Evolution board game addition ice age. ice Age

Unofficial addition to the board game

ICE AGE

"Evolution"

"Friends! Here is an unofficial, author's addition to the board game "Evolution" - " ice Age"Now the forces of nature intervene in the evolutionary process and it will become much more difficult for players to save their animals, which, in my opinion, makes the game faster and more exciting.

The addition included 8 cards with two new properties - Immunity and Insulation, as well as 14 cards with seven properties of the forces of nature. Just mix the cards with the new modifiers into the base set or the base set with an expansion, and place the force of nature cards on the table in a separate deck.”

The presented edition of the rules is an adaptation of this unofficial add-on for a game set that includes the Core Set + "Time to Fly" + "Continents", Or for playing with the "Gift Set". We have explained and supplemented some of the nuances that arise when playing with continents. For the game, we expanded the set of cards and used 14 cards with the forces of nature and 10 cards with the Immunity and Insulation properties (6 Insulation cards and 4 Immunity cards). With this addition, the game becomes more unpredictable and difficult to survive.

The core mechanics of the game remain the same.

The game is moving along. The turn is divided into four phases:

– development phase;

- phase of determining the food base;

– power phase;

- phase of extinction and getting new cards.

In the phase of extinction, when using a deck with cards of the forces of nature, the climatic conditions for each continent are determined for the next turn:

In the extinction phase, after the death of unfed animals, but before the distribution of new cards, the player who was the first in this turn draws a card for the Gondwana continent from the deck with the properties of the forces of nature and announces this card and the conditions indicated on this card to the player. Then the card is again mixed into the deck, the deck is shuffled and the player draws the card again, but for the Laurasia continent. For "Ocean" the card is not pulled out.

Climatic conditions apply only within the continent. If, when determining climatic conditions, an “Ice Age” falls on any of the continents, then its effect extends to the “Ocean”.

Thus, the probability of dropping any card of the forces of nature for each of the continents in any turn is the same.

After determining the climatic conditions, new cards are distributed and the development phase begins.

After the development phase and the phase of determining the food base, the feeding phase begins. The death of animals from climatic conditions occurs precisely at the beginning of this phase , in the first round. Each player has a chance to try to save their animals first. your feeding phase(for example, migrate to another continent (if possible), or use recombination to transfer the necessary protective property to the animal, or reset the neoplasia that turned off the necessary protective property). Immediately after the end of his first feeding phase, the player fulfills the requirement of the forces of nature card. (For example)

For Famine and Harvest cards, the requirements are met in the determination of the food base.

For the card "Leap in Evolution" the requirements are met immediately after defining this card until new cards are dealt.

Climate conditions on the continent last until the next determination of climate conditions. Thus, during conditions such as "Ice Age" or "Fire" when giving birth or migrating to this continent, the unprotected animal immediately dies.

As you know, there is some truth in every joke... In the first part of the popular animated film released by the 20th Century Fox film company, you will not immediately notice how the authors of the script reflect the problems of the theory of evolution, or, in other words, its weak links, now and then releasing caustic remarks to the widely rooted philosophy in the minds of society. This is done jokingly, simply and naturally. The seriousness of criticism in the beginning and do not guess. Let's try to focus our attention on five episodes that most clearly illustrate our remarks.

Weak link number one:
BORN TO CREEP - CANNOT FLY

Twice in the film the idea of ​​the natural "unobservability" of evolutionary processes is emphasized, so to speak. The first time two armadillos migrating south discuss their friend's evolutionary beliefs, expressed in his attempts to fly like a bird by throwing himself off a cliff. The second time is an attempt by Sid the sloth to climb a sheer cliff, holding a human cub in its paws. “Nature does not provide for this,” notes the mammoth Manfred. Armadillos do not fly, and sloths do not climb sheer cliffs. Sowing a field with cotton, it is foolish to expect an abundance of corn, but not from adherents. evolutionary theory. It is acceptable for them that cotton can be so modified that it ceases to be cotton. Genetics here is not friendly with evolution at all. Through random recombinations and errors, new information does not appear, only the stock of the old is depleted. Fact unprovability evolutionary theory was noted in 1959 by the evolutionist Sir Arthur Keith in the preface to the 100th anniversary edition of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection and the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life (1859).

“Oh yes, this is a breakthrough!”

Weak link number two:
NO INTERMEDIATE FORMS

Chapter "Problems of Theory" previously mentioned book by Charles Darwin, the author asks a question, to which he immediately answers: Why don't we find in earth's crust the most diverse intermediate forms in countless quantities? Geology by no means provides us with such a complete and consistent chain; and this is probably the most serious objection that can be raised against my theory.". Over the past 150 years, geology and paleontology have not made friends with the theory of evolution. No clear samples were found that could make the "branches" of the evolutionary "tree of life" akin to each other, let alone to its single-celled "roots".

Many evolutionists have been forced to admit the absence of so-called fossils in the fossil record. "transitional forms" that combine the characteristics of different classes. Not only were no traces of half-scale-half-feather, or half-scale-half-wool imprints found in the fossilized specimens, but also no remains of any “under-” or “semi-” developed trilobites, fish, reptiles or birds were found. How could a three-chambered heart gradually develop into a four-chambered one, while continuing to function favorably? A lot of hypotheses were invented, with the help of which they tried to explain this discrepancy between theory and facts. But these hypotheses blind case appears to be extremely quick-witted and resourceful in his, almost fabulous, transformations. In fact, so far only a person is known as a master of cunning sophistication. How blind case could you think of it all so cleverly? Recall that Eoanthropus, Pithecanthropus, Australopithecus "Lucy", Hesperopithecus were used as evidence of human evolution, HOWEVER, behind these scientific terms, in fact, there are only speculative ideas built on the basis of either falsified data or a false interpretation of these data. And this was done not by primitive representatives of the genus Homo Sapiens, but by educated people. In the same evolutionist publications, nature is endowed with uniquely divine epithets, such as "wisdom", "strength" or even "design". This somehow does not fit with their purely materialistic basis.

Regrettably, despite the constant exposure of such forgeries, people remember the arguments for evolution better, but not their subsequent rebuttals. And therefore, in modern school textbooks, there are still data that have been rejected by science for more than half a century. But few people are worried about this, because the theory itself is so attractive: everyone wants to be the “strongest”.

Weak link number three:
SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

To clarify, the original phrase that came to Darwin's mind was "survival of the fit." In science, such a formulation is called a "tautology" when a synonym is used as a definition.

In the English version of the m/f, this phrase is played with a play on words, since "the fittest" (fitted) can also be translated as "the most suitable in size." So, Saber-toothed tiger turned out to be the most suitable size for the hole in which he got stuck.

Darwin, probably fully aware of this, offered an explanation for the phrase: supposedly natural selection and mutations make some fitter, which is what makes new species appear. Darwin at that time was not familiar with either molecular biology or genetics. Today, his arguments have been refuted: natural selection only preserves already existing view, and mutations do not add new information to the DNA code, as a rule, being detrimental to the organism. How did the ants become collective, the sterile "workers" of which are excluded from the process of transferring experience? How did the woodpecker's tongue and beak evolve? How could such defenseless animals as sheep survive? As science develops, more and more questions are presented that the theory of evolution cannot answer. The imaginary indisputability of the catchphrase is firmly planted in the minds of millions and significantly affects their behavior.

Weak link number four:
THE THEORY SHAPING THE WORLD VIEW

Recall this episode of the film: Dodo birds, living in a separate society, are preparing for the Ice Age ... Structure government controlled- totalitarian-ideological. They failed to answer a simple logical question, asked by the mammoth Mannfred: “Are you going to live underground for millions of years, eating three watermelons?”. Instead of a substantiated answer, the taekvodronts launched into physical and psychological attack. “Chu-man-yu! Chu-man-yu!” It seems that there is a threat from the side of the aliens, and they have no time for reasoning over the "opponent's logical arguments"! Although the behavior of the leading Dodos, in fact, posed no less obvious threat and real harm to all birds, up to the death of some of them. They were blinded by their own ignorance.

The structure of the communist order, which has not yet changed in China, North Korea, in some other countries, is based on evolutionary philosophy. The founder of communism, Karl Marx, dedicated his work Capital to Charles Darwin. According to Marx's own statement, the purpose of his life was: "The destruction of capitalism and the refutation of God." V.I.Lenin was read by Darwin. Mao Tse Tung and Joseph Stalin considered Darwin's book one of those books that influenced their character. Adolf Hitler considered Darwin's work to be brilliant. Each of these dictators is responsible for the death of millions of people. But few people realize that they committed these crimes only because they were firmly convinced of two things: can you live without god and the strongest survives. The logical conclusion of both phrases is the conclusion: "everything is permitted." That is why these monstrous atrocities were committed against human lives. Few today are ready to critically assess the credibility of the arguments put forward by Darwin and the neo-Darwinists. Should we repeat the terrible mistakes of the past in the light of scientific discoveries and with such an abundance of scientific materials available in many languages ​​of the world?

So, weak link number four is the direct ideological influence of the theory of evolution on the moral corruption of the society in which we live and on the behavior of the people who govern the state. And if literate people, who are already able to look into the near future today, do not respond to the theory of evolution, taught as the only scientific theory and as a fait accompli, then in the near future our society may turn into a truly wild jungle, where man is an enemy to man. , and the only meaning of life is survival by exterminating the weak.

Weak link number five:
EXTINCTION GAME

In one of the first scenes of the film, tapir-like animals migrate south. Children from one such family decided to play extinction. They found some puddle with oil (or mud), climbed into it and began to call for help.

In some films made on an evolutionary basis, it seems that animals, once in swamps, cannot get out of there and get bogged down. Their groans attract predators, who, seduced by easy prey, try to get closer to the victim in order to feast, and get stuck themselves. So, allegedly, oil appeared in the distant past. Today, there is not a single basin on the planet where, according to this assumption, fresh oil is formed. Why? Because the assumption is not observed in nature and is not confirmed by natural science experiments. Much more accurately, the formation of organic minerals such as oil, coal, and gas is explained by the catastrophic model in creation science. Their origin is associated with a giant water disaster that occurred in the past and which is captured not only in the legends of ancient peoples around the world, but also in the fossil record itself with its sedimentary deposits and billions of once-living creatures buried in sedimentary rocks waters of the Flood. And experimental science confirms this.

So if evolutionism as an ideology wrong, then he must disappear, and if he rights, then according to its own law, due to its weakness should also disappear.

The article uses frames from the animated film "Ice Age" 20th Century Fox, USA, 2002, Director Chris Wedge

evolution ( board game)

In case of a tie, the player with the most cards in the discard pile wins.

Negotiated rules

Rules that are not described in the instructions and about which the agreement of all participants is required:

Time to fly expansion box

Time to fly(English) Evolution: Time to Fly) - the first official addition to the game, released in 2011 in Russian, and re-released also in English, French and German in 2012. The addition adds new abilities to created animals. The add-on also increases the maximum number of players to six.

Continents

Some maps of the "continents" add-on

The second official addition was released in 2012, and brings to the game not only new properties, but also new rules - now all animals live in one of three locations: two continents and the ocean.

Unofficial Ice Age DLC

Ice Age expansion cover

In 2011, an unofficial author's addition "Ice Age" was also released for the game, adding an element of chance to the game. Before each turn, a Forces of Nature card is played.

Awards

Notes

Links

• Description of the game at boardgamegeek.com
• Description of the "Time to fly" add-on on boardgamegeek.com (eng.)

By the time the last ice age arrived, evolution had already “invented” mammals. The animals that decided to breed and multiply during the Ice Age were quite large and covered in fur. Scientists have given them the common name "megafauna" because they managed to survive the Ice Age. However, since other, less cold-resistant species could not survive it, the megafauna felt pretty good.

Megafauna herbivores are accustomed to foraging in icy environments, adapting to their surroundings. different ways. For example, Ice Age rhinoceroses may have had a shovel-shaped horn to remove snow. Predators like saber-toothed tigers, short-faced bears, and direwolves (yes, Game of Thrones wolves did once exist) have also adapted to their environment. Although the times were cruel, and the prey could well turn a predator into a prey, there was a lot of meat in it.

ice age people

Despite their relatively small size and little hair, Homo sapiens survived in the cold tundras of the ice ages for thousands of years. Life was cold and hard, but people were resourceful. For example, 15,000 years ago, people of the Ice Age lived in tribes of hunter-gatherers, built comfortable dwellings from mammoth bones and made warm clothes from animal fur. When food was plentiful, they stored it in natural permafrost refrigerators.

Since hunting tools at that time were mainly stone knives and arrowheads, complex weapons were rare. To capture and kill huge ice age animals, people used traps. When an animal fell into a trap, people attacked it in a group and beat it to death.

Little Ice Ages

Sometimes small ice ages arose between large and long ones. They were not as destructive, but could still cause starvation and disease due to failed crops and other side effects.

The most recent of these small ice ages began sometime between the 12th and 14th centuries and peaked between 1500 and 1850. For hundreds of years, the northern hemisphere kept a hell of a cold weather. In Europe, the seas regularly froze over, and mountainous countries (such as Switzerland) could only watch as glaciers moved, destroying villages. There were years without summer, but nasty weather influenced all aspects of life and culture (perhaps that is why the Middle Ages seem gloomy to us).

Science is still trying to figure out what caused this little ice age. Among possible causes- a combination of severe volcanic activity and a temporary decrease in solar energy from the Sun.

warm ice age

Some ice ages may have been quite warm. The ground was covered with a huge amount of ice, but in fact the weather was quite pleasant.

Sometimes the events that lead to an ice age are so severe that even if full of greenhouse gases (which trap the sun's heat in the atmosphere, warming the planet), ice still continues to form because, given a thick enough layer of pollution, it will reflect the sun's rays back into space. Experts say this would turn Earth into a giant Baked Alaska dessert - cold on the inside (ice on the surface) and warm on the outside (warm atmosphere).

The man whose name is reminiscent of the famous tennis player was actually a respected scientist, one of the geniuses who defined the scientific environment of the 19th century. He is considered one of the founding fathers of American science, although he was French.

In addition to many other achievements, it is thanks to Agassiz that we know at least something about the ice ages. Although many have touched on this idea before, in 1837 the scientist became the first person to seriously bring ice ages into science. His theories and publications on the ice fields that covered most of the earth were foolishly dismissed when the author first presented them. Nevertheless, he did not retract his words, and further research eventually led to the recognition of his "crazy theories."

Remarkably, his pioneering work on ice ages and glacial activity was merely a hobby. By occupation, he was an ichthyologist (studying fish).

Man-made pollution prevented the next ice age

Theories that ice ages repeat on a semi-regular basis, no matter what we do, often clash with theories about global warming. While the latter are certainly authoritative, some believe that it is global warming that may be useful in the future fight against glaciers.

Human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are considered an essential part of the global warming problem. However, they have one strange side effect. According to researchers from the University of Cambridge, CO2 emissions may be able to stop the next ice age. How? Although the planetary cycle of the Earth is constantly trying to start an ice age, it will only start if the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is extremely low. By pumping CO2 into the atmosphere, humans may have accidentally made ice ages temporarily unavailable.

And even if the anxiety associated with global warming(which is also extremely bad), will force people to reduce their CO2 emissions, there is still time. At present, we have sent so much carbon dioxide into the sky that the ice age will not start for at least another 1000 years.

Plants of the Ice Age

It was relatively easy for predators during the ice ages. After all, they could always eat someone else. But what did herbivores eat?

It turns out that everything you wanted. In those days, there were many plants that could have survived the Ice Age. Even in the coldest times, steppe-meadow and tree-shrub areas remained, which allowed mammoths and other herbivores not to die of hunger. These pastures were full of plant species that thrive in cold, dry weather, such as spruces and pines. In warmer areas, birches and willows were abundant. In general, the climate at that time was very similar to Siberian. Although the plants, most likely, were seriously different from their modern counterparts.

All of the above does not mean that the ice ages did not destroy part of the vegetation. If the plant could not adapt to the climate, it could only migrate through the seeds or disappear. Australia once had the longest list of diverse plants until glaciers wiped out a good part of them.

The Himalayas may have caused an ice age

Mountains, as a rule, are not famous for actively causing anything but occasional landslides - they just stand there and stand. The Himalayas can refute this belief. Perhaps they are directly responsible for causing the Ice Age.

When the landmasses of India and Asia collided 40-50 million years ago, the collision grew massive rock ridges into the Himalaya mountain range. This brought out a huge amount of "fresh" stone. Then the process of chemical erosion began, which removes a significant amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere over time. And this, in turn, could affect the climate of the planet. The atmosphere "cooled" and caused an ice age.

snowball earth

During most ice ages, ice sheets cover only part of the world. Even a particularly severe ice age covered, as they say, only about one third the globe.

What is "Snowball Earth"? The so-called Snowball Earth.

Snowball Earth is the chilling grandfather of the ice ages. This is a complete freezer that literally froze every part of the planet's surface until the Earth froze into a huge snowball flying in space. The few that survived the total freeze either got stuck in rare places with relatively little ice, or, in the case of plants, got stuck in places where there was enough ice. sunlight for photosynthesis.

According to some reports, this event happened at least once, 716 million years ago. But there could be more than one such period.

garden of eden

Some scientists seriously believe that the Garden of Eden was real. They say he was in Africa and was the only reason our ancestors survived the Ice Age.

Just under 200,000 years ago, a particularly hostile ice age was killing species left and right. Fortunately, a small group of early humans were able to survive the terrible cold. They stumbled upon the coast that is now represented by South Africa. Despite the fact that ice was reaping its share all over the world, this area remained ice-free and completely habitable. Her soil was rich nutrients and gave a lot of food. There were many natural caves that could be used as shelter. For a young species struggling to survive, it was nothing short of heaven.

human population The "Garden of Eden" numbered only a few hundred faces. This theory is supported by many experts, but it still lacks conclusive evidence, including studies that show that humans have much less genetic diversity than most other species.

During the Quaternary period, there were significant changes in the Earth's climate. All continents in the northern latitudes were periodically covered by ice sheets (in total, 4 major glaciations occurred over the past 3 million years), and when warm periods of interglacials set in, they were freed from ice.

Short-term warmings were also observed during ice ages, but in this case, the cover ice on the continents did not completely disappear. And what happened at that time with the vegetation cover?

Its state can be restored from the fossil remains of both the plants themselves and the pollen and spores they disperse. Let's look at what is known about the state of vegetation in Europe at some points in the last 150,000 years.

Freeze-frames of the recent geological past

150,000 years ago quaternary period glaciations - Moscow.

130 - 120 thousand years ago Optimum of the interglacial period. During this time, Scandinavia represented an island separated from the mainland by the Yoldian Sea - the merged Baltic and White Seas.

As the climate warmed after the glacier melted, there was a change pine forests broad-leaved, dominated by oak, hazel, and hornbeam. The taiga forests in Europe grew much further north than now, their southern border passed approximately at the level of Lapland. In northern Europe, between "pine" and "broad-leaved" there was also a "yew" phase, characterized by relatively dry and warm summer and mild winters. During this period, average annual temperature was 2–2.5° higher than the modern one.

In southern Europe about 125,000 years ago broadleaf forests were replaced by hard-leaved with a predominance of olive tree and hard-leaved evergreen species of oak.

110,000 - 105,000 years ago Sudden cooling. The end of the interglacial and the beginning of a new (last) ice age began earlier - about 115,000 years ago. In Scandinavia, an ice sheet began to form, which, however, was concentrated in the mountains and did not even reach the northern coast of this peninsula. The cooling was still insignificant, but conifers again began to gain dominance.

The formation of the glacier led to a lowering of the sea level, which caused significant changes in both the vegetation and the geography of the continents. Tundra communities are widespread in northern Europe, and boreal communities in central Europe. coniferous forests(taiga).

This sharp cooling was followed by a long period of unstable climate, during which short-term warm and cold phases repeatedly replaced each other.

75,000 - 58,000 years ago Cooling continued. The progressive cooling of this time is associated with the final formation of an ice sheet that covered all of Fennoscandia and part of continental northern Europe (Valdai glaciation). Steppes and tundra-steppes now dominated most of Europe. Forests "hid" in the mountains of Europe and Asia Minor.

43,000 - 41,000 years ago Temporary warming. At that time, the climate was very reminiscent of the modern one, but most of Europe was dominated by the steppe or forest-steppe.

41,000 - 39,000 years ago. Another cold snap. The ice sheet has reached the southern coast of Scandinavia. The vegetation cover in most of Europe was a tundra-steppe, torn apart in large areas by mobile sand dunes and beginning to form loess deposits.

Average annual temperatures of this time are similar to modern Arctic temperatures (–9...–4°C). The temperature of warm month was +10...+11°C, which corresponds to the same temperatures in the modern tundra zone. The temperature of the coldest month was –20...–27°C.

39,000 - 36,000 years ago The middle of the last ice age. By this time, the ice sheet had gone beyond Fennoscandia, the climate was drier and colder than modern, and the sea level was 70 m lower. Nevertheless, this time is an example of a relatively mild phase for the Ice Age. Southern Europe was covered with pine forests, and in central and northern parts the continent was dominated by forest-steppe and tundra-steppe.

28,000 - 25,000 years ago. During this period in northern and central Europe, the climate remained quite cold, mean annual temperature 4 ° lower than modern, and arid (semiarid). In southern Europe, forest-steppe dominated with a predominance of wormwood and haze, and woody vegetation (mainly pine) was represented in the form of pegs.

22,000 - 14,000 years ago Maximum of the last glaciation.

The period of the coldest and driest climate. The southern boundary of the ice sheet ran south of northern Europe. Throughout southern Europe, the average temperatures in both summer and winter were 8–9° below present. At the latitude of southern Germany and northwestern Ukraine, the August temperature was approximately +10...+11°C - the same as now in the tundras of Siberia and Yakutia. The average temperature in February was -19 °C in the territory of modern southern Germany and -27 °C in Ukraine.

Most of southern Europe at that time was covered with cold-hardy semi-desert vegetation, forests grew only in the mountains in the south. Interestingly, the harsh conditions did not affect the population of the date palm (Phoenix theophrastii), preserved in the warmest place then - in Crete. AT middle Europe tundra-steppes and polar deserts dominated. Wind-blown sands were very common everywhere.

13,000 years ago. Sharp warming. During this period, there was not only a rapid warming, but also a humidification of the climate, which throughout Europe became very similar to the modern one. The ice sheet is retreating to the north, although its size is still quite large.

Everywhere there is a change from the tundra-steppe to the steppe (Western Europe) and forest-steppe ( Eastern Europe). The forest from the mountain shelters begins to move into the plains. In northwestern Europe, moss and shrub tundras are formed with dwarf willows and junipers.

12,000 - 11,000 years ago Warming continues. During this time, the steppe vegetation of southern Europe was replaced by forests of species like birch and willow. In addition, typical Mediterranean tree species such as evergreen oaks and pistachios began to appear in this area. In southern Spain, a savanna community of evergreen oak, sagebrush, and various representatives of the haze family has appeared. Later (9,500 years ago) it was replaced by closed oak forests.

Woody vegetation at this time also penetrates into central and western Europe, and closed coniferous forests have formed in the east of the continent. The northwestern part of Europe, however, continues to be treeless. Its territory is dominated by birch forest tundra.

10,800 - 10,000 years ago Return of the cold. During this time, the average annual temperature is 4–9° lower than the current one, and the climate became drier. From most of Europe, the forest retreated, and the steppe and tundra-steppe again came to replace it.

The drying up of the climate during this period most sharply affected the landscapes of southeastern Europe. In the Balkans and in Asia Minor, even more arid conditions were created than during the maximum glaciation - desert forms of haze prevailed here over semi-desert polynya. This indicates that the annual precipitation did not exceed 150 mm.

This cooling period ends abruptly 10,000 years ago. Subsequent warming led to the gradual disappearance of the sheet glacier, and this time is considered to be the end of the last ice age and the beginning of a new interglacial - the Holocene.

9,000 - 8,000 years ago During this period, the climate in the central and southern parts The continent is much wetter than today. The forest is returning to Europe again. Broad-leaved forests of deciduous species of oak and hornbeam appear in the eastern Mediterranean. In other parts of Europe, conifer-dominated forests grow.

7,000 - 5,000 years ago. The warmest and wettest period in the Holocene. At that time average temperature July at a latitude of 50° was 1 °С higher than the present day, at a latitude of 60° - 2 °С higher, and north of a latitude of 65° - 3–4 °С higher. Winter temperatures were up to 2°C higher in almost all of Europe. The climate, warmer than today, allowed forests to penetrate far to the north.

About 6,000 years ago, due to rising sea levels, the Bosporus opened and the waters of the Atlantic rushed into the Black Sea. Perhaps, in less than 1 year, its level increased by tens of meters - water flooded the coast at a speed of 1 km per day. More than 60,000 km2 of land was flooded, which is about 30% of the Black Sea area in its current borders.

In the period under consideration, agriculture begins to actively develop in most of Europe. As early as 7,000 years ago, frequent human-caused forest fires led to the widespread use of fire-resistant cork oak.

However, in most of Europe, the influence of man on the surrounding landscape was not yet as significant as in our time. Oddly enough, the main places for timber production at that time were not the mainland of Europe, but Asia Minor, Crete and numerous Greek islands.

Last 5,000 years

About 4,000 years ago, the landscapes of Western Europe began to be strongly affected by anthropogenic influence. At the same time, a cooling of the climate began, which also could not but affect the appearance of landscapes - the northern border of the forest receded to the south, and the growth of swamps intensified.

Another short-term cold phase, accompanied by the disappearance of many heat-loving rocks in the north, is noted 1,400 years ago (about 536 AD). This period is clearly traced by the growth of annual rings on the cross sections of trees.

Present tense: What the vegetation cover might look like in the absence of humans.

intensive economic activity human has led to very significant changes in the nature of vegetation. Due to regular logging or complete deforestation, plowing and grazing, artificial plantings of various crops and the introduction of new species, it is already difficult to decide how much of the current distribution of vegetation is due to climate, and to what extent is due to human intervention.

Is it possible to imagine what the vegetation cover would look like today in the absence of anthropogenic pressure, to draw up a map of the so-called restored vegetation? With a certain degree of assumption, this can be done if we analyze the distribution of vegetation in places not yet affected or little affected by human activity, and compare it with reconstructions of vegetation at times with similar climatic conditions but before the advent of agriculture.

In doing so, it turns out that modern vegetation Europe could correspond to the one that existed during the Holocene climatic optimum before the start of active human expansion into natural landscapes 5,000 years ago

http://macroevolution.narod.ru/popov1.htm