The internal reforms of Peter 1 briefly. Russian Tsar Peter the Great

Bibliographic description:

Nesterov A.K. Reforms of Peter I [Electronic resource] // Educational encyclopedia site

The reforms of Peter the Great are a topic of extreme importance today. Peter is a symbol of the urgent social need for change, and for cardinal, fast and at the same time successful change. Such a need, even a need, still exists today. And the experience of the transformations of those years can be invaluable for today's reformers in Russia. They can avoid those excesses that Peter allowed, trying to raise the country from its knees.

The value of the reforms of Peter the Great

The personality of the first emperor of Russia, his transformations and their results are an exceptional example for all generations.

In the history of each state there are turning points, after which the country rises to a qualitatively new stage of development. There were three such periods in Russia: the reforms of Peter the Great, the Great October Socialist Revolution, and the collapse of Soviet Union. Peter's reforms, carried out three centuries ago, had a huge impact on the imperial era, which lasted for almost two centuries; Unlike most tsars, Peter was not forgotten even in Soviet times.

In the last twenty-five years, the reforms of the first quarter of the eighteenth century are also of current importance, because today, as well as at that time, reforms are needed that can put our country on a par with Western states.

As a result of Peter's reforms, a new strong state was created, capable of competing with the advanced powers of Europe. If it were not for Peter, then having no access to strategically important seas, unable to trade under the new conditions, uneducated Muscovy would become a province of Sweden or Turkey. To win, we had to learn from the Europeans. All civilizations adopted the experience of others, only two developed almost independently: India and China. Muscovy, which has absorbed many positive and negative traits Asian culture during the Mongol yoke, combined them together with the remnants of Byzantine culture, with a certain share of European culture penetrating the country through a few trade links. This indicates the absence of any originality even before Peter. Peter, having divided everything negative, obsolete, and progressive, completely destroyed the former and multiplied the latter many times over.

Peter the Great forced the country to take such a huge step forward in a quarter of a century as other countries did in several centuries.

But we must not forget about the price at which this was done, what the Russian people sacrificed in an effort to enter the European arena. The issue of violence in the reforms is very controversial. Peter forced everyone to obey his will, forced them with rods and sticks, and everyone submitted to his will. But on the other hand, there were government orders that were regularly paid. Without one or the other, such a grandiose success would have been unattainable. To the question of the possibility of avoiding violence in reformist activity, one can answer that without it, the Russian peasant and the Russian boyar were not raised from the bench. The rigidity of Muscovy was the main obstacle to any reforms. It was possible to overcome it only by force, and by force hard and cruel.

Chronological table of the main reforms of Peter I

Table. Reforms of Peter the Great.

	Reforms of Peter I	Description of reforms
	Fleet building Formation of a regular army urban reform The first reform of Russian life	The fleet was built in Voronezh and the surrounding area for a campaign against Azov. Kuppanstva were organized from peasants, landowners, clergy, townspeople and black-sowed population, merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. 16 ships and 60 brigantines were built. The call to the service of all comers from among the non-enslaved people, the salary is 2 times higher than that of the archers. A recruiting system has been introduced. The urban reform transferred the townspeople to the jurisdiction of the Burmister Chamber, the role of the Boyar Duma was reduced, and Peter sent Russians to study in European countries to train specialists. The first reform of Russian life concerned the ban on wearing a beard, those who wanted to leave a beard paid a tax to the treasury (except for the clergy), peasants with a beard paid a fee at the entrance to the city.
	Start of military reform	The liquidation of the streltsy troops in 1698, the formation of regiments with foreign officers, which turned out to be insolvent. The formation of a new army on the basis of recruitment after the defeat near Narva.
	Military reform	The obligation for the nobles to carry out military service from the soldier's rank. Creation of 50 military schools. Shipbuilding moved to St. Petersburg.
	Start of construction of manufactories	Construction of iron manufactories in the Urals and in the Olonets region.
	Mint reform	The basis of the monetary system was based on the decimal principle: ruble - hryvnia - kopeck. It was an advanced division, unparalleled in many Western countries. State monopoly on the minting of coins and a ban on the export of gold and silver from the country. The ruble is equal in weight to the thaler.
	Foreign Trade Reform	protectionist policy. High duties on the export of raw materials. Foreign trade is concentrated in the hands of the state.
	Administrative reform	Establishment of 8 provinces, the creation of the Senate, the introduction of the position of Prosecutor General of the Senate to control the activities of the Senate, the abolition of orders and the creation of colleges. In 1714, a decree on uniform inheritance was issued to strengthen the absolute monarchy. In 1721 the Holy Synod was formed, the church became a state institution.
	Education reform	Many schools were opened, textbooks appeared, applied disciplines came to the fore, civil script and Arabic numerals were introduced, the first library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, the appearance of the first newspaper, the Kunstkamera was opened - the first museum in Russia.
	Changes in Russian life	The prohibition of long-skimmed Russian clothes, tea and coffee are prescribed, assemblies are introduced, an end is put to the seclusion of Russian women. The life of the nobles and merchants has changed so much that they began to seem like foreigners to the peasants. The changes practically did not affect the life of the peasants.
	Change of chronology	The transition to the Julian calendar has been completed.
	The emergence of a public Russian theater	"Comedy Mansion" on Red Square in Moscow. Later, the theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared.
	Changes in culture	There were portraits. The genre of "history" appeared in literature. The secular principle prevailed over the church one.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

French historians consider the Great French Revolution to be the most important milestone in the history of France. Peter's reforms can be cited as an analogue in the history of Russia. But one cannot think that the transformations began under Peter the Great, that all the merit in their implementation belongs only to him. The transformations began before him, he only found the means, opportunities and very timely completed everything that he inherited. By the time of Peter's accession to the throne, all the necessary prerequisites existed for reforms.

Russia at that time was the largest state of the Old World. Its territory stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, from the Dnieper to the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, but the population was only 14 million people, concentrated mainly in the center and north of the European part of Russia. The peculiarity of the country's geographical position determined the duality in the economic and political development of Russia: it aspired to Europe, but it also had significant interests in the east. To become the main intermediary in Europe's trade with Asia, Russia had to be able to do business in a European way. But until the end of the seventeenth century, the state had neither a merchant nor a navy, since there was no access to strategically important seas, and Russian merchants could not compete with foreigners. The Swedes, whose merchant fleet by the end of the seventeenth century amounted to 800 ships, dominated the shores of the Baltic, and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate owned the entire coast of the Black Sea.

Foreign trade was conducted only through two ports: Astrakhan and Arkhangelsk. But through Astrakhan, trade went only with the East, and the path to White Sea was very long, difficult, dangerous and open only in the summer. Merchants from other countries were reluctant to use it, and upon arrival in Arkhangelsk, they lowered the price of goods, and the Russians refused to sell at a price other than the one they set themselves. As a result, the goods deteriorated right in the warehouses. Therefore, the first priority for the country was to gain access to the Baltic and the Black Sea. Karl Marx, not inclined to approve the crowned heads of absolute monarchies, studied the foreign policy of Russia and proved that Peter's territorial acquisitions were historically justified by the objective needs of Russia's development. Although Peter was not the initiator of these areas of foreign policy: attempts to recapture outlets to the seas were made before Peter: Livonian War Ivan the Terrible and the campaigns in the Crimea of ​​Prince V.V. Golitsyn under Princess Sophia.

The level of development of Western countries was so superior to Russia's that it threatened to enslave the country, turning it into one of the colonies. In order to avoid this threat and eliminate backwardness in Russia, it was necessary to carry out a number of economic, military, administrative and political reforms. All the economic prerequisites for their implementation were already in place in the seventeenth century: the growth of production, the expansion of the range of agricultural products, the development of handicraft production, the emergence of manufactories, and the development of trade. The political prerequisites for the reforms were a significant strengthening of the autocracy, which contributed to the rapid implementation of reforms, the growth of the economic role of merchants, and the desire for reforms on the part of the local nobility. By the end of the seventeenth century, the trend towards the formation of absolutism was more and more clearly observed in the country. The Zemsky Sobors ceased their activities, the Boyar Duma lost its role, along with it the personal office of the tsar appeared, which received the name of the Order of Secret Affairs.

To wage war with Sweden, which had the strongest army in Europe, a well-organized and experienced army was needed. The main striking force of the Russian army remained the noble cavalry, the archery troops were not a regular army, only during the war did an army gather, more reminiscent of civil uprising, small mercenary regiments of the "new system" were not widely used. To reform the army, a good economic and administrative support was needed. Neither one nor the other in Russia, again, was not. Therefore, transformations had to be carried out in all three areas simultaneously.

The impetus for the beginning of the reforms was the participation of Peter the Great in the Great Embassy, ​​during which the young tsar got acquainted with the economic, cultural and technical achievements of Europe. The reason for the beginning of the main transformations was the defeat near Narva at the very beginning of the Northern War, in November 1700. After him, military reform began, followed by economic reform.

The first transformations of Peter the Great

The first transformations began after the first Azov campaign in 1695, during which it was not possible to take the fortress at the mouth of the Don due to the lack of a fleet among the Russian troops. The Turks had free access to the fortress from the sea and supplied the besieged with supplies and weapons, and it was impossible to prevent them from doing this without the presence of a fleet. Peter, who personally took part in the siege, did not give up after the defeat. He entrusts the command of all ground forces to Generalissimo A.S. Shein, and the fleet, which still needed to be built, to Admiral Lefort. The decree on the construction of the fleet was issued in January 1696. The future fleet was to be built in Voronezh and the surrounding areas. Such a choice was not made by chance: flat-bottomed river vessels - plows - were built here for a long time, and during the Chigirin and Crimean campaigns, sea vessels were also built here; good ship pines grew around Voronezh. At the end of May 1696, the Russian army again approached Azov. Thanks to the built fleet, she was successful: the Turkish garrison capitulated.

The fleet was to be built by the so-called kumpanstvo, the principle of organization of which was quite simple: from ten thousand peasants it was necessary to launch one ship. Large landowners built ships alone, while the rest gathered in a company in such a way that all its members had a total of ten thousand peasants. Church soul owners had to launch a ship with eight thousand peasants, otherwise the principle remained the same. In total, 42 secular and 19 spiritual campants were formed. The townspeople and the black-sown population, as well as the merchants of the living room and the cloth hundreds, were united into one kumpanstvo, obliged to build 14 ships and headed by a commission of five guests. Another builder of the Voronezh fleet was the treasury. The Admiralty built ships with money collected from secular and spiritual soul owners who had less than a hundred peasants. As a result, he built 16 ships and 60 brigantines.

Decrees of 8 and 17 November 1699 laid the foundation for the formation of a new regular army. The first called for the service of all comers from among the non-enslaved people, and the salary was 2 times more than that of the archers and amounted to 11 rubles a year. The Danish ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "Now he (Peter) has gone all into organizing his army; he wants to bring his infantry to 50,000, the cavalry to 25,000." The second decree marked the beginning of the recruiting system. From a certain number of peasant and township households, one recruit was called up, depending on the needs of the army, the number of households was constantly changing.

The city reform of 1699 was of financial, economic and administrative significance at the same time: the townspeople were removed from the administration of the governor and transferred to the jurisdiction of the Burmister Chamber, which exercised judicial functions over the population and became a responsible collector of direct and indirect taxes. An important change took place in the Boyar Duma: its role practically disappeared, and an unborn element began to penetrate into it. F.Yu. became the first present in the Duma. Romodanovsky, who had only the rank of steward. Having no schools to train specialists, Peter sent Russian people to study abroad to acquire practical skills in shipbuilding and ship management.

The changes also affected the appearance: after returning from abroad, Peter himself cut off the beards of some boyars. Those who wished to keep the beard had to pay a tax for wearing it. Moreover, the size of the tax was determined by the social status of its owner: merchants paid the most, followed by service people and prominent representatives of the townspeople, they were the ones to know, ordinary townspeople and boyar serfs paid the least. Only the clergy and peasants were allowed to leave beards, but the latter had to pay one kopeck when entering the city. As a result, convinced bearded men suffered, and the royal treasury won.

The transformations were just beginning, they did not yet affect the essential foundations of the Russian state, but they were already quite tangible for the people and noticeable from the outside. The Danish ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "The king committed for recent times a series of miracles ... Compare his Russia with the old one - the difference is the same as between day and night.

Military reform of Peter I

One of the most significant and important transformations of Peter the Great can be considered a military reform, which made it possible to create an army that meets all the military standards of that time. At first, the Russian troops defeated the enemy in superior numbers, then equal, and finally smaller. Moreover, the enemy was one of the best armies in Europe at that time. As a result of the reform, the noble cavalry with marching yard people and the regiments of the foreign system, started by Peter's predecessors, were transformed by him into a regular army, which, as a result of a long war, became permanent by itself. Streltsy army after the rebellion in 1698 was destroyed. But it was destroyed not only for political reasons; by the end of the century, the archers no longer represented a real military force capable of resisting the enemy’s well-armed regular troops. They were reluctant to go to war, as many had their own shops, the archers were much nicer in civilian occupations, and besides, salaries for service were not paid regularly.

In 1698 - 1700. several regiments were hastily formed, led by foreigners, sometimes not even knowing the Russian language. These regiments showed their complete failure during the siege of Narva in 1700, partly due to lack of experience, partly due to the betrayal of foreign officers, among whom were the Swedes. After the defeat, a new army was assembled and trained, which near Poltava proved to be at the level of the army of any European country. At the same time, recruitment duty was used for the first time in Russia. This system of formation of regiments provided greater efficiency in recruiting troops. In total, until 1725, 53 recruits were carried out, according to which more than 280 thousand people were mobilized into the army and navy. Initially, one recruit from 20 households was taken into the army, and from 1724 they began to be recruited in accordance with the principles underlying the poll tax. Recruits underwent military training, received uniforms, weapons, while until the eighteenth century, soldiers - both nobles and peasants - had to come to the service in full gear. Unlike other European monarchs, Peter did not use mercenaries, preferring Russian soldiers to them.

Fuseler (infantryman) of the army infantry regiment 1720

A distinctive feature of the new army was the duty of the nobles to carry out military service from the soldier's rank. Since 1714, nobles were forbidden to be promoted to officers if they were not soldiers. The most capable nobles were sent abroad to study, especially maritime affairs. But training was also carried out in domestic schools: Bombardirskaya, Preobrazhenskaya, Navigatskaya. By the end of Peter's reign, 50 schools were opened to train non-commissioned officers.

Much attention was paid to the fleet: at the end of the seventeenth century, ships were built in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk, and after the founding of St. Petersburg, military shipbuilding moved to the Baltic coast. The Admiralty and shipyards were founded in the future capital. Sailors for the fleet were also recruited by recruitment kits.

The need to maintain a new army, which required significant expenses, forced Peter to modernize the economy and finances.

Economic reforms of Peter the Great

The first military failures made Peter seriously think about creating a domestic industry that could meet the needs of wartime. Prior to this, almost all iron and copper were imported from Sweden. Naturally, with the outbreak of war, supplies ceased. The existing Russian metallurgy was not enough for the successful conduct of the war. Creating conditions for its rapid development has become a vital task.

In the first decade of the Northern War, iron-making manufactories were built at the expense of the royal treasury in the Urals and in the Olonets region. The transfer of state-owned enterprises into private hands began to be practiced. Sometimes they were even passed on to foreigners. Certain benefits were provided to those industries that provided the army and navy. Handicraft production remained the main competitor of manufactories, but the state stood on the side of large-scale industry and forbade artisans to produce cloth, iron smelted in hand forges, etc. A distinctive feature of state manufactories was that the government at first attributed entire villages and villages to enterprises only for the autumn-winter period, when it was not necessary to work in the field, but soon the villages and villages were assigned to manufactories forever. In patrimonial manufactories, the labor of serfs was used. In addition, there were also session manufactories, the owners of which, since 1721, were allowed to buy serfs for their factories. This was due to the desire of the government to help industrialists secure workers for enterprises, due to the lack of a large market in the conditions of serfdom. work force.

There were no good roads in the country, trade routes in autumn and spring turned into real swamps. Therefore, in order to improve trade, Peter decided to use the rivers, which are available in sufficient quantities, as trade routes. But the rivers needed to be interconnected, and the government set about building canals. For 1703–1709 to connect St. Petersburg with the Volga, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system, the Ladoga Canal, completed after the death of Peter, began.

Trade was also constrained by the existing monetary system: mostly small copper money was used, and the silver kopeck was a rather large coin and it was chopped into pieces, each of which made its own trade route. In 1700–1704 The mint was reformed. As a result, the decimal principle was put in the basis of the monetary system: ruble - hryvnia - kopeck. Many Western countries came to this division much later. To facilitate foreign trade settlements, the ruble was equated by weight with the thaler, which was in circulation in a number of European countries.

The monopoly on the minting of money belonged to the state, and the export of gold and silver from the country was prohibited by a special decree of Peter the Great.

In foreign trade, following the teachings of the mercantilists, Peter achieved a predominance of exports over imports, which also contributed to the strengthening of trade. Peter pursued a protectionist policy towards the young domestic industry, imposing high duties on imported goods and low on exported ones. In order to prevent the export of raw materials necessary for Russian industry, Peter imposed high duties on them. Practically all foreign trade was in the hands of the state, which used monopoly trading companies for this.

The poll tax, introduced after the census of 1718–1724, instead of the previous household tax, obliged landlord peasants to pay 74 kopecks and 1 ruble 14 kopecks to state peasants. The poll tax was a progressive tax, it abolished all petty taxes that existed before, and the peasant always knew the amount of taxes, since it did not depend on the amount of the crop. The poll tax also began to be levied on the black-haired peasants of the northern regions, Siberia, the peoples of the middle Volga, townspeople and petty bourgeois. The poll tax, which provided the treasury with most of the income (4,656,000 in 1725), gave direct taxes a significant advantage in the composition of the budget over other sources of income. The entire amount of the poll tax went to the maintenance of the land army and artillery; the fleet was maintained on customs and drinking fees.

In parallel with the economic reforms of Peter I, private construction of factories began to develop. Among private entrepreneurs, the Tula breeder Nikita Demidov stands out, whom the Petrine government provided with great benefits and privileges.

Nikida Demidov

The Nevyansk plant "with all the buildings and supplies" and land for 30 miles in all directions was given to Demidov on very favorable terms for the breeder. Demidov did not pay anything upon receiving the plant. Only in the future was he obliged to return to the treasury its expenses for the construction of the plant: "although not all of a sudden, but the weather." This was motivated by the fact that “a great profitable source went out of those factories, and from one blast furnace in two outputs per day of pig iron, little of it will be born from 400 pounds, and in a year, if both blast furnaces are blown without interference all year, it will go to a smaller Article 260,000 pounds".

At the same time, the government, transferring the plant to Demidov, provided the breeder with government orders. He was obliged to put in the treasury iron, guns, mortars, fuzei, stays, cleavers, broadswords, spears, armor, shishaks, wire, steel and other gear. State orders were paid to Demidov very generously.

In addition, the treasury supplied Demidov with free or almost free labor.

In 1703, Peter I ordered: “To multiply iron and other factories and sovereign supplies ... to Nikita Demidov, assign to work and give the Verkhotursky district Aetskaya, Krasnopolskaya settlements and the monastery Pokrovskoye village with villages and with all the peasants with children and brothers and nephews and from the land and from all kinds of land ". Soon followed by a decree on a new registry of peasants. With these decrees, Peter I gave Demidov to the Nevyansk plant about 2,500 peasants of both sexes. The breeder was only obliged to pay taxes to the treasury for the peasants.

The exploitation of the labor of assigned peasants by Demidov had no limits. Already in 1708, the Nevyansk peasants complained about Demidov. The peasants pointed out that for their hard work they did not receive money from the planter "for no one knows why," as a result of which they "became impoverished from him, Akinfiev, from taxes and exorbitant exile, and were completely ruined," "and many peasant brothers dispersed to no one knows where ... and those who are dispersed from him will scatter."

Thus, the Petrine government laid the foundation for the "Demidov Urals" with its boundless cruelty, serf violence and boundless exploitation of the peasants and workers.

Other entrepreneurs began to build factories in the Urals: Osokins, Stroganovs, Tryapitsyn, Turchaninov, Vyazemsky, Nebogatov.

Cruelly exploiting bonded peasants and factory workers, serfs and civilians, Demidov quickly grows rich and expands his power and importance.

In the Urals, along with the Stroganovs, a new feudal lord is growing up, formidable and cruel to his workers and peasants, greedy and predatory in relation to the treasury and neighbors.

Peter also clearly saw the need to reform the administration of the country. This reform finally consolidated the position of absolute power in Russia, destroying the order system, the Boyar Duma. Without it, the further development of the country under the new developing capitalist relations would be impossible.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

At the end of 1708, Peter began the provincial reform. The decree of December 18 announced the tsar's intention "for the benefit of the whole people to create eight provinces and paint cities for them." As a result of the reform, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into counties. At the head of the province was the governor, who had full judicial, administrative, police and financial power. The duties of the governors included the collection of taxes, the investigation of fugitive serfs, recruitment sets, the provision of army regiments with food and fodder. The command system received a serious blow after this reform: many orders ceased to exist, as their functions and duties were transferred to the provincial administration.

As a result of the second reform, the power of the governor extended only to the province of the provincial city;

On February 22, 1711, before going to Turkey, Peter issues a decree on the creation of the Senate. The decree also reflects the reason for the creation of this body: "the Governing Senate was determined to be for the absence of our Governing Senate for management." The Senate was supposed to replace the sovereign in his absence, therefore everyone was obliged to obey the decrees of the Senate, as the decrees of Peter himself, under pain of death for disobedience. The Senate originally consisted of nine people who decided cases unanimously, without which the sentence of the Senate could not have a valid force. In 1722, the Senate Attorney General was created to control the activities of the Senate. Prosecutors subordinate to him were appointed to all state institutions. In 1717–1721 11 colleges were created according to the Swedish model, replacing the orders that existed before. The peculiarity of the colleges was that they had a nationwide level and controlled clearly defined parties government controlled. This provided a higher level of centralization. The Chief Magistrate and the Holy Synod also acted as colleges. The board was headed by the president, decisions were made by majority vote, in the event of a tie vote, the president's vote counted as two. Collaborative discussion was a hallmark of collegial management.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter did not allow the election of a new patriarch, but introduced the position of locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. In 1721, the Holy Synod was formed, headed by a secular official - the chief prosecutor. So the church became a state institution, the priests took an oath that they were obliged to convey if they found out at confession about any anti-state intentions. Violation of the oath was punishable by death.

The 1714 decree on single inheritance supported the interests of the local nobility, which supported the policy of strengthening the absolute monarchy. According to the decree, the final merger of the two types of property of the patrimony and the estate into a single legal concept of "immovable property" took place, they became equal in all respects. The estate became a hereditary possession. The estates could not be divided among the heirs, they were usually transferred to the eldest son, and the rest had to pursue a career in the military or civil field: sons who did not receive an immovable estate "will be forced to seek their bread by service, teaching, bidding" or other useful activities.

"Table of Ranks" was a natural continuation of this decree. All military and civil service positions were divided into 14 ranks. The Tabel introduced the principle of personal service and finally abolished localism, which had been abolished in 1682. Now the nobles could curry favor to the highest posts and really join the government. Moreover, this was due only to the personal qualities of a person, which did not allow people incapable of managing it.

Huge successes in the economic, military and administrative fields would not have been possible without a sufficient number of highly educated specialists. But it would be irrational to send Russians to study abroad all the time, in Russia it was necessary to create its own educational system.

Education reform under Peter the Great

Before Peter, the nobles were educated almost exclusively at home, but only elementary literacy and arithmetic were studied. Care for education permeates the entire reign of Peter the Great. Already in 1698, the first group of nobles was sent to study abroad, this practice continued in subsequent years. Upon their return, the nobles faced a rigorous examination. Peter himself acted as an examiner more than once.

• The navigational school was opened already in 1701,
• in 1707 - Medical School,
• in 1712 - Engineering School.

For the provincial nobles, 42 digital schools were opened. Since the nobles were reluctant to study, Peter forbade them to marry until they graduated from the digital school. There were schools for the children of artisans, mining workers, garrison soldiers. The very concept of education has changed significantly: theological subjects have faded into the background, mathematics, astronomy, engineering and other practical knowledge have taken the first place. New textbooks appeared, for example, "Arithmetic" by L.F. Magnitsky. Studying in the time of Peter was equated with public service. This period is also characterized by the rapid development of printing. At the end of the first decade of the century, a civil script and Arabic numerals were introduced.

In 1714, the first state library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, opened after the death of the emperor, but conceived by him.

One of the biggest events of that period was the emergence of the first newspaper in the country. Vedomosti reported on events in the country and abroad.

In 1719, the Kunstkamera was opened - the first Russian museum.

Reforms of Peter the Great in the sphere of culture and Russian life

Under Peter the Great, modernization even touched everyday life, that is, the external side of Russian life. Peter the Great, who sought to bring Russia closer to Europe, tried to eliminate even the external differences between Russian people and Europeans. In addition to the prohibition of beards, it was forbidden to wear a long-skirted Russian dress. German, Hungarian or French toilets, in the view of old Moscow people, are completely indecent, were also put on by noble wives and daughters. In order to educate Russians in the European spirit, Peter ordered his subjects to drink tea and coffee, smoke tobacco, which was not liked by all the nobles of the "old school". Peter forcibly introduced new forms of leisure - assemblies, that is, receptions of guests in noble houses. They appeared with their wives and daughters. This meant the end of the terem seclusion of Russian women. The assemblies demanded the study of foreign languages, gallant manners, called in a foreign manner "polites", the ability to dance. The life of the nobility and the top of the merchant class changed seriously.

Transformations in everyday life did not affect the mass of the urban population, and even more so the peasantry. The way of life of the nobility began to differ from the way of life of the common people so much that the nobleman, and subsequently any educated person, began to seem like a foreigner to the peasant.

Along with the introduction of a new way of life, professions began to appear that served the new needs of the nobility, merchants and wealthy townspeople. These were hairdressers, barbers and other professions that came with Peter from the Great Embassy.

Some relation to the change in the external side of Russian life was also the transition to a new calendar. At the end of 1699, Peter ordered the reckoning not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, but the transition was made not to the Gregorian calendar, but to the Julian one, which already had significant differences. In addition, Peter issued a decree on celebrating the New Year on January 1, and as a sign of a good undertaking, celebrate this holiday with cannon fire and fireworks.

Under Peter, the first public Russian theater appeared. In 1702, German actors began to act out plays by foreign authors in the "comedy mansion" on Red Square in Moscow. Later, the theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared, which had a Russian troupe and staged plays on contemporary themes. Under Peter, the first portraits appeared, which, unlike parsuns, were completely free from the church canon and realistically portrayed specific people. A new genre appeared in literature - a story, the hero of which was an educated person who strives to see the world, travel to distant lands and always achieve success. Such a motif was absolutely unthinkable for the works of the Moscow period.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the secular principle finally triumphed over the church in Russian culture. The main merit in this, undoubtedly, belongs to Peter, although the "secularization" of culture began before him, and attempts to bring European innovations to the country were made under his predecessors, but they did not take root.

Conclusion

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Peter the Great carried out a number of reforms in the economic, military, political, administrative and cultural fields. This allowed Russia to enter the European political system and take a serious position in it. Peter forced the Western powers to reckon with the interests of the young empire. He brought the country to a new level of development, which allowed it to stand on a par with the European powers. But the reforms themselves, the methods by which they were carried out, cause ambiguous assessments of his activities so far.

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Introduction

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

1 Natural and geographical conditions

2 Factors facilitating reform

Chapter 2. The era of Peter the Great and the content of Peter's reforms

1 Reforms of Peter the Great

Chapter 3

1 Estimation of the essence of Peter's reforms

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

reform Peter the Great

The activities of Peter the Great as a politician and commander, as well as his contribution to the development of Russia, are issues that are of interest and concern to historians not only of our state, but also of many other countries.

But in assessing the activities of Peter, the opinions of historians are divided. Some historians, his adherents, talk about the great achievements and influences of Peter in many areas of life, which in turn led to the rise of Russia as a great and mighty power, which the whole world started talking about after Peter. It was a kind of phenomenon, because in such a short period of time, Peter the Great, with the help of his diplomatic qualities, as well as the qualities of a good statesman and commander, was able to lead Russia out of destruction into a dynamically developing state. But at the same time, historians miss out on another plan and some negative aspects of the character of Peter the Great and his activities. Another part of historians, on the contrary, is trying to discredit the name of Peter, pointing out the ways and methods by which he achieved such success in his political and military activities.

Studying the era of the reign of Peter the Great, we trace the process of development and formation of Russia, which moved from a barbarian kingdom into a mighty and great empire.

For this course project, the following tasks were set:

· The study of the preconditions and the very reasons for the need for reforms by Peter the Great.

· To analyze the main content and meaning of the reforms.

· To reveal the results of the influence of the reforms of Peter the Great on the development of the state.

This course work consists of the following sections:

·Introduction;

·Three chapters;

Conclusions

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

.1 Natural and geographical conditions

It is often believed that with the coming to power of Peter the Great, a new era began in Russia.

What was Russia at the end of the 17th century? It was a huge territory, which was not like the countries of the West. Russia immediately caught the eye of foreigners who visited it. Often it seemed to them that it was a backward, wild and nomadic country. Although in fact, the backwardness in the development of Russia had its own reasons. The intervention and devastation of the early 18th century left a deep mark on the state's economy.

But not only the wars that ravaged the land led to a crisis in Russia, but also its social status of the population of that time, as well as natural and geographical conditions.

According to S.M. Solovyov, “three conditions have a special impact on the life of the people: the nature of the country where he lives; the nature of the tribe to which he belongs; the course of external events, the influences coming from the peoples that surround it. ”[№1, p.28]

When assessing how the conditions of nature affect the development of states. Solovyov made such a conclusion that nature is favorable to Western countries, but the conditions in Russia are more severe. Western Europe was divided by mountains, which served as natural fortresses for it and, in a certain sense, protected it from external attacks by enemies. On the other hand, the sea, which served as a way for the development of foreign trade of various occupations. In Russia, everything was different. She had no natural defenses and was open to attack by invaders.

A very large number of people lived in these open territories, who, in order to feed themselves, had to always work and periodically look for new fruitful lands, as well as a more prosperous habitat. In the process of resettlement to the lands that were empty, the state of Russia was formed.

Solovyov was sure that it was the natural and geographical conditions that had such a negative impact. Russia, according to him, “was a state that constantly had to wage a difficult struggle with its neighbors, a struggle not offensive, but defensive, and not material well-being was defended, but the independence of the country, the freedom of the inhabitants” [No. 2, p. 29]. During the war with the Mongol-Tatars, the Slavic people, including the Russians, acted as a protective shield for the Western European countries. Therefore, Russia always had to replenish its troops in order to be able to give a proper rebuff to the invaders and reliably protect its borders.

But the state of that time could not afford to maintain a large army, since trade and industry were poorly developed in Russia during this period. Therefore, people who served in the army were given lands that became their estates. On the one hand, a person received his own land for his use, but on the other hand, in order to somehow develop it, the land had to be cultivated. “The state,” Solovyov wrote, “having given land to a serviceman, was obliged to give him permanent workers, otherwise he could not serve” [No. 3, p. 32]. Therefore, at that time, the peasants were forbidden to leave their land, because they were obliged to cultivate it in order to be able to feed the owner with his military servants.

It was this that served as the basis for the emergence of serfdom in Russia. But besides the peasants, the urban population also worked to maintain the army. They were obliged to pay very large taxes to the state treasury for the maintenance of the troops.

That is, all layers of the state turned into its servants, which contributed to an even more severe feudal system, which in turn hampered both the economic situation and development in spirituality. Since on numerous economic lands, which were constantly expanding, a very small number of people worked hard. This did not create any interest in the development of labor productivity, but on the contrary, agriculture developed by depleting natural forces, and not by reproducing them. Agriculture was the least of the expenses. Because almost the entire treasury of the state went to meet the needs and development of the army. All this led to the fact that a strong state in terms of defense had practically no material base.

In addition to difficulties in the middle of the state, historians also pay attention to a number of external obstacles that hindered the development of Russia. This is that Russia did not have direct access to the sea, which meant that she could not use the cheaper route of communication with other countries. Such seas as the Baltic and Black, at that time belonged to other states, Sweden and Ottoman Empire respectively. Those seas that washed with northern part and the east, could not be used in full capacity, the reason for this was that the regions adjacent to the seas were practically undeveloped and poorly developed.

The White Sea, too, as a way to connect with the countries of Western Europe, was practically not used. Firstly, most of the year the waters are closed under ice, and the second way from Arkhangelsk to Western European countries was twice as long as to the Baltic.

Russia through Astrakhan had a connection only with Iran and Central Asia, although these countries had little influence on its development, since they themselves lagged behind in it.

1.2 Drivers for reform

The state of Russia urgently needed changes. This was due to a number of different factors.

National sovereignty was under threat, the reason for this was the lag of the Russian state in all branches of the economic and political life of the state, which in turn even led to a military lag.

The class of feudal lords, who was in the military and court service, later became the mainstay of the power of that time, by no means met the requirements of the country's social development. This class lagged behind both in its socio-political and cultural development, sometimes they could not even clearly understand their rights and obligations as a service class and, in principle, remained simply a patriarchal social community.

In the 17th century, Russia needed an urgent change in its position. It was necessary to strengthen the position of the authorities, which was undermined by the rebellious nature of the population of that time and the social instability of that time. Russia also needed to improve the state apparatus and the army itself. In order to somehow raise the standard of living and culture, it was necessary to have access to the seas, which could give a more favorable economic situation, and this, in turn, required timely mobilization of both resources and human factor.

The spiritual sphere of life of Russians also needed transformation. The spirituality of that time was strongly influenced by the clergy, which in the 17th century suffered a crisis associated with the split of the church. Russia urgently needed to be returned to the depths of European civilization, and it was also necessary to create and further strengthen a rationalistic concept that would replace religion.

Changes and transformations were impossible, in fact, to be avoided, because everything that happened during the period of the 17th century led directly to this. The intensive development of crafts begins in the country, the first enterprises appear, which were called manufactories, which in turn contributed to the development of foreign trade, the borders of which were constantly expanding. In the 17th century, a policy of protectionism began to develop, which limited imports, and thereby protected the domestic market from foreign competition. This all testified that in small steps, but the economy began to move forward. Starting from the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, the state tried to erase the conventions between Lenten landownership and patrimony. At this time, several decrees were issued, according to which the estate was approaching the estate. That gave the state the right to expand the rights to confiscate land and not allow it to be concentrated in the hands of the feudal lords or the clergy.

In 1682, the state abolished the system of distribution of official places to public positions, namely to military, administrative or court service, depending on the origin. The number of people who were taken into service increased due to the strengthening of serfdom.

In the political system, the country was an absolute monarchy and continued to develop in this direction. At that time, Left-Bank Ukraine joined Russia, and the state was able to enter the Holy League, thereby overcoming diplomatic barriers. The change in culture began with the transformation of the church. Priests began to be involved in solving everyday issues of world life. Also changed to be the upper strata of the state, which approached the European.

After analyzing all the facts, we can say with confidence that the country was fully prepared for changes in all its spheres of life. But in order for this to happen, a push was needed, some kind of impulse. This impetus was to be a person who would stand at the very source of power. And it was precisely such a person that Peter the Great became. His activities, both state and military, were influenced by such a factor as his character traits and his worldview.

Chapter 2. The era of Peter I and the content of Peter's reforms

Peter the Great immediately became involved in the rule of the country, expanding its borders and developing the country as a whole. Under Peter, the struggle for possession of the seas, namely the Black Sea, was resumed. Which opened up new opportunities for the state. And Peter was well aware of this. Therefore, in 1695 it was announced the collection of troops for a campaign against the Crimean Tatars. But this was done in order to hide the real goals, which were to organize a campaign against Azov. Peter took into account all the failures of the foresight companies and organized an army that would move in two directions. This was the first trip to Azov. Autumn bad weather, as well as the absence of the fleet, forced the commanders to announce a retreat.

In preparation for the new campaign, the main efforts were focused on building a fleet that would allow them to cut off the Azov fortress from the sea, and thereby deprive the Turks of reinforcements. It was decided to build ships of two types: sea galleys and river plows. The second Azov campaign began in May 1696 and on June 19, 1696 the Turks surrendered. The conquest of the Azov fortress was the impetus at the beginning of the formation of Russia as a maritime power.

The beginning had been made, now it was necessary to get access to the Black Sea. And in order to consolidate the successful operation and to implement new plans, Peter had to create a large and powerful navy. For this, decisions were made to organize the construction of this fleet, in addition, Peter the Great sent noble youth abroad to study marine sciences, with their subsequent use in the management of the Russian fleet.

At the same time, diplomats were sent abroad to participate in negotiations in order to find allies among European countries and organize an alliance with them. The purpose of this alliance was to act jointly against Turkey, as well as to join material support for further military operations. Peter himself was personally a member of the embassy, ​​but in addition to the goals of negotiations, he also pursued the goal of studying maritime affairs.

After his return, Peter, under the impressions of his trip, he actively joined in the activities of the state. He began to change at the same time and in all areas. At the very first feast, Peter the Great cut off the beards of several boyars and after that, he ordered everyone to shave. In the future, shaving was replaced by a tax. If a nobleman wanted to wear a beard, he was obliged to pay a certain tax per year for it. In the future, innovations also applied to clothing, when the long dresses of the boyars were replaced by short and all comfortable suits. In the fashion of all the nobles, the maximum approached the European. So initially Peter divided the population into two groups: one is the "top" of society, which had to live, dress in European style, the other - all the rest, whose life has not changed, and they lived in the old way.

Peter the Great led the calendar, the new year began on January 1. On the eve of this, it was prescribed to decorate the houses outside and congratulate each other on the coming of the new year.

In 1699, Peter the Great issues a decree on the formation of an institution in the city of Moscow, which will be called the Town Hall or the Burgomaster's Chamber. The duties of the City Hall were to manage merchant affairs, as well as affairs that concerned the city itself. This, in turn, caused some displeasure on the part of the merchants, who were always afraid of ruin by the courts and the governor of this department. An example of such management was the Ship Chamber. It was created immediately after the capture of Azov and the purpose of this chamber is to collect taxes from merchants to build a fleet. Later, on the example of the same commission, the Town Hall was formulated, the burmisters sat in it, they, in turn, were chosen by merchants and artisans. Taxes, which were collected by officials by order of the court, were transferred into the hands of elected people. In general, although the new institution was elective and its purpose was to manage the merchants, in fact this administration represented the interests of the commercial and industrial class.

Also, the result of the trip of Peter the Great abroad was that specialists in shipbuilding and not only were invited to serve in Russia. Peter the Great was able to purchase weapons, which also had a positive effect on the development of the army. By how much, although the army was quite large, it was poorly armed.

Innovations also affected the education of the population. Russia was in dire need of qualified personnel. In Russia itself at that time there were no such institutions, many young men went abroad to master new sciences. A little later, the Russian Empire had its own Novigatskaya school, opened in 1701, in the city of Moscow. A printing house was opened in Amsterdam, which printed books in Russian. At the same time, the first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded.

The reform began in the administration of the state of Russia. Under Peter, there was a transition to a new state form of government, such as an absolute monarchy. The power of Peter the Great was practically limited by no one and nothing. Peter was able to replace the Boyar Duma with the Senate, which controlled from above. Thus, he rid himself of the last boyar claims and deprived them of any political competition. He got rid of the same competition from the side of the church, with the help of the Synod.

At the same time, at the end of 1699, it was committed to reform in the military sphere. Much attention was paid to the creation of a regular and qualified army. 30 new regiments were formed. The army, as before, was recruited mainly from the peasants. But if earlier they spent on their uniforms themselves, then for Peter, each recruit was given a green uniform and weapons - guns with bayonets. Since there were few experienced commanders at that time, they were replaced for some time by foreign officers.

Simultaneously with the beginning of the reforms, Peter was preparing for war against Sweden. He was sure that its conquest was absolutely necessary for Russia to develop normally further. This was facilitated by the favorable situation of that time. European countries created a coalition in order to return their lands, previously captured by the same Sweden. Russia, having signed a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700 for 30 years, also joined the war. Thus began the Great Northern War, which dragged on for 21 years.

From the very beginning, Russia and its allies were defeated. This was due to the fact that Sweden, although it was a small country, but its army and preparation for military action were at the highest level, compared to its rival power. In addition, the king of Sweden at that time was the 18-year-old Charles XII, who, unexpectedly for everyone, showed a great talent for the war, as a commander with a very high energy potential. With a detachment of only 15 thousand people, he opposed Denmark. As a result of this campaign, the Danish king signed a peace treaty in 1700, thereby withdrawing from the war. Without wasting time, Charles XII went to the Baltic states, namely to the Russian army. Privileges were on the side of the Russians, their army consisted of 40 thousand people, but these forces were not provided with food and stretched over a vast territory. That made it easier to attack them. On November 19, 1700, Charles XII unexpectedly attacked the Russian army and won. Russia retreated, the command was not ready for war.

Abroad, they sincerely rejoiced at the defeats of the Russians, even a coin was cast, which depicted a fleeing Russian soldier and a crying tsar. At first, Peter wanted to negotiate peace, but they were not successful. Having shown all his energy and analyzed the reasons for the failures, Peter the Great begins preparations for a new stage of the war. A new recruiting call was announced, cannons began to be poured intensively, and by the beginning of 1702 the Russian army was enlisting 10 regiments and 368 cannons.

Having chosen the right moment, when Charles XII, believing that he had completely defeated Russia, went to Poland and settled there for a long time, Peter, having gathered an army, began a new stage of the war. In December 1701, Russia won its first victory. As a result of hostilities, two fortresses were taken, such as Noteburg and Nyenschanz

Peter at the head of the army finally reached the Baltic Sea. On May 16, 1703, a wooden fortress, called Peter and Paul, began to be built on the island. It was the basis of St. Petersburg. And in October, the first merchant ship arrived at the mouth of the Neva. The first ships of the Baltic Fleet were built in the shipyards of St. Petersburg.

Russian victories in the Baltic continued. But the initiative passed to the side of the Swedes when Poland surrendered and Russia was left without allies. And at this time, Sweden, after the conquest of Poland, had already occupied Saxony and crept up to the borders of the Russian state. Peter stopped offensive operations and focused on maintaining existing borders, strengthening them, and also sought to expand and improve his army and military potential in general. In order to achieve his goals, Peter the Great had to spend a lot of effort and make many sacrifices, but in the end, the goals were achieved.

In 1708, Karl met with the Russians near the town of Golovchin. Using the effect of surprise, as well as the dark time of the day and rainy weather, the Swedes defeated the Russians and forced them to retreat. This was Charles' last victory. Karl's troops suffered losses due to hunger, the Russian population, having learned that the Swedes were approaching, went into the forest, taking with them all supplies and livestock. And the Russian troops occupied all the important strategic objects. Karl had no choice but to turn south.

At this time, the Russians were already taking victories not by quantity, as usual, but by already strategically prepared battles. The initiative went over to the side of Peter, but the nature of hostilities changed dramatically. Russia abandons all previously acquired allies. For his military purposes, Peter used the territory that he conquered as a result of the battles. In 1710, Karelia, Livonia, Estonia were liberated from the Swedes, the fortresses of Vyborg, Revel, and Riga were taken.

The decisive influence on the course of the war was precisely the Battle of Poltava, which took place on June 27, 1709. As a result of a fierce battle, the Russians won a complete victory. The Swedes fled so fast that in three days they reached the banks of the Dnieper. Karl went to Turkey. In the future, the war twisted already on the Swedish possessions, which led to the collapse of the Swedish Empire.

But it was not yet the end of the war. Only in 1720, Russian troops again attacked the Swedish coast, the Russian landing deepened 5 miles deep into Sweden. In the same year, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron at Grengam Island. After that, the Swedes agreed to peace negotiations. They took place in the city of Nishtand in Finland, where on August 30, 1721, an agreement on perpetual peace was signed. The hard and long war (1700 - 1721) was over. As a result of this agreement, Ingria with St. Petersburg, all of Estonia and Livonia remained behind the Russian Empire. Fenland was ceded to Sweden.

The Northern War had a positive effect on the position of Russia. It became one of the mighty states of Europe. Also, as a result of the war, Russia was able to return its seashores and thereby gained access to the sea. Russia became the main maritime power on the Baltic coast. As a result of the war, a strong, powerful, well-trained army was formed, as well as a powerful Baltic Fleet. On the shores of the Gulf of Finland, a new capital, St. Petersburg, was founded. All this contributed to the further development of the economic and cultural upsurge of the Russian Empire. As a result of the Northern War, other states saw Peter the Great as a great commander and diplomat who fought for the interests of his state.

But the Treaty of Nystadt did not serve to end hostilities during the reign of Peter the Great. The very next year, 1722, Peter started a war with Iran. The main reasons for this war were, firstly, silk, which was exported from Iran in large quantities, and secondly, the Russian state attracted Iranian oil. Having learned about Peter's intentions, an uprising began in Iran, during which Russian merchants were killed, but this was precisely the reason for starting the war. In Iran, Peter did not meet much resistance and already in 1723 a peace treaty was signed with the Iranian government. According to this agreement, such cities as Derbent, Baku and Astrabad passed to Russia.

All the wars that took place during the reign of Peter the Great were connected with the fact that he constantly expanded and improved his army, as well as with the creation of one of the most powerful fleets at that time. Since before the military Per, there was no such thing as the Russian navy. Peter personally commanded the construction of this fleet. Also, before Peter, there was no specially trained army. The composition of which began to include even the nobles, starting from the age of 15. They all served. Each came to the service with his peasants, the number of which depended on the position of the nobleman. They also came to the service with their supply of food, on their horses and with their uniforms. These troops were dismissed during the peace and they gathered only in preparation for new campaigns. In addition, the archery infantry was created, the free population was part of the infantry. In addition to performing the main tasks, namely the infantry carried out police and garrison service, they had the right to engage in both craft and trade.

2.1 Reforms of Peter the Great

In 1716, a military charter was issued, which determines the order in the army, both in wartime and in peacetime. The charter required commanders to show independence and military resourcefulness during the war. Otto Pleir wrote about the Russian army in 1710: “Regarding the military forces of Russia ... one must be very surprised at what they have been brought to, to what perfection the soldiers have reached in military exercises, in what order and obedience to the orders of their superiors, and how boldly they behave in business, you won’t hear a word from anyone, much less a cry.”

The merit of Peter the Great was also that he was the creator of diplomacy in Russia. In addition to constant warriors, in the era of Peter there was still an active diplomatic activity. Permanent embassies were created, our consuls and ambassadors were sent for permanent residence abroad, and as a result, Russia was always aware of events that took place abroad. Russian diplomats were respected in many countries of the world, this was due to their ability to negotiate and substantiate their point of view, which concerned foreign policy.

The policy of Peter the Great also affected the development of industry. During the reign of Peter the Great, about 200 factories and factories were created in Russia. The largest were factories for the manufacture of cast iron, iron parts, copper, and also cloth, linen, silk, paper, and glass.

The largest enterprise of that time was a manufactory for the manufacture of sailing fabric. The production of ropes at a special Rope Yard was also set up here. "Khamovny Dvor" served the navy with a sailing canvas and ropes.

Another major industrial manufacturer was the Dutchman Tamesa, who lived and worked in Moscow. This production produced canvases. The Dutchman's factory consisted of a spinning mill, where yarn was produced from flax, then the yarn went to the weaving department, where in turn linen was made, as well as tablecloths and napkins. The final stage was the department, where the finished fabric was whitened and trimmed. The Tames factory was so famous that Peter himself and many foreigners visited it more than once. Weaving departments have always made a special impression on guests. Almost all Russians worked at the factories and produced different types of canvases, the most popular in everyday life.

As for the condition of the workers in these factories, it can be said that it wanted the best. The situation itself was very difficult. The basis of the working layer were serfs. To please the entrepreneurs, the state made concessions to them and allowed in 1721 to buy villages along with the peasants who live in them. The difference between these peasants and the peasants who worked for the landlords was only that they were bought and sold only together with factories or factories. There were also civilian employees at the factories, mostly craftsmen and artisans, but the wages were very meager. For example, at a linen manufactory located in the aisles of St. Petersburg, the weaver received about 7 rubles. Per year, master - 12 rubles, apprentice - 6 rubles. in year. Although foreign specialists were paid much more, for example, in a silk manufactory, he could earn from 400 to 600 rubles. in year.

In addition, state peasants were assigned to factories by entire volosts. As "assigned" they had to work for 3 - 4 months at the plant forcibly. The wages of labor were very small, and they could not even get these pennies in their hands, since they were withdrawn as a tax to the treasury.

At the same time, the development of ores in the Urals began. Back in 1699, the Nevsky Plant was erected, which exists to this day. At first, this plant belonged to the state, but then it was given to the Tula entrepreneur N. Demidov - this was the first of the Demidov dynasty, one of the wealthiest dynasties of that time and the most cruel towards its workers. The first thing Demidov did was to build a prison for workers under the factory walls. Thanks to his factory, he was able to get rich so much that he could already make presents and gifts to the king himself.

Factories were built on the banks of rivers, to use the power of the water that moved. The basis of the construction was the dam, which was built the very first, holes were made in the dam through which water flowed, then the water flowed into the reservoirs. And already from the reservoir through wooden pipes to the wheels, the movement of which made the movement of the blowing bellows near the furnace and forges, raised hammers for forging metals, moved the levers and rotated the drilling machines.

In 1722, a shop device for artisans was introduced in Russia. The state forced urban artisans to enroll in workshops. Above each workshop was a selective foreman. Full-fledged artisans could be considered those who could afford to hire and retain apprentices and apprentices. To receive the title of master, the craftsman had to prove his skill with the foreman. Each craft workshop had its own brand, a farm mark, which was put on a good quality product.

The intensive growth of industry in the country required good roads, which were necessary for the transportation of goods and raw materials. Unfortunately, Russia could not boast of good roads. This situation was associated with a small treasury and the natural conditions of the country itself. Therefore, for a long time, rivers and seas were the best way for trade. One of the important ways of communication was the Volga, on which canals were built to improve the ways of communication. Communication channels such as the Volga-Don, the Volga and the Baltic Sea were built. The canals were supposed to expand trade and ensure the flow of goods to St. Petersburg, to Baltic Sea. Peter also improved the Petersburg port, not only as a military facility, but also as a commercial one.

In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, which indicated the exact amount of duties on a particular product, both for imports and for exports. By this, the Russian government tried to expand the country's large-scale industry. If a foreign product competed with a domestic one, a very high duty was set on it, and for the goods that Russia needed, because it could not produce at its own manufactories and factories, the duty was very low.

As a result of frequent and prolonged wars, the treasury was emptied, and the maintenance of the army and navy was costly. To replenish the treasury, private trade in certain types of goods was prohibited. All trade in a certain commodity was under the direction of the state and at elevated prices. Over time, the state began to control the sale of: wine, salt, potash, caviar, furs, tar, chalk, lard, bristles. Most of this product was for export, so all trade with foreign countries was in the hands of the state.

But even this was not enough for a complete renewal and constant replenishment of the state treasury. Peter the first began to look for other ways in order to find the necessary funds. To this end, new taxes, taxes on use, were established. For example, for the use of a fishing area or a place for bee apiaries, etc.

During the reign of Peter the treasury was replenished by 2/3 indirect taxes, customs duties, income from the sale of wine and other goods. And only 1/3 of the state budget was replenished with direct taxes, which were directly paid by the population. The reason for this was that ordinary artisans and peasants were subject to direct taxes, and the clergy, nobles and wealthy entrepreneurs were exempted from this duty. Although instead of direct tax, a tax was removed from each person of a male of noble origin. This tax was intended for the maintenance of the army, so the total amount for its maintenance was divided among all the "revision souls". The conduct of such a tax greatly enriched the treasury of the state. Over time, direct taxes began to bring half the state budget. And so the plight of the peasants worsened even more. Among the peasants, mass escapes from the landowners began to occur. Peter tried to subdue the serfs and issued a decree on the capture of runaway peasants and their return to their former landowner, while the punishment for those who tried to hide the fugitives increased. Peter widely distributed land and peasants to nobles.

Also, the labor of the peasants was used to build fortresses and a new capital. For this purpose, 20 thousand people gathered in St. Petersburg twice a year for three months.

Thus, we can conclude that the peculiarity of industry in the era of Peter the Great was that it was created at the expense of the state budget, for some period it was under its control, but periodically the forms and methods of this control changed.

For a long period, the state itself created manufactories, and was their full owner. But every year the number of manufactories and factories increased, and the funds and capabilities of the state were not enough to keep and develop them in this way. Therefore, the policy that up to the industry was considered.

The state began to give away, and sometimes sell, manufactories and factories that were on the verge of closing into private hands. Thus, private enterprise began to appear, which intensively gained momentum. The position of breeders was strengthened with the help of various benefits from the state, as well as financial support, in the form of loans from merchant companies. At the same time, the state did not move away from industry, but took an active part in its development and support, as well as in obtaining income from it. For example, state control was manifested through a system of state orders. The activities of the manufactories and factories themselves were evenly controlled with the help of inspections, which were carried out periodically and unexpectedly.

Another feature of the industry in Russia was that the labor of serfs was used in manufactories and factories. As noted earlier, people from different strata of society worked in factories and plants. From the beginning, these were civilian workers, but with the growth in the number of enterprises, an acute shortage of workers began. And then the solution to this problem was the use of forced labor. This was the reason for the issuance of a law on the sale of entire villages with the peasants who lived there to work in these factories.

In turn, Peter the Great consolidated the position about the service of the Russian nobility, in this way he believed that this same nobility had obligations to the state and the tsar. After the equalization of rights between the patrimony and the estate, the process of combining different layers of feudal lords into one class, which had specific privileges, was completed. But the title of a nobleman could only be earned through service. In 1722, the organization of the structure of ranks was introduced, in which there was an order of subordination of lower ranks to higher ones. All positions, whether military or civilian, were divided into 14 ranks. To get a certain rank, it was necessary to go through all the previous ones in turn. And only having reached the eighth rank, the collegiate assessor or major received the nobility. Birth in this case was replaced by length of service. If a refusal of service followed, the state had the right to confiscate possessions. Even if they were hereditary estates. In Western countries, service in the state was a great privilege, but in Russia it was just a duty, one of the many duties that was not always performed qualitatively and for the benefit of this state. Therefore, the nobles cannot be considered a class that dominates the state, since this class was completely dependent on the state. It was more like a privileged class that consisted of military and civilians who served the absolute monarchy completely and unconditionally. Their privileges ended the minute they fell out of favor with the king or left the service. The "emancipation" of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. 18th century

In history, two points of view are considered that relate to the absolute monarchy of Peter the Great. The first of them is that the absolute monarchy, which was formed during the reign of Peter the Great, is identical to the absolute monarchy of Western states. The absolute monarchy of Peter had the same characteristics as in other countries - this is the power of the king, which is not limited by anyone and nothing, a constant powerful army that protects this autocracy, also in such countries it is very well developed and, moreover, at all levels of the state, the bureaucracy and finally, the centralized tax system.

As for the second point of view of historians, its essence lies in the fact that: absolute monarchy in the West arose under capitalism, and Russia was very far from that, then the Russian system of government can be called either despotism, which is close to Asian or absolute monarchy , which originated in Russia is completely typologically different from Western countries.

After analyzing all the events taking place in Russia during the period of Peter the Great, we can safely say that the second point of view has more rights to exist than the first. This can be confirmed by the fact that in Russia the absolute monarchy is independent in relation to civil society. That is, everyone unconditionally had to serve the monarch. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The development of the state in all spheres of activity, both industrial and political, required knowledgeable and trained people. Schools were created to train specialists. Teachers were often invited from abroad. Science and education of that time often depended on foreign countries. Because there was an acute shortage of educated teachers, and they were often invited from European countries. But in addition to this, ours were often sent abroad to receive a higher and more qualified education there. To do this, in 1696, Peter the Great issues a decree on sending 61 people to study, most of whom belonged to the nobility. They could send abroad, both of good will and forcibly. If until the time of Peter the Great, only people close to the government and merchants had the right to travel, then in the era of Peter the Great, travel abroad was welcomed and encouraged. Sometimes even merchants and craftsmen were sent to study.

In the 17th century, there were two theological academies in Russia, one in Moscow, the other in Kyiv. They were created in order to get a highly educated secular population.

In 1701, a school of "mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened, whose teacher was one of the most educated people of that time, Leonty Magnitsky. Children of nobles, aged 12 to 17, were enrolled in this school, but due to the fact that they did not want to study in it, there were cases when even 20-year-old boys were accepted. Since children who were practically not literate entered the school, the school was divided into three departments: 1) the elementary school, 2) the “digital” school, 3) the navigator or maritime school. In the first two departments, children of almost all classes that could afford education studied. Only the children of the nobility passed to the third stage of the exercises. The main disciplines at the school were arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy and astronomy. The term of study did not have clear boundaries, mostly they studied for about 2.5 years or more. In addition, engineering and artillery schools were arranged for the nobles. In 1715, the senior classes of the navigational school were transferred to St. Petersburg, where the academy was established. They entered the academy immediately after graduating from the digital school, and after the academy, students could also be sent abroad.

Order at the Moscow Academy was maintained with the help of rewards and punishments. This charter of the school was approved by Peter the Great himself, he personally added some paragraphs to this instruction. This clause stated that a retired soldier should calm down noisy students and maintain order in the classroom during class, and he should do this with the help of a whip. This method could be applied to any student, regardless of his surname and status.

Even in Moscow, a surgical school was created at the hospital. Nicholas Bidloo was the head of this school. The school studied anatomy, surgery, pharmacology.

Distinguished students in the navigation school for their behavior, and most importantly the level of knowledge gained, were used as teachers. They taught in new schools that were established in many Russian cities. In 1714, a decree was issued on the compulsory education of children of nobles in digital schools. At the end of the training, students received a certificate of graduation from a particular school. For example, without this certificate, the priests could not marry the nobles. Like many at that time, education was a kind of duty, which limited and slowed down the recruitment of new students. For example, in Rezani, out of 96 students, 59 simply ran away.

But in general, digital schools continued to exist, already in the 1720s their number reached 44, with a total number of students up to 2000 people. The leading place among the students was occupied by the children of the clergy, then the children of the clerks and soldiers, and the children of the nobility and townspeople had the least passion for learning. Also at that time there were special schools in which the clergy were trained, they were created in 46 cities. That is, in every major city in Russia there were two schools, digital and spiritual.

Engineering schools were also created to train personnel for the army and industry. At the Ural factories of Yekaterinburg, engineer Genin created two schools - verbal and arithmetic, each of which had about 50 students. In these schools, factory foremen, clerical workers were trained, and they also studied literacy, geometry, drawing and drawing.

In Moscow, Pastor Gluck created a school with a broader general education program. He planned to conduct lessons in philosophy, geography, various languages ​​​​at his school, and it was also planned to introduce dancing and riding lessons. In this school, as in all others, only young men studied. After the death of the pastor, the program was greatly simplified. This school trained personnel for the civil service.

Another way to improve the level of education is to travel abroad to improve this level. The first such trip was before the start of the construction of the fleet. Noble nobles were sent abroad to train in shipbuilding and ship management. Yes, and Peter the Great himself repeatedly traveled abroad to learn and learn new things.

School textbooks were published in Russian, but they were translated from a foreign language. Most of all, textbooks on grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, geography, mechanics, land surveying were translated, and geographical maps were made for the first time. The textbooks were translated poorly and the text was very difficult for the students, often they simply memorized it. It was at this time that Russia adopted foreign words such as harbor, raid, midshipman, bot. Peter the Great introduced civil type into use. The alphabet was simplified, partly approaching Latin. All books since 1708 have been printed in this font. With a slight change, but it has survived to this day. At the same time, Arabic numerals were introduced, which replaced the designations of the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet.

Over time, Russian scientists began to create textbooks and manuals for education themselves.

Of the scientific work, the largest was the description of the geographical expedition, which told about the exploration of the shores of the Caspian Sea., And for the first time a map of the Caspian was compiled.

Under Peter the Great, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear. Its first issue was published on January 2, 1703.

Educational goals were also in mind when the theater was founded. Under Peter there were attempts to create a folk theater. So in Moscow on Red Square there was a built building for the theater. The troupe of Johann Kunsht was invited from Denmark, who was supposed to train the artists of the Russian population. At first, the theater was very popular, but over time, the audience became less and less, and as a result, the theater on Red Square was closed altogether. But this gave impetus to the development of theatrical spectacle in Russia.

The life of the upper class has also changed significantly. Before the era of Peter the female half of the boyar families lived closed, rarely born. Most of the time was spent at home, doing household chores. Under Peter the Great, balls were introduced, which were held in the houses of nobles in turn, and women were obliged to participate in them. Assemblies, as balls were called in Russia, began at about 5 o'clock and lasted until 10 o'clock in the evening.

A manual on the correct etiquette of the nobles was a book by an unknown author, which was published in 1717 under the title "Youth Pure Mirror". The book consisted of two parts. In the first part, the author marked out the alphabet, tables, numbers and numbers. That is, the first part served as a scientific book on teaching the innovations of Peter the Great. The second part, which was the main one, consisted of rules of conduct for boys and girls of the upper class. We can safely say that this was the first ethics textbook in Russia. Young people of noble origin were recommended, first of all, to learn foreign languages, horseback riding and dancing. Girls should obediently obey the will of their parents, they should also be distinguished by diligence, as well as silence. The book described the behavior of the nobles in public life, from the rules of behavior at the table to service in state administrations. The book formulated a new stereotype of the behavior of a person of the upper class. The nobleman had to avoid companies that could somehow compromise him, drunkenness, rudeness, and extravagance were also contraindicated. And the manners of behavior themselves should be as close as possible to European ones. In general, the second part was more like a collection of publications on the rules of etiquette of Western countries.

Peter wanted to educate the youth of the upper class according to the European type, while instilling in them the spirit of patriotism and service to the state. It was considered the main thing for a nobleman to protect his honor and the honor of his homeland, but at the same time, the honor of the Fatherland was defended with a sword, but a nobleman could defend his honor by filing a complaint with certain authorities. Peter was an opponent of duels. Those who violated the decree were severely punished.

The culture of the era of Peter the Great was always under the control of the state and in its main direction was the development of the culture of the nobility. This was a feature of Russian culture. The state encouraged and allocated finance from the state treasury only to those areas that it considered important. In general, the culture and art of Peter the Great went in a positive direction of development. Although even in culture, bureaucracy was traced over time. Because writers, artists, actors were in the public service, their activities were completely subordinated to the state and, accordingly, they received remuneration for their work. Culture performed state functions. The theatre, the press, and many other branches of culture served to defend and propagate the Petrine transformation.

Chapter 3

Peter's reforms are grandiose in their scope and consequences. These transformations contributed to the solution of acute tasks facing the state, primarily in the field of foreign policy. However, they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, since they were carried out within the framework of the existing system and, moreover, they preserved the Russian feudal-serf system.

As a result of the transformation, a powerful industrial production was created, strong army and fleet, which allowed Russia to achieve access to the sea, overcome isolation, close the gap with the advanced countries of Europe and become a great power in the world.

However, the accelerated modernization and borrowing of technologies were carried out at the expense of a sharp increase in the archaic forms of exploitation of the people, which paid at an extremely high price for the positive results of the reforms.

The reforms of the political system gave new strength to the serving despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and violent transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes prevented the full development of a culture based on national traditions.

The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values ​​of European culture, sharply separated itself from the national tradition and its custodian - the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values ​​and institutions grew as the country modernized. This caused the deepest socio-cultural split in society, which largely predetermined the depth of contradictions and the strength of social upheavals in the early twentieth century.

The paradox of the Petrine reform was that the "Westernization" of Russia, which was of a violent nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, brought to life the forces that carried out modernization, and on the other hand, provoked an anti-modernization and anti-Western reaction of supporters of traditionalism and national identity.

3.1 Estimation of the essence of Peter's reforms

On the issue of assessing the essence of Peter's reforms, the opinions of scientists differ. The understanding of this problem is based either on views based on Marxist views, that is, those who believe that the policy of state power is based and conditioned by the socio-economic system, or the position according to which reforms are an expression of the sole will of the monarch. This point of view is typical of the "state" historical school in pre-revolutionary Russia. The first of this multitude of views is that of the monarch's personal desire to Europeanize Russia. Historians who adhere to this point of view consider the “Europeanization” to be the main goal of Peter. According to Solovyov, the meeting with European civilization was a natural and inevitable event on the path of development of the Russian people. But Solovyov considers Europeanization not as an end in itself, but as a means, primarily stimulating the economic development of the country. The theory of Europeanization, naturally, did not meet with the approval of historians who seek to emphasize the continuity of the era of Peter in relation to the previous period. An important place in the debate about the essence of the reforms is occupied by the hypothesis of the priority of foreign policy goals over domestic ones. This hypothesis was first advanced by Milyukov and Klyuchevsky. Conviction in its infallibility led Klyuchevsky to the conclusion that the reforms were of varying degrees of importance: he considered the military reform the initial stage of Peter's transformative activity, and the reorganization of the financial system as his ultimate goal. The rest of the reforms were either the result of changes in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the mentioned ultimate goal. Klyuchevsky attached independent importance only to economic policy. The last point of view on this problem is "idealistic". It is most clearly formulated by Bogoslovsky, he characterizes the reforms as the practical implementation of the principles of statehood perceived by the monarch. But here the question arises about the "principles of statehood" in the understanding of the king. Bogoslovsky believes that the ideal of Peter the Great was an absolutist state, the so-called "regular state", which, with its comprehensive vigilant care (police activity), sought to regulate all aspects of public and private life in accordance with the principles of reason and for the benefit of the "common good". Bogoslovsky especially highlights the ideological aspect of Europeanization. He, like Solovyov, sees in the introduction of the principle of rationality, rationalism, a radical break with the past. His understanding of the reforming activity of Peter, which can be called "enlightened absolutism", found many adherents among Western historians who tend to emphasize that Peter was not an outstanding theorist, and that the reformer during his foreign trip took into account, first of all, the practical results of his contemporary political science. Some of the adherents of this point of view argue that the Petrine state practice was by no means typical of its time, as Bogoslovsky proves. In Russia under Peter the Great, attempts to implement the political ideas of the era were much more consistent and far-reaching than in the West. According to such historians, Russian absolutism in everything related to its role and impact on the life of Russian society took a completely different position than the absolutism of most European countries. While in Europe the governmental and administrative structure of the state was determined by the social system, in Russia the opposite happened - here the state and its policies formed the social structure.

The first who tried to define the essence of Peter's reforms from a Marxist position was Pokrovsky. He characterizes this era as an early phase in the birth of capitalism, when commercial capital begins to create a new economic basis for Russian society. As a result of the transfer of economic initiative to the merchants, power passed from the nobility to the bourgeoisie (ie, to these same merchants). The so-called "spring of capitalism" has come. The merchants needed an efficient state apparatus that could serve their purposes both in Russia and abroad. That is why, according to Pokrovsky, Peter's administrative reforms, wars and economic policy in general, are united by the interests of commercial capital. Some historians, giving commercial capital great importance , associate it with the interests of the nobility. And although the thesis about the dominant role of commercial capital was rejected in Soviet historiography, it can be said that the opinion regarding the class basis of the state remained dominant in Soviet historiography from the mid-1930s to the mid-1960s. During this period, the generally accepted point of view was that the Petrine state was considered the "national state of the landowners" or the "dictatorship of the nobility." His policy expressed, first of all, the interests of the feudal feudal lords, although attention was also paid to the interests of the bourgeoisie, which was gaining strength. As a result of the analysis of the political ideology and social position of the state carried out in this direction, the opinion was established that the essence of the idea of ​​the “common good” is demagogic, it covered the interests of the ruling class. Although this position is shared by most historians, there are exceptions. For example, Syromyatnikov, in his book on the Petrine state and its ideology, fully agrees with the Theological characterization of the state of Peter as a typical absolutist state of that era. New in the controversy about the Russian autocracy was his interpretation of the class foundation of this state, which was based on Marxist definitions of the prerequisites of European absolutism. Syromyatnikov believes that Peter's unlimited powers were based on a real situation, namely: the opposing classes (the nobility and the bourgeoisie) achieved during this period such an equality of economic and political forces, which allowed the state power to achieve a certain independence in relation to both classes, to become a kind of intermediary between them. Thanks to a temporary state of equilibrium in the class struggle, state power became a relatively autonomous factor in historical development, and was able to benefit from the growing contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The fact that the state thus stood in a certain sense above the class struggle by no means meant that it was completely impartial. An in-depth study of the economic and social policies of Peter the Great led Syromyatnikov to the conclusion that the tsar's reforming activities had an overall anti-feudal orientation, "manifested, for example, in measures taken in the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, as well as in an effort to limit serfdom." This characterization of the reforms, given by Syromyatnikov, did not find a significant response from Soviet historians. In general, Soviet historiography did not accept and criticized his conclusions (but not the facts) because they were very close to Pokrovsky's previously rejected positions. In addition, many historians do not share the opinion about the balance of power in the Petrine period, not everyone recognizes the bourgeoisie, which was barely born in the 18th century, as a real economic and political factor capable of resisting the local nobility. This was also confirmed during the discussions that took place in Russian historiography in the 70s, as a result of which a relatively complete consensus was reached regarding the inapplicability of the thesis of the "neutrality" of power and the balance of classes in relation to specific Russian conditions. However, some historians, while generally disagreeing with Syromyatnikov's opinion, share his view of Peter's autocracy as relatively independent of class forces. They substantiate the independence of the autocracy by the thesis of equilibrium in a new version. While Syromyatnikov operates exclusively with the category of social balance of two different classes - the nobility and the bourgeoisie, Fedosov and Troitsky consider the contradictory interests within the ruling class as a source of independence of the political superstructure. And, if Peter the Great was able to put into practice such an extensive set of reforms contrary to the interests of certain social groups of the population, then this was explained by the intensity of that very “intraclass struggle”, where on the one hand the old aristocracy acted, and on the other, the new, bureaucratized nobility. At the same time, the nascent bourgeoisie, supported by the reformist policy of the government, made itself known, although not so heavily, acting in alliance with the last of the named warring parties - the nobility. Another controversial point of view was put forward by A.Ya. Avrekh, the initiator of the debate about the essence of Russian absolutism. In his opinion, absolutism arose and was finally strengthened under Peter the Great. Its formation and unprecedentedly strong position in Russia became possible due to the relatively low level of class struggle, combined with stagnation in the socio-economic development of the country. Absolutism should be considered as a form of the feudal state, but the distinguishing feature of Russia was the desire to pursue, in spite of the obvious weakness of the bourgeoisie, precisely the bourgeois policy, and to develop in the direction of the bourgeois monarchy. Naturally, this theory could not be accepted in Soviet historiography, because it contradicted some Marxist principles. This resolution of the problem did not find much recognition in the course of the ongoing discussion of Soviet historians about absolutism. Nevertheless, Averakh cannot be called an atypical participant in this controversy, which was characterized, firstly, by a clear desire to emphasize the relative autonomy of state power, and secondly, by the unanimity of scientists on the issue of the impossibility of characterizing political development only through simple conclusions, without taking into account the peculiarities of each period of history.

Foreign literature about Russia of the era of Peter the Great, despite the differences in the approach of scientists to assessing the events of that time, has some common features. Paying tribute to the ruler, the successes that were achieved by the country, foreign authors, as a rule, judged the pre-Petrine era in the history of Russia with some underestimation or open disdain. Views have become widespread, according to which Russia made a leap from backwardness, savagery to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the "West" - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who became assistants to Peter the Great in carrying out the transformations.

Conclusion

After analyzing the studied material, one can come to the following conclusions about the uniqueness of the reforms of Peter the Great and their impact on the state of Russia.

Before Peter came to power, the main factor that influenced the development of the state was its natural and geographical position, as well as social conditions (large territory, unfortunate geographical position, etc.). In addition to internal factors, external factors also influenced development. Before Peter the Great, Russia did not have access to the seas, and thus she could not use, first of all, for trade, the fastest and cheapest ways of communication.

Peter's reforms, like most of the reforms in Russia, had its own peculiarity. They were planted from above and implemented by order. The government regime, as it were, stood above the whole society and forced absolutely everyone to serve the state, regardless of class. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The reforms of Peter the Great began immediately after his arrival due to a border trip and concerned the appearance of the population, especially those that were close to the state and the tsar himself. The changes concerned the form and type of clothing, as well as beards. Everyone had to shave their beards, except for the clergy and peasants.

During his reign, Peter the Great created a powerful Russian Empire, in which he formulated an absolute monarchy and autocracy. There was no one to control it.

As for industry, it also had its own characteristics. The development of enterprises was fully supported by the state. Large sums were allocated from the state treasury for the construction of new manufactories, factories and factories. Therefore, for some time they were under the control of the state. But in the end they passed into private hands, although the state still controlled the activities of private entrepreneurs. And the second feature of the industry was that serfs worked at these same manufactories and factories. That is free work force. Thanks to this, the growth and development of manufactories, and industry as a whole, has increased.

As for culture, it was mainly aimed at the development of education. Schools were built which generally gave several thousand people received primary education, which later contributed to a cultural upsurge and a change in attitudes towards school education. In addition to schools, special education developed. The progress of science was on the face.

The reforms of Peter the Great were very large-scale and brought very great results. As a result of these reforms, those tasks that were formulated in the state, and which needed to be addressed urgently, were solved. Peter the Great was able to solve the assigned tasks, but practically failed to consolidate the process. This was due to the system that existed in the state, as well as serfdom. The main part of the population were peasants, being constantly under oppression, they did not show any initiative in the development of their state.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. About Peter I. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

Bagger Hans. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: Progress.: 1985, 200 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits. Figures of historical thought. / Comp., intro. Art. and note. V.A. Alexandrova. Moscow: Pravda, 1991. 624 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. T. 3 - M., 2002. 543 p.

Lebedev V.I. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: 1937

Polyakov L.V. Kara-Murza V. Reformer. Russians about Peter the Great. Ivanovo, 1994

Soloviev S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. Moscow: Progress, 1962

Soloviev S.M. On the history of the new Russia. M.: Enlightenment, 1993

Collection: Russia during the reforms of Peter the Great M.: Nauka, 1973

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Peter the Great is a rather remarkable personality, both from the side of the person and from the side of the ruler. His numerous changes in the country, decrees and an attempt to organize life in a new way were not perceived positively by everyone. However, it cannot be denied that during his reign a new impetus was given to the development of the Russian Empire of that time.

The great Peter the Great introduced innovations that made it possible to reckon with the Russian Empire at the world level. These were not only external achievements, but also internal reforms.

An extraordinary personality in the history of Russia - Tsar Peter the Great

AT Russian state there were a lot of prominent sovereigns and rulers. Each of them contributed to its development. One of these was Tsar Peter I. His reign was marked by various innovations in various fields, as well as reforms that brought Russia to a new level.

What can be said about the time when Tsar Peter the Great ruled? Briefly, it can be described as a series of changes in the way of life of the Russian people, as well as a new direction in the development of the state itself. Peter after his trip to Europe caught fire with the idea of ​​a full-fledged navy for his country.

In his royal years, Peter the Great changed a lot in the country. He is the first ruler who gave direction to change the culture of Russia towards Europe. So many of his followers continued his undertakings, and this led to the fact that they were not forgotten.

Peter's childhood

If we now talk about whether childhood influenced future destiny king, on his behavior in politics, you can answer that of course. Little Peter was always developed beyond his years, and his remoteness from the royal court allowed him to look at the world in a completely different way. No one hampered him in development, and also did not forbid him to feed his craving for learning everything new and interesting.

The future Tsar Peter the Great was born on June 9, 1672. His mother was Naryshkina Natalya Kirillovna, who was the second wife of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Until the age of four, he lived at court, loved and spoiled by his mother, who did not have a soul in him. In 1676, his father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, died. Fedor Alekseevich, who was Peter's older half-brother, ascended the throne.

From this moment it has come new life both in the state and in the royal family. By order of the new king (part-time half-brother), Peter began to learn to read and write. Science was given to him quite easily, he was a rather inquisitive child who was interested in a lot of things. The teacher of the future ruler was the clerk Nikita Zotov, who did not scold the restless student too much. Thanks to him, Peter read many wonderful books that Zotov brought him from the armory.

The result of all this was a further genuine interest in history, he even in the future had a dream of a book that would tell about the history of Russia. Peter was also fascinated by the art of war, was interested in geography. At an older age, he compiled a rather easy and simple alphabet to learn. However, if we talk about the systematic acquisition of knowledge, then the king did not have this.

Ascension to the throne

Peter the Great was enthroned when he was ten years old. This happened after the death of his half-brother Fyodor Alekseevich, in 1682. However, it should be noted that there were two contenders for the throne. This is Peter's older half-brother - John, who was rather painful from birth. Perhaps that is why the clergy decided that the younger, but stronger applicant should be the ruler. Due to the fact that Peter was still a minor, the king's mother, Natalya Kirillovna, ruled on his behalf.

However, this was not at all liked by the no less noble relatives of the second contender for the throne - Miloslavsky. All this discontent, and even the suspicion that Tsar John was killed by the Naryshkins, led to an uprising that happened on May 15. This event later became known as the "streltsy revolt". On this day, some boyars, who were Peter's mentors, were killed. What happened made an indelible impression on the young king.

After the Streltsy rebellion, two were married to the kingdom - John and Peter 1, the first had a dominant position. Their older sister Sophia, who was the real ruler, was appointed regent. Peter and his mother again left for Preobrazhenskoye. By the way, many of his relatives and friends were also either exiled or killed.

Life of Peter in Preobrazhensky

Peter's life after the May events of 1682 remained the same solitary. Only occasionally did he come to Moscow when there was a need for his presence at official receptions. The rest of the time he continued to live in the village of Preobrazhensky.

At this time, he became interested in the study of military affairs, which led to the formation of, for the time being, children's, amusing regiments. They recruited guys around his age who wanted to learn the art of war, since all these initial children's games grew into just that. Over time, a small military town is formed in Preobrazhensky, and children's amusing regiments grow into adults and become quite an impressive force to be reckoned with.

It was at this time that the future Tsar Peter the Great had the idea of ​​his own fleet. Once he discovered a broken boat in an old barn, and he got the idea of ​​fixing it. After a while, Peter found the person who fixed it. So, the boat was launched. However, the Yauza River was small for such a vessel, it was dragged to a pond near Izmailovo, which also seemed small for the future ruler.

In the end, Peter's new hobby continued on Lake Pleshchevo, near Pereyaslavl. It was here that the formation of the future fleet of the Russian Empire began. Peter himself not only commanded, but also studied various crafts (blacksmith, joiner, carpenter, studied printing).

Peter at one time did not receive a systematic education, but when the need arose to study arithmetic and geometry, he did it. This knowledge was needed in order to learn how to use the astrolabe.

During these years, when Peter received his knowledge in various fields, he had many associates. These are, for example, Prince Romodanovsky, Fedor Apraksin, Alexei Menshikov. Each of these people played a role in the character of the future reign of Peter the Great.

Peter's family life

Peter's personal life was quite complicated. He was seventeen years old when he got married. This happened at the insistence of the mother. Evdokia Lopukhina became the wife of Peter.

Between the spouses there was never mutual understanding. A year after his marriage, he became interested in Anna Mons, which led to a final quarrel. The first family history of Peter the Great ended with Evdokia Lopukhin being exiled to a monastery. This happened in 1698.

From his first marriage, the tsar had a son - Alexei (born in 1690). It has a rather tragic story. It is not known exactly why, but Peter did not love his own son. Perhaps this happened because he did not at all resemble his father, and also did not at all welcome some of his reformist introductions. Be that as it may, but in 1718 Tsarevich Alexei dies. This episode itself is rather mysterious, as many spoke of torture, as a result of which the son of Peter died. By the way, hostility to Alexei extended to his son (grandson of Peter).

In 1703, Marta Skavronskaya entered the life of the tsar, who later became Catherine I. For a long time she was Peter's mistress, and in 1712 they got married. In 1724, Catherine was crowned empress. Peter the Great, whose biography of family life is truly fascinating, was very attached to his second wife. During their life together, Catherine bore him several children, but only two daughters survived - Elizabeth and Anna.

Peter treated his second wife very well, one might even say he loved her. However, this did not prevent him from sometimes having an affair on the side. Catherine herself did the same. In 1725, she was convicted of having an affair with Willem Mons, who was a chamberlain. It was a scandalous story, as a result of which the lover was executed.

The beginning of the real reign of Peter

For a long time, Peter was only second in line to the throne. Of course, these years were not in vain, he studied a lot, became a full-fledged personality. However, in 1689 a new streltsy uprising took place, which was prepared by his sister Sophia, who was ruling at that time. She did not take into account that Peter is far from being the younger brother he was before. Two personal royal regiments - Preobrazhensky and Streletsky, as well as all the patriarchs of Russia, rose to his defense. The rebellion was suppressed, and Sophia spent the rest of her days in the Novodevichy Convent.

After these events, Peter became more interested in the affairs of the state, but nevertheless shifted most of them onto the shoulders of his relatives. The real reign of Peter the Great began in 1695. In 1696, his brother John dies, and he remains the sole ruler of the country. From that time on, innovations began in the Russian Empire.

Wars of the king

There were several wars in which Peter the Great took part. The biography of the king shows how purposeful he was. This is proved by his first campaign against Azov in 1695. It ended in failure, but this did not stop the young king. After analyzing all the mistakes, Peter carried out a second assault in July 1696, which ended successfully.

After the Azov campaigns, the tsar decided that the country needed its own specialists, both in military affairs and in shipbuilding. He sent several nobles to study, and then he decided to travel around Europe himself. This lasted for a year and a half.

In 1700, Peter begins the Great Northern War, which lasted twenty-one years. The result of this war was the signed Treaty of Nystadt, which opened him access to the Baltic Sea. By the way, it was this event that led to the fact that Tsar Peter I received the title of emperor. The resulting lands formed the Russian Empire.

estate reform

Despite the conduct of the war, the emperor did not forget to pursue the domestic policy of the country. Numerous decrees of Peter the Great affected various spheres of life in Russia and not only.

One of the important reforms was a clear division and consolidation of rights and obligations between nobles, peasants and city dwellers.

Nobles. In this estate, innovations concerned primarily the compulsory literacy education for males. Those who failed to pass the exam were not allowed to receive an officer's rank, and they were also not allowed to marry. A table of ranks was introduced, which allowed even those who by birth did not have the right to receive the nobility.

In 1714, a decree was issued that allowed only one offspring from a noble family to inherit all property.

Peasants. For this class, poll taxes were introduced, instead of household taxes. Also, those serfs who went to serve as soldiers were freed from serfdom.

City. For urban residents, the transformation consisted in the fact that they were divided into “regular” (subdivided into guilds) and “irregular” (other people). Also in 1722, workshops for crafts appeared.

Military and judicial reforms

Peter the Great carried out reforms for the army as well. It was he who began recruiting into the army every year from young people who had reached the age of fifteen. They were sent to military training. This led to the fact that the army became stronger and more experienced. A powerful fleet was created, a judicial reform was carried out. Appellate and provincial courts appeared, which were subordinate to the governors.

Administrative reform

At the time when Peter the Great ruled, the reforms also affected the administration of the state. For example, the ruling king could appoint his successor during his lifetime, which was previously impossible. It could have been absolutely anyone.

Also in 1711, by order of the king, a new state body appeared - the Governing Senate. Anyone could also enter it, it was the king's privilege to appoint its members.

In 1718, instead of Moscow orders, 12 colleges appeared, each of which covered its own field of activity (for example, military, income and expenses, etc.).

At the same time, by decree of Tsar Peter, eight provinces were created (later there were eleven). The provinces were divided into provinces, the latter into counties.

Other reforms

The time of Peter the Great is also rich in other equally important reforms. For example, they affected the Church, which lost its independence and became dependent on the state. Later, the Holy Synod was established, the members of which were appointed by the sovereign.

Great reforms took place in the culture of the Russian people. The king, after returning from a trip to Europe, ordered to cut off the beards and shave the faces of men (this did not apply only to priests). Peter also introduced the wearing of European clothes for the boyars. In addition, balls, other music, as well as tobacco for men, which the king brought from his trip, appeared for the upper class.

An important point was a change in calendar calculus, as well as the transfer of the beginning of the new year from September 1 to January 1. This happened in December 1699.

Culture in the country was in a special position. The sovereign founded many schools that gave knowledge about foreign languages, mathematics and other technical sciences. A lot of foreign literature was translated into Russian.

The results of the reign of Peter

Peter the Great, whose reign was full of many changes, led Russia to a new direction in its development. A fairly strong fleet appeared in the country, as well as a regular army. The economy has stabilized.

The reign of Peter the Great also had a positive impact on the social sphere. Medicine began to develop, the number of pharmacies and hospitals increased. Science and culture have reached a new level.

In addition, the state of the economy and finances in the country has improved. Russia has reached a new international level, and has also signed several important agreements.

End of reign and Peter's successor

The king's death is shrouded in mystery and speculation. It is known that he died on January 28, 1725. However, what led him to this?

Many talk about an illness from which he did not fully recover, but went on business to the Ladoga Canal. The king was returning home by sea when he saw a ship in distress. It was late cold and rainy autumn. Peter helped drowning people, but he got very wet and as a result caught a bad cold. He never recovered from all this.

All this time, while Tsar Peter was ill, prayers were held in many churches for the health of the Tsar. Everyone understood that this was indeed a great ruler who had done a lot for the country and could have done so much more.

There was another rumor that the tsar was poisoned, and it could be A. Menshikov close to Peter. Whatever it was, but after his death, Peter the Great did not leave a will. The throne is inherited by Peter's wife Catherine I. There is also a legend about this. They say that before his death, the king wanted to write his will, but he managed to write only a couple of words and died.

The personality of the king in modern cinema

The biography and history of Peter the Great is so entertaining that a dozen films have been made about him, as well as several television series. In addition, there are paintings about individual members of his family (for example, about the deceased son Alexei).

Each of the films reveals the personality of the king in its own way. For example, the television series “Testament” plays on the dying years of the king. Of course, there is truth mixed with fiction. An important point will be that Peter the Great never wrote a will, which will be told about in colors in the film.

Of course, this is one of many pictures. Some were filmed based on works of art (for example, the novel by A. N. Tolstoy “Peter I”). Thus, as we see, the odious personality of Emperor Peter I excites the minds of people today. This great politician and reformer pushed Russia to develop, to learn new things, and also to enter the international arena.

Reforms of Peter I

Reforms of Peter I- transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: -1715 and -.

A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

Decisions in the Senate were taken collectively, at a general meeting and supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, then the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time placed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the post of fiscals appeared. The duty of the Chief Fiscal in the Senate and the Fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the auditor general, who was renamed the chief secretary. Since 1722, the control over the Senate has been carried out by the Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Attorney General. The Prosecutor General and his Deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but their implementation required an administrative apparatus. In -1721 a reform was carried out executive bodies management, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each collegium were strictly delineated, and relations within the collegium itself were based on the principle of collegiality of decisions. Were introduced:

• Collegium of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs - replaced the Posolsky Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
• Military Collegium (Military) - acquisition, armament, equipment and training of the land army.
• Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
• The patrimonial collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the investigation of fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
• Chamber College - collection of state revenues.
• State-offices-collegium - was in charge of the state's expenses,
• Revision Board - control of the collection and spending of public funds.
• Commerce College - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
• Berg College - mining and metallurgical business (mining and plant industry).
• Manufactory College - light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
• The College of Justice was in charge of civil proceedings (the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, on the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). Worked in civil and criminal litigation.
• Theological College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This collegium/Synod included representatives of the higher clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read sermons and instructions to them, to teach children prayers, to instill in them reverence for the tsar and the church.
• The Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death in 1722 of hetman I. I. Skoropadsky, new elections of hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by tsar's decree. The collegium was headed by a tsarist officer.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

In addition, there were the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To control the execution of decisions on the ground and reduce rampant corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to "secretly visit, denounce and expose" all abuses, both higher and lower officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The Chief Fiscal was a member of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate Chancellery. Denunciations were considered and monthly reported to the Senate by the Punishment Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723. the fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, with the establishment in January 1722 of the post of prosecutor general were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the College of Justice and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Ordinary archers in 1674. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

Reforms of the army and navy

The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War -1721. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and start training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhenians and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment to the fleet, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.

Private army infantry. regiment in 1720-32. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the navigation, artillery, engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the nobility. In 1715, the Naval Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Charter was issued, which strictly defined the service, rights and duties of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 210 thousand (of which there were 2600 in the guard, 41 560 in the cavalry, 75 thousand in the infantry, 14 thousand in the garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; there were almost 30 thousand people on all the ships.

Church reform

Religious politics

The age of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which the Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were to be burned at the stake. The "schismatics" were allowed to practice their faith, subject to the recognition of the existing state order and the payment of double taxes. Complete freedom of belief was granted to foreigners who came to Russia, restrictions were lifted on the communication of Orthodox Christians with Christians of other faiths (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).

financial reform

Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and imposing higher duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of ​​mercantilism). So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and plants at the end of Peter's reign extended to , including about 90 large manufactories.

autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was in no way regulated by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. Peter in 1722 issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch during his lifetime appoints himself a successor, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint "the most worthy" as his successor). This law was in effect until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not use the law of succession to the throne, since he died without indicating a successor.

estate policy

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is legal registration estate rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society developed, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

Key milestones:

1. Decree on education of 1706: Boyar children must receive either primary school or home education without fail.
2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
3. Decree of Uniform Succession of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were required to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two estates of feudal lords.
4. "Table of Ranks" () of the year: division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed the representatives of the former tribal nobility with people raised by the service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all sections of the population. The nobleman of the time of Peter the Great still has the exclusive right to land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on uniform inheritance and revision, he is responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in order to prepare for the service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening, through the length of service through the Table of Ranks, access to the environment of the gentry to people of other classes. On the other hand, by the law of single inheritance, he opened the exit from the nobility to merchants and the clergy to those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic estate, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-eared peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as fortresses. State. peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act as one of the parties in court, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts relating to the serfs proper were contradictory. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owner. The rule was also confirmed on the transfer of landowners' estates, who ruined their peasants, to custody, and the serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Empress Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the serfs lost this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were granted the right to move into the settlements, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. A decree on 7 April 1690 was allowed to yield, for the unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which was effectively a form of serf trading. The taxation of serfs (that is, personal servants without land) with a poll tax led to the merging of serfs with serfs. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessive. By decree of 1721, nobles and merchants-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory. Posessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. The only major city was Moscow, which was the capital until the reign of Peter the Great. Although in terms of the level of development of cities and industry, Russia was much inferior to Western Europe, but during the 17th century. there was a gradual increase. The social policy of Peter the Great, concerning the urban population, pursued the provision of the payment of the poll tax. To do this, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, artisans of workshops) and irregular citizens (everyone else). The difference between an urban regular citizen at the end of Peter's reign and an irregular one was that a regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in a guild and workshop, or carried a monetary duty in the share that fell on him according to the social layout.

Transformations in the field of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ”. The year 7208 of the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the birth of Christ, and New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, the uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.

After returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter I led the fight against the external manifestations of the "outdated" way of life (the most famous ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Seculars began to appear educational establishments, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appear. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education.

There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, the decree said, “the bridegroom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insisted, “there is freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither side had the right to “strike with a forfeit”. Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 about public festivities introduced the obligation to participate in the celebrations and festivities of all Russians, including "female".

Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas took shape, which was fundamentally different from the values ​​and worldview of most representatives of other estates.

Peter I in 1709. Drawing of the middle of the 19th century.

Education

Peter was clearly aware of the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate elementary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were redesigned into class schools for the training of the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

The main reason for the administrative reforms of Peter I was his desire to build an absolutist model of the monarchy, when all the key levers of government are in the hands of the tsar and his closest advisers.

Local government reforms in brief

Provincial (regional) reform

Provincial reform of Peter I the Great

The transformations were carried out in two stages:

first stage (1708-1714) was aimed primarily at improving the quality of service for the army - to the created 8 (by 1714 there were already 11 provinces) corresponding military units and shipyards were assigned to the provinces;
second stage (1719-1721) introduced a three-tier structure: province-province-district, strengthening the vertical of power, police supervision and increasing the efficiency of taxation.

urban reform

first stage (1699) it began with the establishment of the Burmister Chamber (Town Hall), under which the zemstvo huts were transferred, and the collection of taxes became the main function (instead of the governor);

second stage (1720) was marked by the creation of the Chief Magistrate. The division of cities into categories was introduced, and the inhabitants into categories and guilds. The magistrate, according to its administrative level, corresponded to the colleges and was subordinate to the Senate.

Central government reforms in a nutshell

The preparatory stage for the reform of the central administration can be considered the organization middle office and gradual loss of influence Boyar Duma(last mentioned in 1704), whose function begins to perform Council of Ministers. All the highest positions in the government bodies created by Peter the Great are occupied by people devoted to him and personally responsible for the decisions made.

Creation of the Governing Senate

March 2, 1711 years Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the king in the war. The Senate was completely controlled by the tsar, it was a collegiate body (decisions made by members of the senate had to be unanimous), whose members were appointed by Peter I personally. On February 22, 1711, for additional supervision of officials during the absence of the king, the post of fiscal was created.

Creation of Colleges

College system

From 1718 to 1726 there was a creation and development of executive management bodies - Colleges, the purpose of which Peter I saw the replacement of the outdated system of orders, excessively clumsy and duplicating their own functions. The boards absorbed orders and unloaded the Senate from solving petty and insignificant issues. The creation of a system of colleges completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions and uniform norms of activity significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Edition of the General Regulations

March 10, 1720 General Regulations was published and signed by Peter I. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters and an appendix with an interpretation of the foreign words included in it. The regulations approved the collegial (unanimous) way of making decisions by the collegiums, determined the procedure for discussing cases, organizing office work, the relationship of the collegiums with the Senate and local authorities authorities.

Creation of the Holy Synod

February 5, 1721 was established "Holy Governing Synod"(The Spiritual Board). The reason for its creation was the desire of Peter I to build the Church into the mechanism of the state, limit influence and strengthen control over its activities. All members of the Synod signed the Spiritual Regulations and personally swore allegiance to the tsar. To comply with the interests of the king and additional control under the Synod, the position of chief prosecutor was created.

The result of the reforms of the state apparatus under Peter I was a broad structure of administrative bodies, some of which duplicated the functions of each other, but in general were more mobile in terms of solving emerging problems. You can see a schematic representation of the authorities and management in the table on the side.

Military reforms - briefly

Main point the transformations of the military sphere undertaken by Peter I consisted in five directions:

1. Introduction since 1705 of a regular recruitment in the land and naval forces- recruitment duty for taxable estates with lifelong service;
2. Rearmament of the army and development of the military industry- construction of factories for the production of weapons, textile manufactories, metalworking, etc.;
3. Improving the effectiveness of military command and control- publication of regulatory documents (statutes, articles, instructions), division of command of troops by types, creation of separate ministries for the army and navy (Military and Admiralty Colleges);
4. Creation of the fleet and related infrastructure- construction of shipyards, ships, training of military specialists-navigators;
5. Military school development- the opening of specialized educational institutions for the training of officers and new military formations: engineering, mathematics, navigation and other schools.

The results of the military reform were impressive. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 210 thousand, and irregular troops up to 110 thousand. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships, 787 galleys and other ships; there were almost 30 thousand people on all the ships.

Economic reforms of Peter I the Great - briefly

The reason for the economic reforms of Peter I was the need for increased provision of the army with supplies and weapons for the Northern War, as well as a significant lag of the Russian Kingdom in the industrial sector from the leading European powers.

Monetary reform

Without changing the appearance of silver wire kopecks, starting from 1694, dates began to be put on them, and then the weight was reduced to 0.28 g. denominations smaller than a penny.

The main units of the new monetary system were the copper kopeck and the silver ruble. The monetary system has been converted to decimal(1 ruble = 100 kopecks = 200 money), and the process of minting coins was modernized - a screw press began to be used. To meet the needs of the economy, Peter I created five mints.

tax reform

First census population 1710 was based on the household principle of tax accounting and revealed that the peasants united their households, enclosing them with a single fence in order to evade taxes.

Decree November 26, 1718 Peter I began the second census, according to the rules of which not the number of households was recorded, but specific males. (capitation census)

Introduction of the poll tax

After the end of the census in 1722(5,967,313 males were counted), calculations were made of fees sufficient to maintain the army. Eventually poll tax has been installed in 1724 - from each soul (i.e., every man, boy, old man belonging to taxable estates) was supposed to pay 95 kopecks.

Reforms in the field of industry and trade

Monopolies and protectionism

Peter I in 1724 approved protective customs tariff, prohibiting or restricting high duties on the import of foreign goods and semi-finished products. This was primarily due to the low quality of domestic products, which could not withstand competition. Inside the country, private and state monopolies were organized - pharmacy, wine, salt, flax, tobacco, bread, etc. At the same time, state monopolies served to replenish the treasury from the sale of popular products, and private ones - to accelerate the development of specific industries and trade.

Social reforms - briefly

In the fields of education, health and science

Most of the educational institutions were created in view of the need to train new types of troops or their own officers for the army and navy. Simultaneously with the organization of various specialized schools (engineering, mining, artillery, medical, etc.), the children of the nobles were sent abroad, and scientists and engineers were invited from Europe, who were obliged to train the most capable people in production. Compulsory primary education met with resistance - in 1714, simultaneously with the creation of digital schools, Peter I was forced to issue a decree prohibiting young nobles who had not received education from marrying.

Medicine needed the support of the state, and the state needed field surgeons - therefore, the foundation of the Moscow hospital in 1706 solved two problems at once. To provide public and private pharmacies (which were granted a monopoly on pharmacy activities) with the necessary medicinal herbs, a garden was founded on the Aptekarsky Island in 1714.

In 1724, Peter I signed a decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences and Arts, which laid the foundation for all future Russian science. Foreign specialists were invited to work in the new institution, and until 1746 most of the academicians were foreigners.

Cultural reforms

The culture of the Russian people can be quite clearly divided into the time before Peter I and after him - so strong was his desire to instill European values ​​​​and change the established traditions of the Russian kingdom. The main reason and source of inspiration for the cultural transformations of the king was his Great Embassy - a trip to Europe in 1697-1698.

The key innovations were:

• License to sell and use tobacco
• New rules in dress and appearance
• New chronology and calendar
• Opening of the Kunstkamera (Museum of Rarities)
• Attempts to organize a public theater (comedy temple)

Estate reforms

The class transformations of Peter I corresponded to his desire to add duties to all subordinates (without distinctions in origin), even to the nobility. In general, the period of his reign is characterized by the tightening of serfdom, the weakening of the influence of the church and the granting of new rights and privileges to the nobles. Separately, it is worth highlighting the emergence of such a social lift as the opportunity to receive the nobility for achieving certain ranks of civil and military service, according to Tables of ranks

Church reform

The main essence of the church reforms undertaken by Peter I was elimination of autonomy and embedding the institution of the church in the state apparatus, with all the accompanying characteristics - record keeping, limited number of staff, etc. Prohibition on the election of a patriarch in 1700 and the establishment of a replacement in 1721 the Holy Synod marked another stage in the formation of absolutism as a form of government of the state - before the Patriarch was perceived almost as equal to the king and had a great influence on ordinary people.

Results and results of reforms

• Modernization of the administrative apparatus and building a rigid vertical of power in accordance with the concept of an absolutist monarchy.
• The introduction of a new principle of administrative-territorial division (province-province-district) and changes in the principle of the main tax (poll instead of household).
• Creation of a regular army and navy, infrastructure for providing military units with provisions, weapons and lodging.
• The introduction of European traditions into the culture of Russian society.
• The introduction of general primary education, the opening of specialized schools for the training of various military and civilian specialists, the establishment of the Academy of Sciences.
• The enslavement of the peasantry, the weakening of the church, the definition of additional duties for all estates and the provision of the opportunity to receive the nobility for merit in the service of the sovereign.
• The development of various types of industry - mining, processing, textile, etc.