuries). One of the signs of military democracy is reciprocal exchange - the distribution of material goods in exchange for recognition of leadership.
The structure of political power at the stage of military democracy: At the head is the LEADER (PRINCE), and with him - a squad, a veche, a council of elders.
Education of the USSR. Soviet state administration in the 1920s
As a result of the civil war, the Bolsheviks as a whole managed to restore the integrity of the territory of the former Russian Empire, with the exception of Poland, Finland and the Baltic states. The task was to build a new state. devices. In the early 20s, the Bolshevik Party put forward 2 points of view on the issue of state. device: -Steel (Autonomization: it was proposed to recreate a unitary state, but with the provision of national-cultural autonomy to individual territories) and - Lenin (Federation).
As a result, 30 Dec. 1922 adopted a declaration and an agreement on the creation of the USSR. 4 republics: RASSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus, Transcaucasian: Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan. In January 1924 The constitution of the USSR was adopted. The structure of the highest bodies of state. authorities repeated the provision of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918. After the death of Lenin in 1924, Rykov became chairman of the Council of People's Commissars.
Intra-party struggle in the 20s. Stages: 1) 1924-1925 - Fight against the left opposition: (Stalin + Zinoviev and Kamenev: the idea of building socialism in a separate country) - (Trotsky: the idea of a world socialist revolution). 2) 1926-1927 - Fight against the united opposition: Stalin + Bukharin and Rykov) - (Zinoviev and Kamenev + Trotsky). 3) 1928-1930 - Struggle with the right opposition (Stalin: The collapse of the NEP and the transition to a command-administrative system) - (Bukharin and Rykov + Tomsky: the NEP is viable, it must be supported). By the end of the 20s, Stalin remained the only leader of the Bolshevik Party.
Reasons: 1) Using the possibilities of the position of Secretary General, 2) Flexible political line.
Formation of the Soviet totalitarian regime in the 1930s.
In 1934. The 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, which was called the "Congress of the Winners", took place. After the congress, the murder of Kirov took place, in which Trotsky was accused, which led to repressions. December 5, 1936. The Stalinist Constitution of the USSR was adopted. Structure: At the top stood the PRESIDIUM OF THE SUPREME COUNCIL and the SUPREME COUNCIL of the USSR, the COUNCIL OF THE UNION, the Council of People's Commissars, the COUNCIL OF NATIONS were subordinate to them. According to this constitution, the Soviet system was democratic in nature. Elections were regularly held in the Councils of all levels - from the Supreme and local ones. But in these elections, only one candidate from the "indestructible bloc of communists and non-party people" was nominated. And non-participation in elections entailed severe punishment. Candidates for elective positions were only formally approved at meetings of voters, but were actually appointed by party structures. Each Council had its own executive body: from the Council of People's Commissars (the government of the USSR) to the executive committees of local Soviets. Stalin personally appointed People's Commissars. An article was introduced into the Constitution that reflected the principle of party omnipotence. The all-embracing power of the AUCP(b) was exercised through decision-making on all issues of state, social and cultural life, as well as their implementation under the control of millions of party members. Stalin gave the party structure a militarized character. The party system is compared with a system of levers - each lever is pressed by a higher lever, and so on to the very top. All administrative structures converged on the leader, which gave his power an absolute character.
The social system that developed in the USSR by the end of the 1930s is characterized by many researchers as totalitarian. In contrast to the dictatorial system, which operates according to the principle “what is not forbidden is possible”, the power of the state in totalitarian regimes is wider, and the principle “what is allowed is possible”, i.e. Citizens are dictated by their behavior.
The Stalinist totalitarian regime is distinguished by the following features: - The economy, based on the dominance of the state form of ownership, was controlled by a huge apparatus of officials, from the people's commissar to the foreman in production. - The growth of labor productivity was low (with the exception of heavy industry), - Industry developed in an extensive way (due to cheap labor and the construction of new enterprises). - The figures for the fulfillment of the five-year plans were preserved only in the parade reports. - Agriculture did not get out of the crisis. The political system was based on the personal dictatorship of Stalin, who ruled the country with the help of an obedient and extensive apparatus of the CPSU (b) - from the Politburo to the secretary of the district committee. The formally elected soviets have become a silent appendage of party structures. The NKVD is also under Stalin's personal control. The population is covered by a whole network public organizations: trade unions, VLKSM, pioneer and October organizations. These structures played the role of "conductors of the party decisions of the masses". The party ideology, Marxism-Leninism, dominated in schools, universities, houses of culture. This system existed without major changes until Stalin's death on March 5, 1953.
History of Russia
1 Historical science and its main categories
2 Russian historical schools and their representatives
3 Ancient peoples and states on the territory of Russia (I millennium BC - X century AD)
4 Eastern Slavs: theories of origin, social order
5 Formation of the Old Russian state: prerequisites ...
6 Socio-political system of Kievan Rus
7 Baptism of Russia: causes, nature, meaning
8 The era of fragmentation of Russia (XII - XIII centuries): reasons, ...
9 The struggle of Russian principalities with foreign conquerors in the XIII century.
10 The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia in the XIII-XVI centuries.
11 Prerequisites and the beginning of the unification of Russian lands (XIV - first half of the XV centuries)
12 The final stage of the formation of the Russian centralized state
13 Beginning of the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. Reforms of the Elected Rada
14 Oprichnina of Ivan IV the Terrible and its consequences
15 Russia's foreign policy in the 16th century
16 Time of Troubles: a social catastrophe and the search for alternatives for Russia's development
17 Political development of Russia under the first Romanovs (XVII century).
18 Economic and social development of Russia in the XVII century. Cathedral code of 1649
19 Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century
20 Orthodox Church and the state in the 17th century. Reform of Patriarch Nikon and races
21 Foreign policy of Peter I. Birth of the Russian Empire
22 Reforms of Peter I: administrative, economic, social.
23 The era of palace coups (1725 - 1762)
24 Russia in the second half of the 18th century: the policy of the enlightened
25 Russia's foreign policy in the middle and second half of the 18th century.
26 The search for ways of liberal reformation of Russia under Emperor Alexander I
27 Apogee of autocracy during the reign of Nicholas I
28 Socio-political currents of the first half
29 Russia's foreign policy in the first half of the 19th century.
30 The abolition of serfdom. Socio-economic
31 The essence and significance of the liberal reforms of Alexander II
32 The policy of counter-reforms of Alexander III
33 Socio-political movements of the second half of the XIX
34 Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.
35 Socio-economic development of Russia at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries.
36 Revolution 1905 - 1907 and changes in the management system of the June 3
37 Formation of political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
38 Russia's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century. Russo-Japanese War. World War I
39 Revolutionary Events of 1917 in Russia
40 Civil War in Russia 1918 - 1922
41 The Soviet state in the 1920s: socio-economic
42 Establishment of a totalitarian regime in the 1930s
43 Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920s - 1930s.
44 USSR in World War II and the Great Patriotic War
45 Development of the USSR in the post-war period (1946 - 1953)
46 The liberalization of the Soviet system under the leadership of N.S. Khrushchev (1953 - 1964)
47 Political and economic "stagnation" of the 1960s - early 1980s.
48 The crisis of the Soviet system and attempts to reform it in the 1980s -
49 Foreign policy of the USSR during the Cold War (1946-1991)
50 The Russian Federation in the 1990s: Contradictions
Features and patterns of development of Russian statehood
Statehood is a reflection of the qualitative state of a state-organized society, taking into account the conditions of its historical development over a long historical period, as well as the national-cultural and socio-spiritual features of the society that forms the state. Statehood, in contrast to the concept of "state", is a more voluminous concept. The identification (similar, it seems) of statehood with the state deprives it of such an important property as dynamism (activity, energy), the ability for successive and continuous development.
The main properties of Russian statehood are: continuity, continuity, variability, consistency, concreteness, integrity, incompleteness.
Russian state formations: 1) Kievan Rus of the 9th-12th centuries, 2) The era of fragmentation and specific principalities of the 12th-15th centuries, 3) Muscovy of the 15th-beginning. 18 centuries. 4) The Russian Empire of the 18th-20th centuries, the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) and the USSR until 1991, 6) the Russian Federation since 1992.
All historical theories recognize that the development of Russian statehood has a number of specific features that distinguish it from both the West and the East: levels. PATERNALISM - (from "pater" - father) - the paternal attitude of the state towards its subjects, the officially proclaimed course for social support of unprotected segments of the population. TOLERANCE - tolerant attitude towards representatives of different ethnic groups and religious denominations. CYCLE - consecutive change of phases of political development: 1-reforms.2-counter-reforms.3-revolutionary crisis.4-restoration.
The subject and objectives of the course OI.
Old Russian state Russian empire (1918–1991
Factors and specifics of the historical development of Russia.
Factors are those conditions that determine the peculiarity of the development of society and the state in our country. The vast extent of the country's territory (1). At the moments of its power, we occupied a sixth of the land and was the most powerful state (2). Unfavorable natural - climatic conditions, risk farming zones (forests and swamps) (3). Until the 18th century, Russia did not have direct access to the seas (4). Russia acts as a barrier for Europe from the invasion of the steppe aggressive nomadic peoples (Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Mongolotatars) (4). Diversity of ethno-cultural composition (5). Russia was the meeting point of three religious worlds(Buddhist, Christian, Islamic) (5) Specificity: (1, 2) Determining the need for collective efforts of people to develop this zone, the predominance of collective forms of labor gave rise to a collective type of consciousness, contributed to the undeveloped ideas about the personal rights of people and the importance of private property, i.e. e. determined the underdevelopment of the legal consciousness of people. (3, 4) Contributed to the development of isolationist moods in Russian society, the development of the idea of a special way of our historical development, unlike the Western one, only Peter 1 was the first in our history to begin to overcome this historical isolation. These factors ensured the special significance of the supreme strong power of a single sovereign. (5) The diversity of the ethno-cultural composition gave rise to a special cultural world, the carriers of which were the Russian people with their main unique ability to assimilate the features of all cultural types of peoples that the Russians conquered peacefully and not peacefully.
Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period.
Socio-political system: 1. VI-VIII centuries. - the decomposition of the tribal system: the transition from the tribal to the territorial (or neighboring) community. 2. VIII-IX centuries. - the formation of pre-state ethno-political communities: Slovenes, Krivichi, Ulichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, Drevlyans, Polans, Volynians, White Croats, Tivertsy, Radimichi, Dregovichi. 3. At the head of the pre-state ethno-political communities were princes who performed managerial and military functions, relying on squad. played an important role in management veche- People's Assembly. Occupations of the Eastern Slavs: 1. Farming. The main agricultural systems of the Eastern Slavs are closely connected with natural and climatic conditions. In the north in the forest zone it was slash-and-burn. In the south, in the steppe zone, developed plow shifting agriculture. In the forest-steppe zone combined both forms of agriculture. 2. Cattle breeding. They raised oxen, horses, cows, and small cattle. The transition to arable farming led to an increase in the importance of the horse as a draft animal. Hunting.4. Fishing.5. Beekeeping - collecting honey.6. Gathering.7. Craft - weaving, blacksmithing, pottery, carpentry, weapons, jewelry, etc. Religious beliefs of the Eastern Slavs: In the belief system of the Eastern Slavs, paganism and polytheism are distinguished. I. Paganism is based on spiritualization human environment nature. Pagan religions of the Eastern Slavs: 1. Totemism - the cult of animals and plants (bear, deer, elk, bull, wild boar, birch, oak). 2. Fetishism is the cult of inanimate objects (fetishes) endowed with supernatural properties. 3. Animism - belief in the existence of souls and spirits that control the material world. 4. The cult of nature - the veneration of such natural elements as the sun, water, fire and earth. II. Polytheism (“polytheism”) is based on the belief in the existence of an extensive host of gods (for example, Svarog (sky god), Dazhdbog (sun god), Perun (storm god); Stribog (wind god)).
Formation and political development of Kievan Rus in the 9th - early 12th century.
In the process of statehood formation among the Eastern Slavs, two stages can be distinguished: 1. Unification of Slavic pre-state communities into proto-states (or state formations): Cuiaba centered in Kyiv Slavia centered in Novgorod artania centered in Ryazan or Tmutarakan (Taman Peninsula) 2. The merging of the two main political centers of the Eastern Slavs in 882 - the southern one with Kyiv and the northern one with Novgorod, the emergence of a single "public authority" headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv.882 - year of formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus: It was a confederation of fairly independent state formations, politically held together only by the unity of the princely family; It was a state with a monarchical form of government; In the historical literature, there are several theories of formation of the Old Russian state: Norman(30-60s of the 18th century, German scientists Johann Gottfried Bayer and Gerard Friedrich Miller) - The Old Russian state was founded by the Varangians (Scandinavians) in 862 (Rurik, Sineus, Truvor). Slavic (anti-Norman)(M.V. Lomonosov) - statehood among the Eastern Slavs arose as a natural result of internal development. centrist ( most modern historians) - the Old Russian state arose as a result of internal social development, but also with the participation of the Varangians. The process of formation of the Old Russian state lasted for about a century and a half. Important milestones in this process were: 945 - folding of the tax system:"lessons" - the amount of tribute; "graveyards" - places of tribute collection. 988 - adoption of Christianity in the Byzantine version, which created a single normative-value space on the territory of the Russian land. I quarter of the 11th century- the formation of a legal system ("Russian Truth" by Yaroslav the Wise). Old Russian statehood went through three stages in its development: IX - the end of the X century.- the folding of the territorial and political structure of the Kievan state during the reign of the first princes (Rurik (862–879), Oleg (879–912), Igor (912–945), Olga (945–969), Svyatoslav (964–972)); The end of the X - the first half of the XI century.- the time of the highest prosperity of the state under Vladimir I (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054); The second half of the XI - the beginning of the XII centuries.- folding the prerequisites for territorial and political fragmentation during the reign of the Yaroslavichs and Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125).
Formation and development of the Moscow principality in the XIV - XV centuries.
Ivan III - the main prince, the formation of a single state: The borders took shape and included: Yaroslavl, Ryazan, Novgorod, Pskov, Perm, Vyatka, Chernigov, Novgorod, Tver. Russia was freed from paying tribute, in 1480 the yoke was abolished. Complete independence of Russia. Bodies of supreme and central power belonging to the Grand Duke of Moscow were formed. He called himself the king of Russia and sat on the royal throne in full royal attire. Coat of arms - double-headed eagle. Along with the Moscow prince, he consulted with "Boyar Duma" (high council until the end of the 17th century). There were two central bodies: the Great Council and the treasury. All the old borders of the principalities were liquidated, and Russia was divided into parish, and the parishes counties. In 1497, Ivan III issued the first judicial code, those. laws, and on a nationwide scale, the process of enslaving the peasants begins, St. George's Day is introduced on November 26 , on this day, the peasants received the right to transfer from feudal lord to feudal lord. The dominant layer consisted of boyars and nobles, while the boyars were the support of the throne and the leading feudal class.
Reforms of Alexander II.
Reforms of Alexander 1st: Freed the peasants from serfdom. Peasants became full-fledged free citizens, received land in personal ownership. 1862 - press and education (freedom of speech). A lecturer at the institute is selected, not appointed. 864 - Judicial and Zemskaya. The most progressive one introduced a general civil court. It consisted of a judge, a lawyer, a prosecutor. The concept of the presumption of innocence (not guilty before the verdict) was introduced. A jury trial was introduced (the verdict was passed by elected, independent people). Zemskaya - zemstvos were created in the counties - self-government bodies that were in charge of: the local budget, health care, and public education. 1870 - similar: city dumas were created in the cities. - military reform. The whole complex of military reforms included the following: reduction in the size of the army; establishment of a system of military districts; the abolition of the recruiting system for completing the army and the introduction of universal military service. System reform public education(1864). The state-church monopoly in the sphere of primary education has been liquidated. primary schools private individuals and zemstvos could open. Development of the system of secondary education (classical and real gymnasiums). The formation of women's education (1862 - the opening of women's gymnasiums).
Fatherland in the era of the NEP.
The NEP is a complex of anti-crisis economic, social, and ideological measures taken by the Bolsheviks in 1921–1928, aimed at creating a multi-structural socialist economy with elements of a market economy and private property, while maintaining the “commanding heights” in the hands of the Soviet state. Goals of the NEP: Political - to relieve social tension, to strengthen the social base of Soviet power in the form of an alliance of workers and peasants. Economic - to prevent further deepening of the ruin, to get out of the crisis and restore the economy. Social - to provide favorable conditions for building a socialist society without waiting for the world revolution. Foreign policy - to restore normal foreign policy and foreign economic relations; overcome international isolation. NEP in its mature form carried two deep and serious contradictions. First: between the market method of building socialism and its goal - the creation of a market-free socialist economy. Second: between the Bolshevik monopoly on political power and the diversity of political and economic interests of various social groups(working class, peasantry, NEP bourgeoisie, bureaucracy, intelligentsia). The solution of these contradictions opened before the country two ways of further historical development. The first: the Bolsheviks are developing the NEP, introducing more radical economic reform and opening up more space for market relations and private enterprise (including the abandonment of the state monopoly on foreign trade), at the risk of losing power. Second: the Bolsheviks liquidate the NEP and move to a marketless economy (without private property, freedom of trade and entrepreneurship), strengthening their monopoly on power Which way the country will go depends on many economic, social, political and ideological factors.
Russia in the 90s 20th century
By the beginning of the 1990s. many structural distortions accumulated in the Russian economy: the extractive industries and the military-industrial complex dominated, gigantomania flourished, the consumer market was not saturated, at the same time, many obsolete industries produced products that no one needed. The situation was aggravated by the collapse of the union state and the disintegration of the unified national economic complex. According to the historian Zhukov, privatization pursued not so much economic as political goals: to achieve a change in the social system by replacing the state type of ownership with private; create an economic and financial elite, designed to become the social pillar of the country's radical renewal; achieve a socially calm reaction to the actual loss of their share of property. The collapse of the USSR put before the Russian Federation, as well as before other republics former Union, the problem of ensuring an independent state existence, the task of establishing a new Russian statehood. In this regard, the leadership of the country, socio-political parties and movements were faced with the urgent task of finding a civilizational system of its state structure.
Russia at the beginning of the XXI century.
On December 31, 1999, B.N. Yeltsin, unexpectedly for everyone, voluntarily resigned from the post of President of the Russian Federation and, in accordance with the Constitution, transferred his powers to the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, V.V. Putin. thus ended the "Yeltsin era". On March 26, 2000, presidential elections were held, in which V.V. Putin won in the first round, having received 52.94% of the votes, becoming the second popularly elected President in the history of post-Soviet Russia. The main directions of the policy of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin in 2000–2008. I. Politico-state sphere– strengthening the vertical of state power and achieving political stability in society: the creation of seven federal districts headed by authorized representatives the President of the Russian Federation; changing the principle of forming the chamber of the Federal Assembly - the Federation Council - and turning it into a permanent legislative body; creation of the State Council of the Russian Federation as a consultative and advisory body of the heads of subjects of the Russian Federation under the President of the Russian Federation. II. Socio-economic sphere– continuation of the course towards liberalization of the economy: weakening of bureaucratic guardianship and state control over entrepreneurial activity; taking measures aimed at supporting small businesses; tax cuts and the introduction of a 13% income tax; monetization of social benefits; the beginning of the implementation of national projects. III. International relations and foreign policy: Adoption new concept Russia's foreign policy based on the multipolar system of international relations; more developed partnerships with all countries of the world; normalization of Russia-NATO relations; support of Western countries in the fight against international terrorism.
The subject and objectives of the course OI.
History is a word of Greek origin, this concept arose around the 5th century. d.c. and denoted a story about what happened, about what was learned. The Greek Herodotus is considered the father of history. Nestor the Chronicler (11th century AD, Kyiv) is called the father of Russian history. The main method of studying history is Historicism, this approach requires an analysis of the facts, events and processes of the past in their development, interconnection and in connection with the circumstances that give rise to them, i.e. specifically their historical. History is a concrete science that studies not only regularities, but also the events themselves, people, historical facts. Objectives of history: 1) Generalize and analyze human experience; 2) Reveal patterns in the development of all mankind, individual peoples and states; 3) Form a historical consciousness; 4) Give an objective assessment of the historical process. In order to solve these problems, historical science relies on methodology and historical sources. Methodology is the general principles that make it possible to streamline the accumulated historical material and create effective explanatory models of historical development. Types of methodology: 1) Subjectivist (The historical process is explained by the actions of great people); 2) Objective-idealistic (The decisive role in the historical process was assigned to God, the World Soul, etc.); 3) Formative approach (19th century Karl Marx, suggests that humanity in its development occurs through 5 socio-economic formations: Primitive communal, Slave-owning, Feudal, Capitalist, Communist); 4) Civilizational approach (considers civilization as the main structural unit of the historical process). Historical sources: Written (chronicles, books), Material (everything that can be touched), Oral (epics, legends), Ethnographic (traditions, customs, mores), Linguistic (language data), audiovisual (film-audio-photo-documents) .
The main stages of development of the Russian state.
Old Russian state(The second half of the 9th - the first third of the 12th centuries. The period of the emergence, formation and development of a single state among the Eastern Slavs in the form of an early feudal monarchy). Russian lands during the period of political fragmentation and Tatar-Mongol invasion (The second half of the 12th century - the middle of the 13th century. The period of existence of independent appanages in Russia with various forms of political structure from a feudal monarchy to a feudal republic. The establishment of the yoke of the Golden Horde over the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands; the entry of southwestern lands into composition of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia). Formation and development of the Moscow state(XIV - XVII centuries. The period of formation of the Moscow centralized state and the estate-representative monarchy). Russian empire(XVIII - early XX centuries. The period of existence of an absolute monarchy). Russian Empire during the period of transition to a limited monarchy(February-October 1917. The overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a republican form of government). Formation and existence of the Soviet state(1918–1991 1) 1918 - until the end of the 20s. 1) the creation of a new state system (the state dictatorship of the proletariat). Formation of a federal union state. 2) 1930 - ser. 50s 2) the establishment of a totalitarian state, the merging of state and party apparatuses. 3) ser. 50s - ser. 80s 3) weakening of control over society. Preservation of the leading role of the CPSU in the state. 4) 1985–1991 4) an attempt to reform the Soviet system within the framework of the socialist system. Formation of a multi-party parliament). Formation of the Russian Federation ( 1991–2009 Formation of a presidential republic based on the principle of separation of powers).
The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.
Russia in its entire history has gone through five main periods of state development˸ the Old Russian state, the Moscow state, the Russian Empire, the Soviet state and the Russian Federation. 1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the assertion of the main principles of statehood in Russia, the merger of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, the onset of the fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies. The spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state was destined to be Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun. Under him, in 988, Russia adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After that, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature developed. However, by the end of the XII century, a number of independent states were formed in Russia. Due to their fragmentation, in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. As a result, in the XIV century, Ancient Russia as a state community ceases to exist. Since the XIV century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the importance of the Moscow principality, which acted as the center of the ʼʼgathering of Russian landsʼʼ, has been growing. A special role in this process was played by the reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo field. However, it took almost a hundred more years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state. 2. Muscovy existed from the middle of the 15th to the end of the 17th century. In this era, the final liberation of the Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, the main state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy took shape. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the sovereign of Moscow was the solemn wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of the state administration, the judiciary, the army, and the church. The formation of Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by ᴇᴦο successes in the sphere of state centralization and the intensification of foreign policy. Ensuring the growth of the international prestige of the Muscovite state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of the ᴇᴦο territory due to successful conquests and the colonization of new lands in the east. All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the Time of Troubles. Our Fatherland was on the verge of disintegration and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige. During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the prerequisites for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire. 3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place. The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, defining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with a decisive influence on the life of all strata of society and strict regulation of all its aspects. After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered the era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats were replaced on the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. The all-powerful temporary workers then acquired great importance in the management of the empire. The reign of Catherine II (1762-1796) was marked by the declared policy of "enlightened absolutism", an unprecedented increase in the privileges of the nobility as a noble estate of the Russian Empire, and at the same time an unprecedented scale of feudal arbitrariness. Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the nobility led to another palace coup and the assassination of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions. Russia entered the 19th century with a brilliant façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing internal political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the vast empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which, as it were, divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government from the Russian noble intelligentsia. The policy of Nicholas I (1825-1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the middle of the 19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the ʼʼgreat reformʼʼ, declaring the abolition of the serfdom of the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in the sphere of central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, the reorganization of the army and navy, and the democratization of the education system. However, these reforms did not eliminate the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. The attempts of Alexander III (1881-1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.
The main stages in the development of Russian statehood in the 9th - the first half of the 19th centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The main stages in the development of Russian statehood in the 9th - the first half of the 19th centuries." 2015, 2017-2018.
