Genres of periodicals tertychny read. The concept, types and genres of periodicals

Helpful Hints 26.07.2019

Periodical(the term "time-based" was previously used) is a printed or electronic publication that has a certain problem-thematic and functional direction, published at certain (equal) intervals in separate issues that have the same title and are of the same type. Continuing editions do not have a clear periodicity of publication and are published as material accumulates.

The periodical press as a historical source has the following features:

- a variety of forms of presenting information, each of which involves its own methods of use in historical research;
– promptness and frequency of publication of information;
- dependence of information policy on the goals of the publisher;
- dependence on censorship restrictions.

- official information about the decisions of the authorities, materials of congresses, conferences, reports of news agencies;
- informational materials of the publication itself (chronicles of events, reports of correspondents, photo reports);
– editorial content (leaders and editorials);
– analytical materials, i.e. author's reflections on events (articles, essays, reviews);
- artistic and journalistic materials (feuilletons, poems, pamphlets);
- Letters from readers
- advertising.

Discussion

V. Rynkov believes that the allocation of periodicals to a special type of written sources in domestic source studies entails a violation of the most important logical principle - the unity of the criterion of species classification. In his opinion, the only weighty argument in favor of the specific isolation of the periodical press is the publication of materials with a certain frequency, united by a common design and numbering.

However, the truth has long been known: the publication of a source does not change its specific nature. In this regard, the periodical press is both a place and a way of publishing sources, it is distinguished by periodicity and a unified editorial approach to the matter of publishing the latter. Thus, according to V. Rynkov, "periodicals have never been and will never become a type of historical sources, but, on the contrary, they themselves can contain sources of all kinds."

Indeed, each of the periodicals is a complex complex, any element of which can be studied separately (for example, newspaper editorials or photo reports), using appropriate methods of analysis. However, at the same time, a periodical publication can become the subject of a specific source study as a special synthetic source that has developed and functioned at a particular time, taking into account historical realities, general editorial policy.

The object of source study is a periodical, taken as a whole, in the unity of all its publishing units (books, volumes, numbers, appendices to them), in a strict chronology of their publication, as a special source that has developed and functioned at a specific time in specific historical periods. conditions.

The main property of a periodical is the timing of publication, which is defined by the term "periodicity" and is measured by the number of issues per unit of time: week, month, quarter, year. In Russia, it is customary to consider a periodical publication with an output from two times a year to a daily one, while it is important that the declared periodicity be maintained in practice at least for a year.

A newspaper is a leaf edition, and a magazine is a book edition. A newspaper usually comes out more often than a magazine and is a more mass publication (has a larger circulation), but the fundamental difference is not in external differences: some magazines and newspapers may have the same frequency (for example, once a week), volume (24 pages or more), often The circulation of magazines exceeds the circulation of newspapers. Even if a newspaper is bound and bound in the form of a magazine, it will not cease to be a newspaper. The main difference between a newspaper and a magazine lies in the nature of information and efficiency. For a newspaper that informs the population and forms public opinion on a daily basis, timely reports on the events of current life are important, for a magazine - their commentary.

According to the publisher N. A. Polevoy, "the motto of the newspaper is news, the motto of the magazine is the thoroughness of the news."

A newspaper and a magazine differ in the way they influence the reader, the mechanism for presenting information. The newspaper is characterized by short notes and small correspondence, the magazine - articles, reviews, reviews, distinguished by thoroughness of argumentation, fundamental approach, language and style of presentation.

Newspaper- sheet periodical containing event or other information about objects and phenomena surrounding reality, problems and comments on the current political, socio-economic, cultural life of society and is distinguished by the greatest efficiency among other printed publications. There are general political and specialized newspapers. General political publications can be conditionally characterized as mass media for everyone and about everything, which largely ensures their stability in the information market and indispensability as historical sources. Specialized Editions are distinguished by the profiling of the thematic series or by limiting the audience and topics. There are publications that combine these characteristics; quite often these are party publications, the intended purpose of which is determined by the task of communication for members of a certain political and ideological movement, they function on the principle "about everything - for like-minded people". Magazine- a periodical, similar in material embodiment to a book, differing from other media in less efficiency, having a constant heading and containing an analysis of social relations, the formulation of scientific, political, socio-economic, spiritual problems, as well as various socially demanded information. There are literary and artistic, socio-political, scientific, popular science, production and practical, popular, abstract magazines.

In the XVIII century. there was a formation of temporary publications. Since the beginning of the XIX century. The leading position in periodicals belonged to thick monthly magazines; in the post-reform period, weekly magazines and newspapers pressed their positions. At the beginning of the XX century. the magazine gave way to the newspaper, not keeping up with the pace of social and political life. In the XX century. several new media have emerged. With the invention of radio, the monopoly of printed publications was broken: radio stations disseminated information at a speed that was not achievable even for a daily newspaper. The advent of television gave people not only the opportunity to quickly learn about events, but also to watch what is happening on the screen. Later, online periodicals arose. However, printed publications did not disappear, the process of their specialization intensified, the technical base improved, and the collection and transmission of information accelerated. Not being able to compete with television and radio in reporting operational news, newspapers and magazines are focused on commenting, primary analysis of the situation, and forecasting its development.

Newspaper materials are structured in a special way. Often they are grouped into thematic collections, united by common names, which in editorial practice are called caps. A thematic selection is a combination of material that is homogeneous in content, but not in genres. Usually, it contains an article of a general nature, notes by own correspondents, chronicles, etc. Collections contain material on a specific issue, for example, on the course of an election or economic campaign, etc.

often takes center stage in newspapers editorial, located usually on the first page on the left. Acquaintance with it allows you to identify the main focus of the issue, topical issues of the current period. The advanced was an almost exclusively newspaper genre, it became widespread in the second half of the 1860s. and usually didn't sign. In editorial practice, it was customary to subdivide leading articles into three types: operational, general political, and propaganda. Operational devoted to the most important issues of economic and cultural construction, revealed shortcomings. AT general political contained broad political generalizations. propaganda gave detailed explanations of the policy of the authorities.

The originality of the press as a source lies not only in a special information function, complex structure, but also in the variety of its specific genres.

Under genre of a journalistic work, they understand the stable features of its content-thematic characteristics, such as the reality displayed, composition, and style.

The genres of periodicals can be conditionally divided into the following:

1) informational;
2) analytical;
3) artistic and publicistic.

For informational publications, a common feature is the desire to most accurately convey knowledge about an event, a fact. The main content of analytical materials is the author's reflections on events, facts, phenomena of reality. Artistic and journalistic combine documentary with literary fiction, give an emotional assessment of events. Different types of publications have different genre systems: in a business publication you will not find a sketch or a satirical feuilleton. However, many modern publications are characterized by blurring of genre boundaries.

Genres have a purpose:

They are like rainbow colors!

If they are - the whole world is in bloom

If not, the universe is empty...

"Constellations" Van Garten

It is not uncommon to hear the opinion that the main thing for a journalist is to create interesting material, and what genre it is does not matter at all. There is another judgment: talking about the genres of journalism does not deserve attention, since the content of the concept of "genre" is constantly changing and becoming more complicated, and the theory of genres as a whole has not been sufficiently developed. This is allegedly confirmed by the fact that different researchers offer their own "set" of genres. It is impossible to agree with such statements for at least two reasons.

First, the type of works that develops historically and is defined as a "genre" exists objectively, regardless of the opinions of both theorists and practitioners. The whole mass of works created in journalism is divided into genres on the basis of a number of division principles. The fact is that each particular work has a composition of certain characteristics. Such characteristics arise either relatively arbitrarily (when the author does not think about what his text should be), or as a result of special creative efforts of the author (when he determines in advance what should be displayed in the text, how exactly and for what purpose) . But in any case, those texts that have similar qualities can be combined into separate groups.

This combination can be made by different researchers (or practitioners) on a variety of grounds, depending on what each of them considers the most important unifying principle (this is what gives rise to different ideas about the genre palette of journalism). But, of course, the association that is based on the similarity of the essential (but not secondary) features of publications included in some kind of stable group will be more true. After the unifying feature (or features) is defined, it is called " genre feature”, and the group of publications united by him - “genre”.

And secondly, an accurate idea of the genre helps journalists to communicate professionally. It is one thing when the editor of a publication asks a journalist: “Please write good stuff about aviation. It is quite another if he offers him: "Write an essay about a test pilot." In the latter case, the journalist will probably better understand what kind of material the editor would like to receive from him.

What predetermines the set of essential characteristics that make it possible to attribute the text to one genre or another? First of all - the originality of the subject of journalism and the way the author reflects reality, which give rise to this set. (This is traditionally recognized a large number journalism researchers.

In journalism, the subject of speeches is made up of current social and natural events, phenomena, processes, situations in all the richness of their manifestation, in a variety of relationships, primarily generating problems and conflicts that are important for society in theoretical and practical terms, as well as a person’s personality.

The role of the way of displaying reality in the formation of a set of characteristics of journalistic texts that predetermine their genre affiliation is much more significant (in terms of interest to us) than the role of the subject of journalistic speeches.

In journalism, there are three main ways of displaying - factual, analytical and visual-figurative. They mediate certain levels of “penetration” of the cognizing subject into the object: from the initial sensual contemplation to abstraction, theoretical mastering of it and further to the creation of an enriched, more complete concrete image of the object (including its artistic image).

The first and second methods differ from one another primarily in the degree of penetration into the essence of the subject of display. The first method is aimed at fixing some external, obvious characteristics of the phenomenon, at obtaining summary about the subject (in this case, the journalist first of all answers the questions: where, what and when did it happen?). The speed with which such information can be obtained modern journalism promptly inform the audience about numerous current events, which is very important for it. The second method is aimed at penetrating the essence of phenomena, at clarifying the hidden relationships of the subject of display (in this case, the set of questions that the journalist answers is significantly expanded). In this case, the main thing is to address it to various problems of choosing effective ways for the development of society, as well as identifying the causes, conditions, trends in the development of events and situations, studying the grounds, motives, interests, intentions, actions of various social forces, clarifying the contradictions that arise between them, assessing the significance of various phenomena, the determination of the validity of certain points of view, concepts, ideas.

The method of visual-figurative display of reality is aimed not only and not so much at fixing the external features of the phenomenon or rational insight into the essence of the subject, but at the emotional and artistic generalization of the known. Quite often this generalization reaches such a level, which is called journalistic (or even artistic) typification, which brings journalism closer to fiction. This kind of journalism provides the audience with "material" that contributes to both rational knowledge of reality and emotional empathy for the events displayed.

The peculiarity of this or that way of displaying reality lies primarily in the fact that it acts as a special way of realizing hierarchically interconnected goals, solving certain problems.

The most important of them are predetermining in nature and act as functions of a particular edition. These features may vary. Some publications (for example, the “yellow press”) pursue commercial goals, therefore, in the published materials, they primarily seek to cover such topics, use such methods of creating texts that allow them to satisfy the subjectively dominant informational interests in entertainment that are most common in the relevant audience. Moreover, such publications care little about the extent to which such interests coincide with objectively more important, fundamental needs of the audience.

Other publications may pursue the goal of propaganda influence on the audience (for example, political, religious, etc.). Still others may set themselves the goal of informing the audience as fully and objectively as possible, based on the fact that journalism is called upon to be the most important means of mass information, connected primarily with the fundamental, basic needs of the audience, a means of increasing the social competence of the population, its social orientation, etc. .

Of course, in reality, the same publication can pursue a variety of goals. But even in this case, they will have an impact on the nature of the publications that will appear on its pages.

The named predetermining functions (goals) of journalism are subordinated to its specific tasks (goals) of the "second row" (or actually creative functions) associated with the knowledge of reality by a journalist. These features include:

Creation of a certain (one or another degree of completeness) information "model" of the displayed phenomenon (its description);

Establishing cause-and-effect relationships;

Identification of the significance of the phenomenon (its assessment);

determination of the future state of the phenomenon under study (forecast);

A.A. Tertychny

Genres of periodicals

Tutorial

Introduction

GENRES IN THE ARSENAL OF MODERN JOURNALISM

Genres have a purpose:

They are like rainbow colors!

If they are - the whole world is in bloom

If not, the universe is empty...

"Constellations" Van Garten

This combination can be made by different researchers (or practitioners) on a variety of grounds, depending on what each of them considers the most important unifying principle (this is what gives rise to different ideas about the genre palette of journalism). But, of course, the association that is based on the similarity of the essential (but not secondary) features of publications included in some kind of stable group will be more true. After the unifying feature (or features) is defined, it is called a "genre feature", and the group of publications united by it is called a "genre".

And secondly, an accurate idea of the genre helps journalists to communicate professionally. It's one thing when the editor of a publication asks a journalist: "Please write a good article about aviation." It is quite another if he offers him: "Write an essay about a test pilot." In the latter case, the journalist will probably better understand what kind of material the editor would like to receive from him.

What predetermines the set of essential characteristics that make it possible to attribute the text to one genre or another? First of all - the originality of the subject of journalism and the way the author reflects reality, which give rise to this set. (This has traditionally been recognized by a large number of journalism scholars.)

The first and second methods differ from one another primarily in the degree of penetration into the essence of the subject of display. The first method is aimed at fixing some external, obvious characteristics of the phenomenon, at obtaining brief information about the subject (in this case, the journalist first of all answers the questions: where, what and when did it happen?). The speed of obtaining such information allows modern journalism to promptly inform the audience about numerous current events, which is very important for it. The second method is aimed at penetrating the essence of phenomena, at clarifying the hidden relationships of the subject of display (in this case, the set of questions that the journalist answers is significantly expanded). In this case, the main thing is to address it to various problems of choosing effective ways for the development of society, as well as identifying the causes, conditions, trends in the development of events and situations, studying the grounds, motives, interests, intentions, actions of various social forces, clarifying the contradictions that arise between them, assessing the significance of various phenomena, the determination of the validity of certain points of view, concepts, ideas.

The peculiarity of this or that way of displaying reality lies primarily in the fact that it acts as a special way of realizing hierarchically interconnected goals, solving certain problems.

Of course, in reality, the same publication can pursue a variety of goals. But even in this case, they will have an impact on the nature of the publications that will appear on its pages.

Creation of a certain (one or another degree of completeness) information "model" of the displayed phenomenon (its description);

Establishing cause-and-effect relationships;

Identification of the significance of the phenomenon (its assessment);

determination of the future state of the phenomenon under study (forecast);

At the first glance at this information, it becomes clear that it refers to very real persons acting in a certain field of activity, in a specific place and time. At the same time, the reasons for their actions, as well as the results, have different meanings for society.

Event 1 belongs to the category of those that are committed by large masses of people, regardless of their party, group affiliation. The unity of purpose united different people at the same time and in the same place. This goal is to improve living conditions. This is a very broad goal in terms of the public interests of the masses, which implies economic and political changes in the country. This kind of event can have far-reaching consequences for the population of an entire country.

Event 2 is predetermined by the activities of a relatively small group of people - the government. His decisions may affect the interests of a certain number of people living in cities and using urban transport.

Event 3 - a consequence of the activities of the factory team. It affects primarily the interests of children who are fond of cycling, and some parents who love to give children the most fashionable, newest toys.

Event 4 informs about the action of one person. At the same time, the result he achieved is important primarily for himself and some of his fans and followers.

It is obvious that event 1 has the greatest social significance. It should attract the attention of a journalist of the general political press in the first place. The components of each of the four events analyzed by the journalist in this case include: certain number people of specific social groups; their actions in a specified place and time, carried out in a special way; their desire to solve a certain problem and achieve certain results. Obviously, the constituent parts of each event correspond to three basic questions: what happened? when did it happen? where did it happen?

Obviously, these questions do not yet allow us to establish the significance of the event, its benefit or harm, meaning and purpose. In any case, it is rarely possible to find out by answering the first two questions: what happened? when did it happen? For a journalist, it is important, first of all, to know the thoughts and attitudes of people to business, the paths leading to success. Only in this case it is possible to say whether the results obtained are important or not, whether they correspond to certain actions, thoughts and actions of the participants in the action. Undoubtedly, these two questions, as well as the third: where did it happen? - probe the soil of reality. However, only then the journalist finds out the main thing. Often this clarification begins with the study (especially when it comes to economic events) speeches, messages, statements of team leaders, programs, actions. At the same time, it is necessary to learn that extracts, extracts from speeches, statistical reports and other sources cannot be taken by a journalist without serious study, critical reflection (especially of all kinds of figures) and transferred to their own coordinate system. The percentage of completion of tasks, other numbers that are usually contained in certificates of the results of some activity, of course, should not be thrown aside, but they should be brought closer to the person whose efforts they ultimately are. Only then will the journalist discover something alive that can grab the reader's attention.

Analysis of an event requires specific information about its constituent parts as participants in the event, their actions, thoughts, motives. This information can be obtained with the help of a more detailed system of questions, for example, formulated as follows: what happened and with what result? With the solution of what problem and in what area is the action associated? Who participated in the event and what social groups do the participants belong to? What rights and obligations do they have in connection with the task being solved? What links between them were or should be involved? Where did the action, event take place and where was the result achieved? What features are associated with the place of action? What influence does this place have on the mode and type of action? By what means is the result achieved: by what measures, ways, efforts? What prerequisites contributed to success and who created them, and how? When did the event take place? What features are associated with this moment in time? How favorable (unfavorable) is it for completing the task? Why was this action, this event, this result possible? Why were they facilitated (impeded) by certain prerequisites?

Having learned what efforts, what time was spent on the action, what steps, measures were taken, what contributed to the completion of the task, what result was achieved, what is its benefit (harm) for society, for certain social groups, for participants in actions, etc. , a journalist can establish relationships, regularities of an event, its significance.

PROCESS AS A DISPLAY SUBJECT

A process can be viewed as a sequence of interrelated actions or events. Moreover, the result of previous actions, events acts as a prerequisite, basis, reason for the implementation of subsequent actions, events. The process can also be defined as a dynamic following of various states that are in a cause-and-effect relationship “if ... then” (“if this occurs, then such and such must occur ...”). If we translate this general idea of the essence of the process into the language of the usual journalistic understanding of the "movement of things", then we can say that we are talking about a dynamic order of the results of actions that express different degrees and states of accomplishing tasks.

Event analysis is the starting point in process analysis. This happens, first of all, when they begin to intensively unfold the questions: how? why? Bearing in mind the above interpretation of the process, the journalist must first of all determine the initial link in the chain of interrelated events. In practice, he must understand and fix the very real action of a specific person (specific people) who received an exact, material result, in order, on the basis of this, to identify what predetermined the commission of the action, what became its cause, what made it a prerequisite for other events, etc. d.

It is probable that, by investigating this chain further, the journalist can find out what events, which are caused by today's actions, should, due to a natural connection, occur in the future. When choosing a specific initial event included in the development process studied in the publication, the author should not forget that everything that happens is in universal connection with the world as a whole, therefore it is sometimes difficult to find the most important among the many events.

Qualifying an event as the initial one in the chain of others, the journalist must be sure (he must find evidence) that this particular event is the first and most important prerequisite for the process that has arisen. In order to have a clear idea of the direction of collecting relevant information about the initial event (action, its results), preliminary reflections are necessary related to material and ideal conditions, resources that ensure the possibility of processes similar to the one being studied. And this, in turn, requires sufficient knowledge of the essential conditions under which development can take place. And a journalist must have the appropriate knowledge. He can get them by studying scientifically based plans that should be carried out in order to achieve goals that are extremely important for society as a whole and for individual social groups; analyzing the laws and patterns that underlie social processes and predetermine their course; comprehending the logic of things; accumulating experience (own, scientific, social); personally researching and discovering essential conditions, prerequisites for the successful flow of the process under consideration.

In the course of such research, the journalist often manages to grasp those links in the chain that express the essence of the development process. The analysis of the process is more or less connected with the analysis of the situation in which it develops. This connection is established through purposeful information about the state of the process in the course of changing the situation predetermining it.

SITUATION AS A DISPLAY SUBJECT

The situation, like the process, is one of the most important subjects of display, primarily in analytical journalism. A situation can be called a certain, repeating over a fairly long period of time, the state of relations that have developed between members of a team, between teams, between social groups, strata, between countries, etc., the balance of power, mutual requirements and expectations. Outwardly, on the surface, the situation looks like a state, a level of satisfaction of the interests of people, participants in the situation, who are in a certain interaction. Situations are favorable, unfavorable, non-conflict, conflict, etc. To analyze a situation means, at a minimum: to establish what it is, to fix this representation in the text; identify the main social task that arose in this situation, and additional tasks; find out the main causes of this situation and the corresponding tasks related to it; formulate major problem, which is associated with the solution of the main problem in this situation; identify the most significant prerequisites for solving the main problem associated with this situation, and outline ways to create these prerequisites; find out the role of the interests of the main participants in the situation in creating these prerequisites for a favorable development of the situation and solving problems. If a journalist is dealing with a serious social situation (for example, the situation of non-payment of wages to public sector employees in Russia in 1995-1999), then he must first of all keep in mind that society is not homogeneous, but consists of different social classes, groups. They have their own goals, objectives, specific ways to solve them. There are certain connections between them, relationships that can be contradictory, unproductive. Therefore, the first step in analyzing the situation should be the study of the interests of all its participants, their differentiation, comparison. Interests are needs that declare themselves, direct people's behavior. Needs manifest themselves in various contradictions that are overcome in activity. The goals and objectives that people set for themselves are combined in the form of an activity plan. Interests inherent in society as a whole as an independent phenomenon, as you know, are called public. They are expressed in public purposes, in the formulation of certain tasks, which are fixed in the relevant documents. Public interests can and should also be manifested in the actions, goals, tasks of individual groups of people, become collective interests. Collective interests can be an "attribute" of various groups of people belonging to various production areas (interests of representatives of certain professions - teachers, doctors, programmers, miners, firefighters, etc.); political parties, public organizations; certain age categories or associations by gender. Collective interests are manifested in the goals, aspirations, tasks of social groups (manifested in certain rights, duties of their members). Collective interests should be correlated with public interests in such a way that they do not interfere with the development of society as an integral phenomenon. Unlike public, collective interests, personal interests are not fixed by any documents, so it is not always easy to determine them.

Because personality is included in social groups and in society as a whole, then its interests can also be included in group or public interests, but personal interests are not always identical to group, public ones. There may be contradictions between them. An indicator of personal interests and needs can be desires and intentions, thoughts, opinions, judgments that a person expresses in connection with social goals and objectives. Revealed objections, reproaches from individuals are a sign for a journalist, a signal of a divergence of interests. They often indicate the presence of a problematic situation in which its participants are.

Consequently, if a journalist wants to know the correlation of interests in the analysis of a social situation, then he must understand the dialectics of the interaction of public, group and personal interests in order to find the point at which these interests intersect. I must see what their contradiction is in order to find ways to eliminate it. These contradictions can be very different. For example, they can be within one whole and manifest themselves, let's say, as a divergence between different public interests. For example, Russia has an urgent need to create a powerful professional armed forces at the present time. But at the same time, the country should not “lose” education, culture, agriculture, etc. However, at this time, financial resources are limited, so some of the areas of development of society will certainly be infringed. As a result, society as a whole will suffer.

Contradictions between different collective interests can also arise in a similar way. Assume that a commercial bank has free this moment money and is able to lend it to someone. He can, for example, direct them to lending to a commercial enterprise, which, after a fairly short time, undertakes to repay the loan and a relatively low percentage for its use. However, a loan can also be issued to an industrial enterprise, but for a longer period and at a higher interest rate. In the first case, the bank wins time, which is undoubtedly important for it, in the second - money, which is no less important. Which interest wins depends on the specific financial situation in the country and the goals of the bank itself.

The divergence between different personal interests arises primarily in force of that that a person is often included in many groups - in a family, in a student group, in a sports team, etc. Therefore, he often has to choose in the interests of which group he is currently acting, which business is considered the most important (as a student, he must attend lectures, and as an athlete, skip them for the sake of training).

Interests can diverge in the horizontal and vertical planes. The divergence of interests in the horizontal plane is the contradiction of interests of different teams, departments, enterprises that are in a relatively equal position.

At the enterprise producing electric irons, there are two workshops: the first workshop produces iron bodies, the second - the electric stuffing. To reduce the cost of irons, it is necessary to install new equipment in the second workshop. The employees of the first workshop are interested in this, since the reduction in the cost of production will allow, by increasing its competitiveness, to increase wages. Workers of the second workshop are against the equipment upgrade, as this will entail a sharp reduction in their number, dismissal from work.

In the horizontal plane, there are also contradictions of individuals.

When raising a child, grandmothers show less adherence to principles than fathers and mothers in order to emotionally bind their grandchildren to themselves more strongly.

In the vertical plane, there are contradictions between public, collective and personal interests. Thus, the interests of society require a 100% tax revenue to the budget. It is beneficial for a separate enterprise to pay taxes less. Thus, there is a contradiction between the interests of society and the individual team. If one of the members of the labor collective is often ill, then this is unprofitable for the collective as a whole, since for this reason he produces less products and must pay for his member's sick leave from his own funds. In this case, there are contradictions between the interests of the collective and the individual.

To determine the composition of interests, their correlation, a journalist must clearly limit the area that he will explore, the direction in which he will move, as well as those social groups (classes, layers) with whom he is going to deal. By observing their actions as participants in the situation, he can judge the situation itself. If public, collective, personal interests are expressed in differentiated goals, tasks, intentions, desires, aspirations of the participants in situations, then the essence of the existing balance of interests can be comprehended through Detailed reflections in directions. Namely:

What forces, social groups, individuals should act in this case and what tasks do they face?

With what conditions, prerequisites of the material and ideal plan, is this decision connected?

What prerequisites are already in place and what are still lacking? What hinders the solution of the problem? What methods should be applied in this situation in order not only to solve the problem, but to solve it effectively?

It is important for a journalist analyzing a situation not only to see conflicts of interests, to determine their forms, but also to find ways to resolve them. These paths are connected with the clarification of those problems that grow out of these contradictions and the resolution of which leads to progress in this area.

Knowing how to solve problems exists in the form of best practices, and disseminating it increases the overall ability to solve similar problems elsewhere. The answers to such questions help to establish and reveal this experience: what social, group, personal task is being realized, despite the absence of a number of prerequisites for this realization? How can the missing prerequisites be created or how can they be refined, changed for the better? Such answers can be obtained by studying the thoughts and statements of people involved in the case about the problems being solved and comparing them with practical steps taken in this direction.

Journalism is interested not so much in the fundamental patterns of what is happening in the world (this is the task of science), but in the current state of phenomena and events; their relationship to the present day, their impact on people's lives today. The real object of display in all the richness of its relationships remains "behind the scenes". The same "frame", i.e. the image of reality that we find in the text created by the journalist is only what he managed to cognize in this real subject with the help of certain methods of cognition. The more accurately the various connections of the displayed object are considered, the closer the result of this consideration, and at the same time the image of the object recorded in the text, is to a real-life object.

PERSONALITY AS A SUBJECT OF DISPLAY

The audience is interested not only in what is happening in the world (events, incidents, processes, situations), but also in people as the main actors in what is happening, primarily in terms of their personal characteristics. What is a personality? Social psychology defines personality as "a human individual, as a subject of relationships and conscious activity" 3 . Each person has his own history, his own character, only his own worldview, worldview, worldview, individual habits, inclinations, abilities, etc.

In a particular speech, a journalist may focus on one side of the personality. For example, he can explore:

- a person's passion . There are a sufficient number of people around who are fond of, say, fishing, cars, picking mushrooms, collecting stamps, paintings, labels, etc .;

- extraordinary personality traits . In this case, the focus of his attention is on the possibilities of people that go beyond the ordinary, like extrasensory perception, magnetism, phenomenal memory, unusual physical strength, etc.;

- high professional qualities . The attention of a journalist is occupied by people who have perfectly mastered one or another specialty, impeccably fulfilling their duties;

- physiological features . In this case, people with an unusual appearance, height, skin color, etc., attract journalistic interest. And not only journalistic. As you know, competitions are organized in different countries of the world, as a result of which the smallest and most big people. Now everywhere there are so-called beauty contests among women and men. Journalists willingly describe both the charms and ugliness of people. So, in pre-revolutionary Russia, many newspapers talked about all kinds of "freaks", Siamese twins, etc. And, accordingly, there were readers who welcomed such publications;

- moral examples and vices . As a possible subject of coverage in the press, there are examples of a person serving certain moral values, devotion to ideals. There can be quite a lot of extraordinary examples of this kind, and in each specific case, one or another of them may be of particular interest to a journalist.

At the same time, there are many vicious people from the point of view of the existing morality. Oddly enough, but the presence of human vices is also of interest to the audience, it is no coincidence that journalists willingly describe them.

Personality can be displayed in publications belonging to different genre groups. As a result, there is a subject “chain” that unites different publications about a person in different genres.

to the begining

GOALS OF JOURNALISTIC CREATIVITY

The target settings of journalistic creativity have significant genre-forming properties. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention, first of all, to those of them that are referred to the goals of the "second row" in the introduction - these are creative purposes arising in the process of creating an analytical text. As for the goals of publishing texts (goals of publication), they can be:

1) not providing for a certain ideological or other impact on the audience (meaning the focus on meeting the commercial interests of the publication);

2) providing for a certain impact. It can be the result of: a) objective information; b) manipulative influence (or misinformation).

Such goals have an indirect influence on the formation of genres, and therefore they are not discussed in this paper.

It is known that, when talking about an event, a journalist can set as his goal, for example, to acquaint the reader with this event in a few words, briefly indicate its reason, and succinctly express his assessment. As a result, an informational note will be written. If the author sets as his goal a detailed, detailed description of the event, its causes, the forecast of its development, etc., then he will compose a text that can be called analytical. If a detailed analysis is “accompanied” by a visual and figurative presentation of the material, then an artistic and journalistic performance arises. In other words, in the first case (in a simple informational note), the author implements the goal of showing certain characteristics of the display object in their “folded” form. In the second case, he “expands” such characteristics and creates a work of another genre dimension, and in the third case, he also supplements the analysis with a certain artistic representation of reality. Thus, the target setting of journalistic creativity is manifested primarily in one or another level of detail, depth of comprehension of the relationships of the displayed subject, etc., leading to the creation of original texts that make up a certain genre. Next, we will consider in more detail the various creative goals most often implemented by journalists in different situations and influencing the nature of the texts to the maximum extent.

ITEM DESCRIPTION

(CREATION OF ITS VISUAL MODEL)

Creating a visual model of the phenomenon under study is the goal that most often confronts a journalist. Such a model is called a description of the display object - a problem, some event, phenomenon, process that interested the journalist. Sometimes the concept of "description" is used as a synonym for the concept of "observation". This is an illegitimate identification, since observation is a method of empirical study of reality, a method of obtaining facts. Description is a content-structural element in the journalist's understanding of the phenomenon, its interpretation. There are different types of description: complete and incomplete, quantitative (statistical) and qualitative, structural and genetic, etc. When describing a particular type, the author relies both on empirical methods (observation, experiment, etc.) and on logical-theoretical methods (analysis, synthesis, comparison, analogy, generalization, limitation, etc.), uses a variety of categories of knowledge (form and content, possibility and reality, place and time, movement, etc.). The description is made within the framework of the task that the author puts forward for himself in a specific situation of cognition of reality. The description does not aim to determine any patterns, to reveal the essence of the phenomenon under study. It serves only empirical knowledge, a visual demonstration of various aspects of the object of reflection, which facilitates the transition from experimental to theoretical knowledge of reality. With the help of a description, data (say, the results of direct, "live" observation) are reduced to a form that allows them to be used as material for theoretical operations and, above all, for explaining the phenomenon. The description of facts is an important stage in the knowledge of reality by a journalist. The facts are important for the author in this case due to the fact that, relying on them, he can draw the first conclusions about the subject of interest. The description is a responsible operation, since it can manifest itself in a great subjectivity. The fact itself, i.e. as a phenomenon that a journalist is talking about, and a description of this phenomenon (fact) are two different things. To consider the description of a phenomenon as equivalent to the phenomenon itself is to commit a grave mistake. The description is only a certain model of the described object, i.e. original. And this model is always a "quasi-fact", although in journalistic everyday life it exists precisely under the name "fact". Thus, the concepts of "fact" (original) and "description" (model) of it for a practicing journalist usually exist under one name - "fact". Describing a fact means answering questions about its qualitative and quantitative aspects. These questions are formulated as follows: what? which? which? How many? etc. Therefore, the description differs from a simple statement of facts, which is the answer to the questions: what? where? when? When stating facts, the journalist shows whether they exist or not. And when describing, he reveals their properties. Although it must be borne in mind that the answer to the question: what? - often contains the answer to the question and the qualities of this phenomenon.

The journalist writes: “Kuban farmers have grown a high yield of gluten-rich durum wheat this year...”, he answers not only questions about what, when, who grew, but also the question of what this crop is (high, rich in durum wheat gluten).

The main thing when describing an object is its characterization, i.e. in clarifying not so much its general as special qualities.

The journalist gives a description of a camel: “A camel has one or two humps, long legs and a neck, it moves excellently in the desert, can eat saxaul thorns, can go without water for up to two weeks, and can carry up to two hundred kilograms of cargo...” etc. Of course, when describing the properties of a phenomenon, a journalist cannot indicate all of them. However, he usually does not set himself such a task, due to the fact that some part of them (large or small) may be of no interest either to the audience or to the author himself. What qualities the author will describe depends on the goal that he sets for himself.

When preparing a publication about the problems of miners, if it is important for a journalist to know how safety requirements are observed at the mines, then he will describe the work of miners from this side. Naturally, he must keep in mind that there are other aspects that characterize the work of miners.

The description of the subject of journalistic interest cannot be reduced to a random list, a register of some properties of this subject (factography). The author must first of all identify those special qualities of the phenomenon that give the most complete picture of the side of this phenomenon being studied. The more detailed, more correct in this sense the description, the more information it gives about the subject of the description. Almost no analytical presentation can do without a description if the author knows that the audience knows nothing about the subject that is considered in his work.

IDENTIFICATION OF CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS

Establishing causal relationships of certain events, processes, actions is the central task of explanation, which is often set by journalists of the “quality” (general political, business, pedagogical, etc.) press. Knowing the cause of a phenomenon, it is possible to influence it in one direction or another, it is possible to orient the audience, social institutions to one or another useful activity related to this phenomenon. What is a cause, a causal dependence?

A clear emotional-figurative idea of her was given by S. Marshak in the poem "The Nail and the Horseshoe":

There was no nail -

There was no horseshoe -

She limped.

The horse was lame

Commander

The cavalry is broken

The enemy enters the city

Sparing no prisoners

Because in the forge

There was no nail.

This poem accurately notices what, by definition of the science of logic, is called a paired genetic connection of phenomena, one of which gives rise to another. The first phenomenon (for example, the absence of a nail) is called the cause, and the second (the loss of a horseshoe by a horse and everything else) is called a consequence. In time, the cause always precedes the effect. But, of course, the causal relationship cannot be reduced to the usual sequence of certain events in time. From the fact, for example, that a subway train starts moving after we enter it, it does not follow that the fact of our appearance is the reason for the movement of the train. In order for the preceding event to be determined as the cause of the subsequent one, it is necessary that there be an active materialized connection between these two events. Thus, a cause should be called such a phenomenon that precedes another in time and is connected with it by an internal materialized connection. Moreover, the presence of the first phenomenon always leads to the emergence of the second, and the elimination of the first leads to the elimination of the second. A characteristic feature of causal relationships is that they have certainty and unambiguity, i.e. under the same conditions, the same causes produce the same effects.

Perhaps every person who tries to find out the main cause of an event notices that it is often included in the totality of other causes that gave rise to this event and left its mark on it. In order to establish a causal relationship, a journalist must first of all single out the set of phenomena of interest to him from the general range of other phenomena. Next, you should pay attention to the circumstances that preceded the emergence of the connection. Then, from these circumstances, it is necessary to single out the determining factors that can be the cause of this phenomenon. In many cases, as journalistic practice shows, the mere establishment of facts capable of causing subsequent events does not yet eliminate the difficulties associated with determining its immediate cause. These difficulties are related to the fact that:

One and the same effect can be caused by several causes of the same type, which can act either collectively or separately;

Aggregately acting causes can either strengthen one another, or weaken or neutralize each other;

Cause comes into play only under certain conditions;

The cause can be reversed by its effect.

Causal analysis is carried out (to one degree or another) in the publications of most analytical, as well as many artistic and journalistic genres of journalism.

EVALUATION OF THE SUBJECT OF THE DISPLAY

One of the most important tasks that a journalist solves in the course of analyzing reality is its assessment. Evaluation in journalism appears as an establishment of the correspondence or non-compliance of certain phenomena with the needs, interests, ideas (evaluation criteria) of certain people. Evaluation activity makes sense only if it is assumed that the audience will take the author's assessments into account. Otherwise, it would turn out that the press works for itself, but not for the audience. The success of a journalist's speech in this respect will depend to a decisive extent on whether the author is able to convincingly, reliably evaluate the phenomenon not only for himself, but also for the reader.

No matter how much a person strives to objectively perceive the world, the "truth" he receives will always be relative, i.e. his knowledge will always infinitely approach the essence of the subject being valued. The assessment made to the phenomena of reality on the basis of such knowledge will also be relatively true. All this, however, does not mean that a person should not strive for truth, for reliable knowledge.

Naturally, a journalist should lead his reader to such knowledge. This means that he is obliged to take care of helping, if necessary, the reader to correctly assess the essence of this or that event or phenomenon. This is important because in one way or another it influences the development of one or another attitude of people to the world. And it is important that this impact be positive for the audience. It is important to keep this in mind, first of all, because sometimes journalists believe that they can avoid responsibility for influencing the minds of people if, say, they report only “pure facts”. This could be taken into account and considered a real possibility of avoiding manipulation of the reader's mind, but only if the press and journalists told the audience absolutely all the facts that take place in life. The journalist somehow makes a choice: describes some facts and ignores others. Thus, the audience is always presented with information already evaluated from one position or another. The journalist takes either the “most important”, or “the most interesting”, or “the most unusual”, or “the most revealing”. The main thing is that the audience is always presented with individual facts, and by these individual facts it must judge the world as a whole. Naturally, such a judgment will change depending on what particular facts become known to a person (including at the suggestion of a journalist). The selective display of reality occurs not only at the level of choosing a topic, the subject of display, but also at the level of displaying its sides, which the journalist is going to tell readers about. And since in every phenomenon, event there are useful ones, necessary to a person qualities, and along with this - unnecessary or harmful, then by showing some of them and keeping silent about others, it is possible to form a positive or negative assessment of these phenomena and events in the audience. A selective display of the qualities of the subject being evaluated can, of course, give an adequate idea of this subject, if its author is able to identify precisely its essential qualities. In this case, it should be assumed that the reader can correctly assess the significance of the described phenomenon for himself. It should be noted that in the case of evaluating objects that are various kinds of information messages, citation is an analogue of the fragmentary reflection of reality of a “subjective” nature described above. By presenting the reader with a series of quotations from some text, the author of the publication can provide him with the opportunity to evaluate such a text himself. It is clear that the evaluation of the text itself largely depends on the choice of quotations. Very often, the audience learns about certain qualities of the subject being assessed by getting acquainted not with a visual description of the fragments, but by perceiving “folded” information about the subject, which can be presented in the form of a retelling of what the author has learned. Retelling, as well as showing fragments, helps the audience pay attention to certain aspects of the phenomenon and, based on this, make a certain assessment. A journalist usually uses retelling when he wants to save newspaper, magazine space or air time, or when he does not have the opportunity to personally observe the described phenomenon and get visual details of it. Along with showing visual fragments of the phenomenon, retelling and showing fragments are actively combined in journalism. This way allows not only to acquaint the audience with the individual aspects of the described phenomenon, but also to give it a relatively complete picture of it. Further, it is necessary to pay attention to the following circumstance. An assessment of any event, phenomenon can be done not only by showing the qualities, aspects that manifest themselves precisely at the moment of its accomplishment, but also by showing the consequences that it gave rise to. Getting acquainted with these consequences, the reader will appreciate the phenomenon described by the journalist, its cause is quite unambiguous. If the author aims to influence the assessment made by the audience of the described subject, he must keep in mind the characteristics of this audience, know its actual needs, their nature. As you know, different people at different times, they differently understand the importance of meeting generally significant needs, norms, and traditions. Some of them consider it most important for themselves to satisfy precisely these needs, norms, traditions, while others prefer, first of all, to satisfy individual needs and requests. The former relate to a pro-socially tuned audience, the latter to an individually tuned one. In order for the audience to make an assessment of the phenomenon described in the text that is adequate to the author’s expectations, the author must find an appropriate way of “manifesting” the significance of such a phenomenon for this particular audience. For example, if a journalist intends to exert an appropriate influence on the nature of the assessment of the pro-social audience, he seeks to show how this or that phenomenon to which he dedicates the publication will affect, first of all, the satisfaction of social needs, norms, traditions, etc.

Often, an assessment of phenomena, events is made primarily with the help of the so-called evaluative words: “good”, “evil”, “good”, “bad”, “positive”, “negative”, “beautiful”, “ugly”, “magnificent” , “serious”, “not serious”, etc. Practically not a single analytical presentation can do without such assessments. The direct author's assessment is not limited to evaluative words, which usually personify the concept of assessment in everyday consciousness. Value judgments by themselves do not say anything about the subject of evaluation. They become such only by virtue of the fact that, as it were, they replace certain quite real qualities of objects. So, when we say that a given apple is good, we may mean that it is sweet, or that it has a bright color, or that it keeps well in winter, or something else.

Not only evaluative words, which were mentioned above, but also certain “names” of objects can act as “substitutes”, “representatives” of certain qualities of an object. Such “names” have a certain history of their formation and are called “images” or “figurative comparisons” in journalism and literature. Figurative comparison is nothing more than applying an image to the object being evaluated, attributing to this object the qualities and properties that stand behind the image itself. An example would be such expressions: “Khlestakovism”, “Manilovism”, “emergency”, “copper forehead”, “pharaoh” (about a policeman), “soldafon”, “black shirt” (about a political figure), etc. As we can see, such words and expressions that have become images by virtue of fixing a certain relation to them, are able, as it were, to give phenomena, people whom they designate, certain qualities, i.e. attribute them. A direct author's assessment can be made in the text without the use of evaluative words and figurative expressions.

The author can also express his attitude to the described events, phenomena through the designation - showing his behavior (behavioral reaction) or the behavior of other people or animals:

With a person who would offer such conditions for joint activities, I would simply stop greeting ...

The quality of the sausage supplied by this company turned out to be such that my cat Murzik, having sniffed one piece of it, turned away in disgust ...

When it became clear that the issue of the tax code would not be included in the agenda, a group of parliamentarians on the left side of the hall got up and headed for the exit.

The authors of the above phrases tried not to use evaluative words and expressions, but nevertheless it is clear what they wanted to say when describing their behavior or actions, the intentions to act of certain people. The assessment of the phenomena to which this or that action is addressed is quite clear to the reader.

As for the appropriateness of using the method of direct assessment by the author of a particular phenomenon, the following should be borne in mind: the author, like any other person, has every right to speak out on any occasion, to evaluate any phenomenon. However, his direct definition of his attitude to the subject of assessment is important, first of all, when he knows the subject well or when the situation does not allow turning to the opinion of more competent people.

Evaluation is present in publications of all analytical genres. However, the degree of its "expansion" and the form of presentation in the texts can be very different.

FORECAST OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBJECT OF DISPLAY

In the course of studying reality, a journalist very often sets himself the task of determining the future state interested him phenomena. This research task is called forecasting. Its purpose is to promote the choice of solving the problems of public life, the rationale for plans, taking into account certain prospects. Forecasting is the definition of trends and prospects for the development of certain processes based on the analysis of data on their past and current state. Turning to forecasting gives the journalist the opportunity to show not only the desirable aspects of the development of the phenomenon, but also undesirable ones, and thus contribute to the search for ways to avoid negative consequences.

Successful forecasting is facilitated by reliance, on the one hand, on real modern or historical facts, and on the other hand, on the development trends of the phenomena under study. Only true reasons can lead to accurate predictions (of course, subject to all the rules of inference). Often, when predicting the development of an event, a journalist relies not only on completely reliable, but also on hypothetical provisions, arguing something like this: “If our assumption about the cause of an event is correct, then it will continue to develop as follows ...”

The final logical result of the forecast is a certain model of the future state of the phenomenon under study. Forecasting is a complex cognitive process based on the use of certain methods.

FORMULATION OF A PROGRAM OF ACTION

The generation of possible options (programs) of activities that can lead to the satisfaction of social needs associated with the phenomenon displayed in the text presents a considerable difficulty for a journalist. Programming in a journalistic text appears as a set of certain measures, actions, means, conditions offered to solve certain problems.

The combination of desired events with the actions that produce them in the program is achieved in two different ways: either by moving backward along the time axis from subsequent events to previous ones, or forward - from previous to subsequent ones.

In the first case, a certain desired result is fixed with the initial conditions of a programmable time period, i.e. with potential resources. So does, for example, a person who wants to buy an expensive thing. He wonders if his family members and himself could accumulate the required amount in a few years?

In the second case, the journalist, on the contrary, starts from some events and “turns” them forward until the chain of events reaches one or another desired result. So, knowing about his trip to the city center tomorrow, a person thinks about how to use it, what, for example, to visit shops and institutions.

In the first case, as an independent variable (or starting point) in the deployment of options for activities (programs), there is some benefit already known to a person, and in the second case, certain potential resources for acquiring benefits. In the first case, the journalist seeks to find resources (real opportunities) to achieve the desired result. Their quality and volume are dictated by the quality of the desired result (goal). In the second case, he immediately has information about their capabilities, qualitative and quantitative characteristics that dictate the content and scope of the future goal.

The first option for constructing an activity program usually looks like persistent, active, transformative, and the second one looks like passive, adapting, adapting to circumstances, "opportunistic". Effective design of options involves a combination of counter moves in the process of programming, going from start to finish. There are at least three circumstances that increase the complexity of programming.

The first of them is the duration and multi-stage nature of the chain of successive events. The second condition is the presence of several alternative consequences for the same possible event. A one-dimensional chain is just the simplest particular case of a programmable activity. A more complex option is branching opportunities, where several mutually exclusive continuations (branches) depart from the same event. Graphical representations of such events are commonly referred to as "trees", including "opportunity trees". When such branching possibilities are translated into a final program of activity, it is often called a program with a condition (this term is often used in computer programming). The third condition that increases the complexity of programming is the simultaneous formation of several chains of activities of different types, connected by common resources. At the same time, while studying the possibilities of using the resource in the chain of one activity, the journalist simultaneously constructs the possibilities of using the same resource in another activity. In other words, it is not individual possible types of costs that are being investigated, but their aggregates, budgets, for example, monetary budgets, time budgets, budgets of foreign aid used.

In this case, before the eyes of the journalist there is not one, but several chains of goals and means to achieve them, which allows us to consider the possibilities of more fully satisfying certain needs associated with the phenomenon displayed in the analytical text.

Often a journalist does not engage in any in-depth development of options for activity, but proceeds from ready-made alternatives created by specialists in the relevant field of activity. In this case, only the presentation of the corresponding program is left to the share of the programming activity of the author of the journalistic speech.

to the begining

METHODS OF THE SUBJECT STUDY

According to a number of researchers, in journalism there are two main groups of methods for "transforming" objective reality into its information analogue 4 . Namely: rational-cognitive and artistic methods. To what genre "consequences" does the application of rational-cognitive methods of reality lead? You can fully understand this by remembering that these methods include two levels of knowledge - empirical and theoretical 5 .

The result of empirical research appears in journalism as a stream informational publications. The application of the theoretical level of knowledge leads to the creation of texts that make up the main stream analytical publications. Such publications are distinguished primarily by a deep, detailed study of cause-and-effect relationships, evaluative relations of the subject, thoroughness of argumentation, etc.

The use of artistic methods in journalism usually goes hand in hand with the use of rational-cognitive ones, which leads to the creation of not actually artistic, but artistic and journalistic works.

EMPIRICAL METHODS

Observation method. This method is based on personal observation, personal knowledge of reality through its sensory perception. Unlike mundane surveillance, which is often unintentional, random, journalistic surveillance is purposeful. It is based on common grounds that are significant for other areas of activity. For example, the method of observation in science, in many branches of practical activity, has a systematic, purposeful, consistent nature.

The object of journalistic observation can be both relatively simple and extremely complex socio-political, cultural, religious, moral processes, events, situations. Observation is a rather complex action, predetermined both by the characteristics of the observed object, and by the personal qualities, professional skills, and experience of the observer 6 . There are several types of journalistic observation. They can be classified according to various grounds, for example, the methods of organization, the subject, the nature of the information of interest to the observer. On the basis of the first basis, observation is divided into open and hidden . A feature of open observation is that a journalist, having arrived to complete a task, say, at a construction site, declares his goal, the editorial task, and can also tell how he will carry it out, what help he may need from construction participants. . It follows from this that the people with whom he will communicate know that among them is a journalist collecting material for publication, and can even imagine the nature of this speech (positive or negative).

In contrast to open covert surveillance, it is characterized by the fact that a journalist for a certain time (or never) informs the people around him, whose actions he observes, that he is a journalist and collects the information he needs, as well as about what kind of information he interested. Covert surveillance can be used when studying, for example, a conflict situation in a team or when conducting a journalistic investigation.

The features of journalistic observation can also be predetermined by such a factor as the degree of his participation in the event he is monitoring. On this basis, observations can be divided into " included " and " not included ". In the first case, the journalist becomes, for example, a member of the crew of a fishing trawler and works on board along with other fishermen. "Excluded" observation is the study of some activity from the outside, in the preparation of, for example, a report on a volcanic eruption, about sports, etc.

Depending on the conditions of studying the subject to which the attention of a journalist is directed, observation may turn out to be direct and indirect . This means that the author can observe some objects directly, while others - due to their remoteness, concealment and other conditions - only indirectly, using indirect data.

On the basis of time, observations are divided into short-term and long . Short-term observations are used in the preparation of operational publications, but in the case when it is necessary to study the subject in detail, thoroughly, long-term observation is used. Long-term observation should not be understood as necessarily one-time. So, a journalist can repeatedly return to the life of a team, observe the changes taking place for several years.

To obtain the necessary data using the method of observation, the journalist is helped by an indicative plan for its implementation. Such a plan should correctly determine the aspect of observation, its order, conditions.

Document Processing Method. This method is one of the most common in the activities of a journalist. The concept of a document comes from the Latin "documentum" ("proof", "instructive example"). Currently, a document is primarily understood as a written evidence of something. But there are other interpretations of the document. There are several types of documents for different reasons. So, according to the type of fixation of information, they can be combined into groups: handwritten; printed; photographic and film films; magnetic tapes, gramophone records, laser discs, etc. By type of authorship - official and personal. According to the degree of proximity to the display object - initial and derivative. According to the degree of purpose for printing - intentionally created and unintentionally. According to the field of activity that gave rise to the document - household, industrial, state-administrative, socio-political, scientific, reference and information.

There are different methods of document analysis, depending on what information the journalist needs most at the moment. The main methods described by experts are the so-called traditional, formalized methods. Traditional methods (also calledquality ) form the basis of journalistic document research. These methods are refracted in the understanding of the studied document. In his interpretation, in fixing the information thus obtained. The interpretation is carried out as a comparison of the content of the document with certain criteria related to this content.

Concerning formalized method , which is based on content analysis, it requires the study of a large array of documents of the same type (for example, newspaper filings) according to certain parameters of these documents. Content analysis is a labor-intensive scientific method, and it is rarely used in journalism, since it requires special skills and takes a lot of time.

Methods of interview, conversation, survey, questionnaire. They provide for necessary information from witnesses of certain events, experts on a particular issue, as well as those people whose opinion may be of interest to readers, radio listeners and television viewers. These methods are carried out by asking questions orally or in writing and receiving answers to them. Interview - the most frequently used method in journalistic practice of obtaining information in the preparation of publications of almost all newspaper genres. A characteristic feature of the interview method is that the author of the future publication presents to the interviewee a certain list of questions orally, affecting, in the opinion of the journalist, the most important aspects of the problem of interest to him, and listens to the answers that will form the main content of his future speech. Conversation , like an interview, is a direct verbal communication of the author with the interlocutor. But this is already communication, during which both interlocutors - the journalist and the owner of the information - can ask each other questions. It is the last point that sharply separates the interview from the conversation as a method of obtaining information. Being equal interlocutors, the journalist and the one with whom he is talking act as equal participants in the speech action and can equally influence the course and content of the conversation. Naturally, because of this, the journalist-interlocutor, unlike the journalist-interviewer, can get a much more unforeseen result of his conversation. Interview - this is a method of obtaining information when a journalist tries to find out from many people their opinions on the same (same) issue (s). Having a set of answers in front of him, he can draw up a complete picture of opinions, see their spread on a scale with the poles "total approval" - "total disapproval" or get a set of programs, action plans in connection with the phenomenon under discussion. Having summarized the survey data, he can use them in the form of numbers, percentages and other signs confirming his own conclusions regarding the subject of the survey. Questionnaire - a method close to the survey, but with its own characteristics. Questioning is carried out using specially designed questionnaires and requires the skills of sociological work. The data obtained by means of a questionnaire allow one to obtain a fairly well-founded answer to certain questions. However, due to a certain cumbersome and laborious nature, it is used in journalism relatively rarely compared to other methods of obtaining information.

Experiment Method. The "progenitors" of this method of journalism are scientific and investigative experiments. In science and jurisprudence, this method is used very widely. In recent years, it has become more active than before, to be mastered by journalists. There are two main types of experiment. In the first case, a journalist "changes profession" (becomes a taxi driver or a salesman, or a janitor, etc.), "includes" in some area of activity as an executor of a certain role, position, becomes a member of some team and monitors both the team and how it reacts to its (journalist's) actions. In the second case, he deliberately organizes some kind of situation and watches how it proceeds, while remaining in the role of a journalist (for example, he organizes a written appeal to himself from different districts of the city of one hundred addressees and waits when and how each of them will do).

Obtaining information through experiment is often used in the course of investigative journalism, but in other cases this method is also sometimes indispensable.

THEORETICAL METHODS

These methods can be divided into two main subgroups: formal-logical, or methods of inferential knowledge, and content-logical (dialectical).

Formal logic methods. As you know, inferential knowledge is knowledge obtained according to the laws of logic by appropriate inferences from old knowledge, from already known facts. Consider the main types of inferences.

inductive reasoning . Any knowledge of the world begins with empirical experience, the study of the properties of individual objects, phenomena, with the observation of the surrounding world. Exploring such objects, phenomena, people form an idea about their certain general properties by inductive reasoning. This conclusion is the transition from knowledge of the individual to knowledge of the general. Logic defines induction as inference (and research method), in which the conclusion is knowledge about the entire class of objects, obtained as a result of the study of individual representatives of this class. In inductive reasoning, even from true premises, only a probabilistic conclusion can follow, since the reliability of particular knowledge (premises) cannot unambiguously determine the truth of general knowledge. And yet, inductive reasoning is of great cognitive importance, it is actively used in journalism. There are two main types of induction - complete and incomplete. With complete induction, a conclusion about the entire class of objects (phenomena) is made on the basis of the study of each of the objects of this class, with incomplete induction, only individual ones. Journalists more often make generalizations on the basis of knowledge of individual phenomena, and not all, i.e. use incomplete induction.

deductive reasoning . It represents the development of thought from a greater generality of knowledge to a smaller one (sometimes from a single to a particular). Our reasoning proceeds in a deductive form, if we bring a particular phenomenon under a general rule or draw a conclusion from general position about the properties of an individual object.

The deductive method plays an important role in the process of human thinking, in the process of his practical activity. This is predetermined by the fact that people cannot but rely on the previous, generalized experience of mankind, enshrined in generally valid provisions, when solving specific problems.

Traductive inference . This method is applied in two main forms: comparisons and analogies. The essence of the traductive method lies in the fact that, based on the similarity of several features of two or more phenomena, a conclusion is made about the similarity of all other features of these phenomena. The method of analogy justifies itself only if it takes into account the necessary condition, namely: the analogy is carried out according to the main, essential, qualitatively unified features of the phenomena under study, and not according to random, secondary ones. The danger of taking minor signs of phenomena as the main ones arises primarily due to the complexity and versatility of the social facts with which the author deals.

In journalism, the method of comparison is also widely used. With its help, the difference and similarity of different objects, phenomena that fall into the field of view of the author of the future speech are established. Like other methods, comparison has its limits of application. It must be carried out only on essential, leading signs. As well as knowledge obtained as a result of induction, inference by analogy and comparative inference give knowledge in the form of conjecture, assumption, and therefore incomplete knowledge.

Content-logical research methods. Unlike formal logical methods, which assume the immutability of phenomena, in relation to which certain judgments are made, the methods of meaningful logic take into account the variability and development of the world. The significance of meaningful logic (dialectics) is that it is able to combine the objectivity of the content of concepts and theories with their fluidity, variability, reflecting the fluidity and variability of the real world. Content logic offers the following methods for identifying subject relationships.

Methods of analysis and synthesis . They proceed from the need to study the subject of dividing it into components, and then connecting these components. By dismembering an object that really exists in unity, i.e. analyzing it, the author gets to the deep meaningful connections, the causes of the phenomenon under study. Since the phenomenon under study does not really exist in the form of its constituent elements separately, it is impossible to understand it only at the level of analysis. Analysis is only the beginning of the identification of interacting elements, the relationship of causes and effects, and its ending is the combination of the individual elements under study into a single whole, i.e. synthesis. That is why analysis in most cases does not constitute evidence in itself. Synthesis, based on the data obtained by analysis, completes the proof (see: Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1985, p. 609).

Hypothetical Method . It proceeds from the need to go beyond the immediate, current state of development of the phenomenon. Using this method, a researcher (including a journalist), based on a set of facts known to him, makes an attempt to predict the development of the phenomenon under study in the future. Without putting forward hypotheses, the development of human knowledge, the movement towards truth is impossible. This method in modern journalism manifests itself most often in the form of guesswork, assumptions based not on a theoretical analysis of the laws of social development (which is typical for the work of analysts), but on previous experience, empirical observations. A hypothetical conclusion based on reliable facts can give true knowledge about the future. But since the range of such phenomena is limited, the knowledge obtained by the hypothetical method is of a probabilistic nature.

historicism method. Boolean method . The first of them follows from the need to identify the individual features of its development when studying an object, and the second - its essential, “straightened” connections. The historical method requires looking at each object from the point of view of how it arose, what main stages in its development existed, what it represents at the present moment. This method makes it possible to reconstruct specific individual facets of a phenomenon, to see the stages of its development, to show the conditionality of its present state by its past state.

Historical research is supplemented by theoretical analysis, which is based on a logical method, which makes it possible to single out the most significant connections from the whole variety of connections of reality.

Private, specific methods . They are used by a journalist to achieve the goals of interpreting the subject of display (description, cause-and-effect analysis, assessment, forecast, formulation of action programs) and are based on theoretical research methods.

ARTISTIC METHOD

To imagine the limits of the use in journalism of this method, mentioned at the beginning of this section, it is necessary to bear in mind the following circumstance. Namely, the essence of the method itself lies in the unlimited use of the author's imagination, fiction, which give the creator the freedom necessary for the creator to create an artistic image and reveal through it the "truth of life as a whole." But at the same time, the goal is by no means set to display momentary relevant reliable facts, which, as you know, is what journalism is mainly “concerned about”.

In journalism, elements of fiction can only be used to “shade” such facts. Moreover, a good journalist always makes it clear to the reader where are the reliable facts, and where is fiction, fantasy, and what is the meaning of their “coexistence”. Thus, it is possible to talk about the use of the artistic method in journalism only with certain reservations, meaning by this, first of all, the use of elements of typing, figuratively expressive language, a certain level of detail in the display of the subject, the use of convention in the reconstruction of events.

The result of the correct application of the artistic method in journalism is the creation of texts containing not artistic images (which is inherent in fiction), but journalistic ones, i.e. images limited by the "truth of the fact", but not by the "truth of life in general". Thus, journalism acts as a transitional stage, a “border zone” separating (and connecting) journalism and fiction. The use of such a method is predetermined, as in any other case, by the subject and purpose of the research conducted by the publicist.

to the begining

THE ROLE OF DIFFERENT GENRE-FORMING FACTORS IN THE FORMATION OF GENRES

Having become acquainted with genre-forming factors, let us further define their role in genre formation (i.e., in assigning publications to certain stable groups according to similar characteristics). To this end, we will comment on some well-known genres of journalism. Traditionally, domestic science ranked, for example, the following genres as information journalism: information note, chronicle, report, interview, reportage; to analytical journalism - correspondence, article, review, review of media speeches, review, commentary, literary-critical article; to artistic journalism - genres: essay, feuilleton, pamphlet, epigram. Let's look at these and other genres from the point of view of the genre-forming factors that were discussed above.

Display subject and genre formation. Is the publication genre always predetermined by the display subject? Despite the fairly well-established affirmative answer to this question, one should not agree with it in all cases of genre formation. Why? Yes, because the “decisive” role in this process is not always played by the object of display. It can be confidently stated, for example, that if publications display an object that is in external in relation to the author of the speech world, then they will be included in one genre group (or a combination of them - suppose these will be analytical texts). If the subject matter is related to inner world author, then the publication created by him will be included in a completely different genre group (in this case, the author, who talks about his inner world, is engaged in self-display, introspection). This subject "fork", as we see, will be a constant genre-forming factor. This makes it possible to talk about the appropriate division of genres, based on the originality of these display items, into two (unequal in terms of their representation in journalism) groups within both informational and analytical, as well as artistic and journalistic publications.

Well-defined genre qualities of texts can also arise when some of them illuminate, so to speak, the “primary reality” (various subject, ontological situations, practical actions, processes), while others illuminate the “secondary reality” (information phenomena: books, movies, TV shows, etc.), others - both.

Only the first group of phenomena is illuminated, for example, by "analytical" (in the narrow sense of the word) articles and correspondence, only the second group of phenomena is illuminated by press reviews, reviews, and literary critical articles. Both the first and second groups of phenomena are covered by "staged" correspondence and articles, reviews, comments, as well as publications of informational genres.

Therefore, when comparing, for example, such genres as an essay and a review, it is clear that they really have different objects of display. But this cannot be observed by comparing, for example, an essay and an informative note. After all, the subject of display they can be the same. And such “subject coincidences” can be found in many other genres. At the same time, publications belonging to the same genre can have a variety of display items (for example, comments can be created about any phenomena, events, processes, situations).

Therefore, the subject of display as a genre-forming factor is of particular importance only for some genre formations, but by no means for all. Thus, it is possible to talk about the genre diversity of journalism, bearing in mind only the subject of display, only within certain limits. But this, nevertheless, does not diminish the role of the subject of display as an important genre-forming factor.

Target setting and genre formation. Considering the role of the target setting in genre formation, one can notice that, for example, analytical correspondence is aimed at identifying the causes of a single phenomenon and a possible trend in its development, and determining its value. Analytical article - on the explanation of a number of interrelated phenomena, the definition of trends, patterns of their interaction, the establishment of their value, the formation of a forecast for the development of a situation, process, phenomenon. The "staged" correspondence and the article are of a projective nature, they give programs of activity in relation either to single phenomena or to their totality. The review aims to inform the reader about the most important events that have occurred, for example, over a certain period of time, to identify their cause, significance (assessment) for the audience, and to establish their relationship. A review of the press, radio and television appearances acquaints the audience with the "products" of the media, makes an assessment of them. Reviews reveal the value for the audience of certain books, films, performances, etc. Literary-critical articles consider the features of the writer's work, evaluate this or that work, as for the commentary, it usually means materials that mainly evaluate some events already known to the audience, phenomena, indicating their causes, etc., in the form of the opinion of persons competent in these matters.

The target setting is an important genre-forming factor. The variety of goals that journalists set for themselves when creating specific publications predetermines a wide variety of qualities of these publications, which means that it creates the basis for classifying them into different genre groups. At the same time, the coincidence of some goals of different publications, in the presence of qualities “born” in them by other genre-forming factors, can give these publications some “related” features that unite texts belonging to different genre groups.

Display methods and genre formation. The formation of the qualities of texts that make it possible to attribute them to one or another genre group is to a certain extent influenced by the methods of comprehension of reality used in the preparation of publications 7 . For example, the factographic method, which is the fixation of the most visible (“identifying”) features of the display object, is inevitable in the preparation of information genre texts. Methods of rational-theoretical reflection of the subject are necessary in identifying the relationship of the subject, causes, effects, their assessment, forecasting their development, which is the task of publications in analytical genres. Methods of artistic generalization are necessary to create publications that are classified as artistic and journalistic.

In the course of displaying reality, a journalist can reach different depths of comprehension of the chosen subject. The degree to which such depth is achieved in a particular journalistic text also, to a certain extent, predetermines its type. At the same time, very often, when the main characteristics of the text arise as an inevitable result of the application of some method of cognition of the subject, its genre affiliation is largely “corrected” by the degree of “expansion” and the sequence of using such a method, the depth of penetration with its help into the subject of display. It is on this that the degree of achievement of that depth of knowledge of the chosen subject, which allows the text to be included in a certain genre group, often largely depends. Moreover, the degree of depth of journalistic research will be the greater, the more “expanded” the methods of reflecting reality described by us at the beginning of the section will be applied by the journalist. So, it can be observed, for example, that with a minimum “expansion” of the description method, only the most characteristic external features of the display object (its rough and concise “picture”) are achieved, which is inherent, say, in informational notes.

If the description “unfolds” relatively completely, then the external “image” of the displayed object becomes more detailed, becomes more “voluminous”, what is sometimes called the “presence effect” appears, which is typical for publications in the reportage genre. In the case when the description approaches the degree of its “expansion”, accuracy, consistency to the scientific one (i.e., in the course of it, grouping of data, typological characteristics of the displayed phenomenon, etc. are used), we observe an analytical journalistic text (for example, article).

The "expansion" of the evaluation method, depending on its depth and the "presence" in the text of other methods of cognition (say, cause-and-effect analysis, etc.), consistently leads to the emergence of a number of "evaluative" genres, for example, commentary, reviews, remarks, literary criticism articles, etc. The "sweep" of the method of causal analysis in combination, for example, with a visual description or a statistical description, leads to the emergence of analytical correspondence, articles, reviews, etc. The dominance of forecasting methods in the text leads to the emergence of a type of text that can be called forecast genre. This pattern is also visible when the nature of publications and other methods of journalism are influenced.

Special mention should be made of the role of the artistic method, since the author's fantasy can be present in a publication of any genre 8 . That is, a “sweep” of a particular method, different in depth, dictated by the purpose of publication, in the presence of the same subject of display, can lead to the emergence of one or another type of text claiming genre independence.

At present, the traditional full-blooded genres of Russian journalism, which most fully represent the use of the artistic method (essay, feuilleton, pamphlet), are significantly crowded out or somewhere completely ousted from the communication "turnover" by information and analytical genres. However, this does not mean that the artistic method of reflecting reality (displaying it with peculiar means) has disappeared from the arsenal of a modern journalist. Artistic analysis still exists.

On the one hand, it is the basis of simplified, schematized publications of a group of artistic and journalistic genres that have undergone a "mutation", and on the other hand, the impact of the artistic method is increasingly observed in other genre groups - primarily in publications of analytical genres. Correspondence, article, commentary, review, etc. are often saturated with psychologism, pictorialism. And in this regard, they to some extent, as it were, replace the essay, feuilleton, pamphlet. These publications compensate to a certain extent for the lack of colors and images that exists in modern journalism, they bring expressive characters, well-developed details, picturesque scenes to the pages of the press, thereby complementing “black-and-white” journalism.

In such a case, the artistic method, one might say, performs mainly "background" functions. At the same time, “sensual” reality appears in the publication in the form of random artistic fragments, without creative processing, without grouping characters, and artistic analysis is most often based only on figurative words and expressions. However, tropes, interjections by themselves cannot convey more or less complex feelings. The images in the text are imperfect, random, they appear and disappear without proper development. The author, as it were, does not notice them himself, does not stop his attention on them. He does not attach importance to artistic elements, work on the word. Descriptions of nature, various associations, if they exist in such texts, then as if unintentionally, unconsciously.

The main thing for the author may be, say, an economic, political or other type of analysis of reality. The artistic side of such texts appears only as a "background" against which various cognitive operations, logical analysis, factual argumentation unfold, and the author's view is directed to economic, political, production and other status-role functions, but not to the individual psychological characteristics of people. People appear in the text as "customers", "passengers", "industrialists", "dealers", "entrepreneurs", but not individuals with unique psychological, creative, moral characteristics. Accordingly, such texts, despite the presence in them of "traces" of the artistic method, will represent all the same informational or analytical genres.

The artistic method is manifested to a fuller extent, of course, in publications classified as artistic and journalistic. In this case, journalism approaches artistic creativity, since the completeness of the created images, the brightness of the specific details of the plot and composition often demonstrate the author's desire for artistic typification. Images in artistic and journalistic texts often show not just individual human features, but rather character traits our contemporaries 9 . Artistic analysis of this type exists in inseparable unity with problematic (for example, economic, political) analysis and is aimed at solving the same problems, the same conflicts, but explores them with its own means and techniques.

In this case, the journalist often substantiates his figurative constructions with examples well known to him from life, from his own creative experience, demonstrating the typical features of a contemporary. The level of novelty, the originality of the author's constructions can be different, including low, imperfect ones. However, the reader will notice in any case the author's desire to use figurative thinking, to use figurative, expressive means of reflecting reality, his desire not to miss interesting details, colorful figures, to draw the attention of the audience to them. At the same time, artistic analysis can sometimes obscure the problematic one. However, this "loss" is compensated by the author's brighter moral and aesthetic self-determination and a clear position in relation to the problems discussed in the text.

"Language factor" and genre formation. Knowledge of the above three groups of main genre-forming factors helps to explain many of the main points in the "birth" of certain genres. However, some ambiguities remain on this issue. They can be eliminated to a certain extent by taking into account the so-called additional genre-forming factors. First of all, this refers to the language forms of presentation of the material.

Two journalists from different newspapers decided to write about the problems of the same football team. They watched the game together, talked with the athletes, and were together at the press conference of its captain. But one wrote an analytical interview, and the other wrote an analytical correspondence. There is no difference in the subject of display, in research methods, in installation, but publications of different genres were prepared.

There are many such examples. How to explain this moment of genre formation? In our opinion, it is necessary to extract from the shadow of research attention another and rather important genre-forming factor, which is the form of presentation of the material. They are by no means equivalent to the methods of collecting material (observation, interviews, document analysis, etc.), and therefore should be considered as an independent factor, which has great importance in a conversation about the genres of journalism. A significant role in the formation of the nature of the presentation of the material is played by language 10 .

The "representation" of information in journalism is carried out in well-known language forms - messages, narratives and presentations. When (in the presence of all other necessary genre-forming factors) a journalist uses the method of communication (in the special, linguistic sense of this concept), this contributes to the emergence of the genre of chronicle, note, information. When, in addition to the message, the method of narration is also used, this helps the emergence of the genre of information correspondence. If, along with these two methods, presentation is also used, then genres of “visual display” appear - reports, essays, feuilletons.

An important genre-forming role is also played by such a factor as the forms of personification of information. There are two of these forms monologue and dialogical . The use of the first form is a prerequisite for the emergence of monologue genres: correspondence, articles, reviews, etc. The use of the second form inevitably generates materials for dialogic genres: interviews, conversations, etc. The original forms, of course, can be used in combination. Therefore, hybrid forms such as "correspondence-interview", "conversation-report", etc.

______________

It is a well-known assertion that in journalism there is a constant renewal of the “genre palette”, and it is assumed that it is most active at such turning points in the development of society, which is currently observed. This statement should not be understood in such a way that a journalist forever excludes from the range of his tasks, for example, the methods of causal analysis or forecast, assessment, etc. .d. in the text, which leads to a certain "mutation" of the usual, well-established text forms (genres), but not to their disappearance as such. Such changes are caused by the need to "adapt" genres to new communicative situations, generated, in particular, by the change in the role of a journalist in society in a particular period of its development.

So, say, in an analytical article, the ratio of “purely informative” material (additional) and “business analysis” in favor of the first can be changed in order to draw the attention of a wide audience to this publication. But this will not change the essence of the analytical article as a genre. One way or another, it will fulfill its task, even if it presents the audience with an “unconventionally” short causal analysis. It only means that the "manifestation" of a certain research method will be simply reduced in this text.

The possibility of the existence of a huge variety of specific forms of presentation of material in journalism warns against a rigid division of publications in the periodical press by unshakable genre boundaries. We can only talk about some relatively stable associations of publications under one or another “genre roof”, which should by no means prevent us from seeing a lot of transitional, hybrid genre forms, the existence of which cannot be ignored.

to the begining

FORMATION OF GENRES AND "GENRE NAMES"

The following should be noted next: genre formation process, i.e. the acquisition by future publications of characteristics that make it possible to attribute these publications, for example, to already known genres, should be distinguished from the process of emergence of "names" of genres.

This second is the process of "nomination" (designation), which has declared itself new group publications that have not yet received a genre definition, does not have strict fundamental foundations, does not rely on any regularity.

Sometimes the name arises as a result of focusing the attention of the subject that gives the genre a “name” on some genre-forming factor. But it is impossible to say exactly which of them will “appear” in the name of the genre.

So, for example, calling a certain kind of publication the name "interview", its founders assigned to the genre the name of a certain cognitive method, which is used in journalism when collecting information and is to some extent fixed in publications related to this group (as a question-answer form presentation of the material).

The names of other genres are formed according to the same “algorithm” - versions, conversations, reviews, etc. But often the name of a genre is in no way connected with the factors that determine the course of creating a publication and its content-formal characteristics. Indicative in this regard, for example, is the name of the genre of correspondence associated with the concept of "correspondence", i.e. reporting information to the editor. And the name “article” generally means “joint”, “part of something” (in particular, part of a newspaper page). Etc.

- (from English travel journalism) a special direction in the mass media, focused on providing information about travel (from English travel) in the context of developing topics such as geography, history, culture, tourism, etc. Travel journalism ... ... Wikipedia

Review- Review of the genre of journalism, as well as scientific and artistic criticism. The review informs about the new work, contains its brief analysis and evaluation. Translated from the Latin "recensio" means "view, message, rating, review ... ... Wikipedia

Travel essay- Travel essay essay, which is based on a description of any events, incidents, meetings with people that occur during the travel of the author. Contents 1 The history of the appearance of the essay in Russia 2 Features ... Wikipedia

Elimination of clericalism and stamps- One of the sources of clogging the literary language is verbal cliches - words and expressions devoid of figurativeness, often and monotonously repeated without regard to context, impoverishing speech, filling it with stereotyped turns, killing the living ... ... A guide to spelling and style

Film review- Film review is a genre of journalism and criticism, a thematic variety of the review genre. A film review is a critical review of a piece of cinematic art. Film reviewer and film critic. The first film review appeared in the American ... ... Wikipedia

Journalist- This term has other meanings, see Journalist (meanings). A journalist is a person whose journalistic works are published in the media. A blogger is also a journalist if his blog is a media outlet. The main occupation of a journalist ... ... Wikipedia

Newspaper- This term has other meanings, see Newspaper (meanings). "The Bell" by A. I. Herzen, 1857 ... Wikipedia

Journalists

Journalist- Reporter is redirected here. On the topic "Reporter" a separate article is needed. A journalist is a person engaged in journalism: a performer contributing to the information content of the media by collecting, comprehending and presenting to an audience ... ... Wikipedia

The reporter- Reporter is redirected here. On the topic "Reporter" a separate article is needed. A journalist is a person engaged in journalism: a performer contributing to the information content of the media by collecting, comprehending and presenting to an audience ... ... Wikipedia

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