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Tropes and figures of speech.

Usetheir use in judicial practice

Fulfilled

1st year student

Ladygin Nikolai

Checked

Tikhomirova L.S.

Perm-2010

Introduction

Chapter I. Tropes and Figures of Speech

1.2 Figures of speech

Chapter II. The use of tropes and figures of speech in judicial practice

2.1 Use of trails

2.2 Use of figures of speech

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Competent speech is one of the main elements in interpersonal relationships. With its help, you can attract the interest of listeners, maintain attention to the subject of conversation, have an impact on both the mind and feelings, the imagination of listeners. Competent speech is not only beautiful to the ear, but also easy to understand.

It is known from the history of oratory that outstanding masters of the word of all times, major public and political figures, famous scientists, lecturers, such as ..., have always paid great attention to the figurativeness of their speeches, skillfully used the expressive means of the language in their speeches. It is known that the implementation of the persuasive function makes it necessary to use speech means of influence that form expression, which gives not only emotionality, but also harmony, logical argumentation, accuracy in word usage, clarity in the expression of thoughts.

Expression is created by contact-setting, for example, a change in tone, slowing down and speeding up the pace of speech, intonational emphasis on individual words, pauses, logical stresses, amplification of the sound of consonants, as well as figurative and expressive language means.

Tropes and figures of speech allow you to use words and phrases not literally, but figuratively, to use such turns of speech that do not add any additional information to the sentence, but change its emotional coloring. They serve to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, convey evaluative and emotionally expressive meanings, and create imagery.

Judicial speech in form and style is an oratorical speech. It is rhetorically oriented, designed to have a targeted impact on the court, to convince judges, jurors and citizens present in the courtroom of the truth of the speaker's opinion. Find out, prove, convince - three interrelated goals of judicial speech. And to achieve them, the speaker's speech must be permeated not only with clear legal clichés, but also with emotional means of expression.

Below we will consider the main tropes and figures of speech, and also give some examples of their use in judicial practice.

Target: study of tropes and figures of speech and examples of their use in judicial practice.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. Select literature on the topic;

2. Study trails and examples with their application;

3. To study figures of speech, their classification and examples with their application;

4. Consider examples of the use of tropes and figures of speech in judicial practice.

ChapterI. Tropes and figures of speech

1.1 trails

Trope- a stylistic device, which consists in the use of a word (phrase, sentence) not in a direct, but in a figurative sense, i.e. in the use of words (phrases, sentences) that name one object (object, phenomenon, property) to designate another object associated with the first one or another semantic relationship.

The number of trails varies significantly depending on their criteria by which they are distinguished. Quintilian has seven of them: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, emphasis, hyperbole, paraphrase. At M.V. Lomonosov - eleven: added catachresis, metalepsis, allegory and antonomasia. A.A. Potebnya singles out only three main tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche. For R. Jacobson, there are only two basic tropes: metaphor and metonymy.

The trope serves to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, convey evaluative and emotionally expressive meanings, and create imagery. Therefore, they are used, first of all, in artistic speech and journalism, they are much less often present in official business and scientific and technical texts. Colloquial speech, due to its increased expressiveness, is often saturated with a variety of tropes.

Consider several tropes and give examples of their use.

FROMalignment- a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another according to some common characteristic for them, while new, extraordinary properties are revealed in the object of comparison.

But strangely like someone else. (A. Akhmatova)

Metonymy- this is a trope that transfers the name of an object or class of objects to another class or to a separate object associated with data by contiguity, contiguity, and also involvement in one situation based on temporal, spatial characteristics or causal relationships.

Example : Shod with iron sharp feet, we slide along the mirror of standing even rivers.

(A.S. Pushkin) - about skates.

Metaphor- semantic transformation, in which an image formed with respect to one class of objects is attached to another class or a specific representative of the class

Example: The moon butts the cloud with its horn,

Bathed in blue dust. (S. Yesenin)

Allocate:

· Genitive metaphor- the compared object is in the genitive case, and the object of comparison is in the nominative.

Example : Pearls of the islands, showers of lights.

· metaphor-comparison- components represented by nouns.

Example : Let's slow down by the river, rinsing Colored beads of lanterns (M. Tsvetaeva)

Synecdoche- a kind of metonymy - represents a part of an object or phenomenon as a whole or a whole as its part; usually the whole and the part are adjacent.

Example : “He has a hand in the ministry” - about a person who helps to solve any issues in the ministry.

Irony- an allegory in which linguistic expressions acquire a meaning that is the opposite of the literally expressed or negates it. Irony usually contains denial and ridicule under the guise of approval and consent due to the fact that properties are attributed to the phenomenon that it obviously cannot have.

Example : Where, smart, are you wandering your head? - in Krylov's fable, a replica addressed to a donkey.

personification- semantic transformation, which consists in assigning a sign of being animated by an object of the inanimate world.

Example : The moon made a mocking face. (A. Merienhof)

Epithet- this is a word or expression that, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires a new semantic meaning, highlighting individual, unique features in the image object and thereby forcing it to be evaluated from an unusual point of view.

According to the structure, epithets are:

· Ptall- consisting of one adjective, forming a pair combination A + N, where A is an adjective and N is a noun.

Example : deep blue

· Withcast- when epithets - adjectives are formed from two or three roots.

Example : The story is convincingly false. (A.N. Tolstoy), Maiden-your-lion show the capture!.. (M. Tsvetaeva)

· Withrest- from two or more definitions with one being determined.

Example : Manchurian yellow wind (I. Brodsky)

· Withfalse- conveying a merged group meaning.

Example : In saucers-glasses of life buoys (V. Mayakovsky)

Hyperbola- semantic transformation, in which the indicative meaning of a linguistic expression is exaggerated to implausibility.

Example : Your terrible caresses (A. Blok)

Litotes- 1. Reception based on negation. In a broad sense, litote is defined as the negation of the opposite "negation of the inverse property"

Example : He is stupid - He does not shine with the mind.

2. Trope inverse to hyperbole, i.e. a technique of semantic transformation, by means of which signs of an immensely and implausibly small are assigned to the small.

Example : Who got lost a stone's throw from home,

Where is the snow to the waist and the end of everything? (A. Akhmatova)

paraphrase(paraphrase) - a turnover consisting in replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of its essential features or an indication of its characteristic features.

Example : "Our blue planet" - "Earth";

“Farewell, free element” - instead of “sea” (A. Pushkin)

Paradox- unexpected, sharply at odds with the logic of the previous text or with the usual opinion.

Example : The best government is the one that governs the least. (Jefferson)

Symbol - a multi-valued subject image that unites different planes of the depicted.

Example : "Cliff" - the title of the novel, symbolizing the concept of emotional drama.

allegory ( allegory) omission - an expression of an abstract concept (idea) in a specific artistic image.

Example : Although it is sometimes heavy in her burden,

The cart on the go is easy;

Dashing coachman, gray time

Lucky, will not get off the irradiation. ("The Cart of Life" A.S. Pushkin)

1.2 Figures of speech

Figures of speech- a term of rhetoric and stylistics, denoting turns of speech that do not add any additional information to the sentence, but change its emotional coloring. Figures of speech serve to convey mood or enhance the effect of a phrase.

There are two main types of figures of speech: selection shapes and figures of dialogism. Their difference is as follows: the figures of dialogism are an imitation of dialogic relations in monologue speech, and with the help of figures of emphasis, one can compare or emphasize certain aspects of thought.

Selection shapes:

Selection figures can be built by adding, significant omission, full or partial repetition, modification, rearrangement or distribution of words, phrases or parts of a structure.

1. FAdding toysand repeat

They display a complex system of correlation between the emotional and rational principles in the perception of objects in reality.

Anadiplosis - " doubling » - words or groups of words at the junction of columns or poetic lines. With the help of this figure of speech, a special connection arises between adjacent lines, fixing attention on an object or object, due to which there is an effect of “enlarging” the overall picture of the depicted.

Example : He fell on the cold snow,

On the cold snow, like a pine. (M. Lermontov)

Palology ( epanalepsis) is a simple sequential reproduction of a word (phrase), which can be interrupted by another word (or group of words).

Example : About you, about you, about you

I yearn, my jubilation ... (S. Gorodetsky)

Gradation - alignment of homogeneous members of a sentence according to the principle of strengthening (ascending gradation) or weakening (descending gradation) of a sign, action, etc. Thanks to the gradation, the effect of increasing the significance of the described phenomena is achieved.

Example : I do not regret, do not call, do not cry. (S. Yesenin)

Anaphora- repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of adjacent phrases or verses.

Example : And from every mountain street,

And from every pair of eyes ... (I. Severyanin)

Epiphora- repetition of a word or group of words at the end of adjacent phrases or verses.

Example : And life is the essence,

She is simple:

Her mouth...

His mouth ... (V. Fedorov)

simplock- a combination of anaphora and epiphora, which consists in the repetition of the initial and final word or combination of words in adjacent columns or verses. It is typical for folklore texts, it is extremely rare in literary texts.

Example : There was a birch tree in the field,

Curly stood in the field.

The last three figures - anaphora, epiphora, simplex - create the effect of a special cohesion of the text, focusing the reader's attention on the described object, phenomenon or action.

Polyptotone(lit. Multicase) - the repetition of a word in different cases, in which there is a mismatch of referents. Sometimes this term refers to any figures that consist in the repetition of any name in different cases. It serves to shift the reader's attention from one object to another.

Example : But a man sent a man to anchar with an imperious look (A. Pushkin).

Paregmenon- a combination of single-root or etymologically related words.

Example : Court to judge; jokes;

It cuts with gold and borders them with a bright border. (K. Sluchevsky)

polysyndeton- polyunion - consists in the repetition of the same unions. Usually used to emphasize the unity and functional coherence of the enumerated elements.

Example : And time cannot be returned and not forgotten, and longitude is not impartially long

measure out and not get rid of bitterness ... (V. Strochkov)

Sinatroism- a list of objects that cannot be combined on the basis of common semantics. The freedom of associative connections fixed by this figure may indicate both the emotional imbalance of the lyrical hero and the originality of his generalizing view of the phenomena of reality.

Example : Share with me fire and blood, a dream, and grief, and work ...

(S. Gorodetsky)

2. Figures of consonance

Parnomasia- a game of words close in sound appearance, during which associative semantic connections arise.

Example A: We're only lonely the same,

And this is all that binds us (M. Shcherbakov).

Antanaklas- repetition of the same word in a changed meaning, requiring increased attention of the interlocutor.

Example : They beat the buckets. They beat someone.

We haven't been beaten yet. They beat at the master's gate,

Only they will not be unlocked (T. Kibirov).

Alliteration- stringing consonants that serve to imitate the corresponding sounds.

Example : The heel is lined with a ringed horseshoe (M. Shcherbakov).

Assonance- stringing vowels.

Example : Wind - singing / whom and about h (o) m? (V. Khlebnikov)

3. Decrease figures

They serve to create dynamism of the narrative, due to the intensity of emotions, a quick change in mood, or an accelerated course of events, in which the speaker feels the need to follow emotions to the detriment of the completeness of the verbal formulation of the statement.

Aposiopesis- a break in a sentence or a line of poetry, caused by the intensity of feelings at which a person cannot speak, or events are such that his consciousness refuses to perceive them.

Example : Oh, Tolya, Tolya ...

Are you, are you ... (S. Yesenin).

Ellipsis- omission of part of the statement in an incomplete sentence. Usually this part is easily restored on the basis of knowledge of the context or situation, however, the native speaker does not need to restore the missing part of the statement.

Example : We would have the enemy on the horns (raised),

Only the skin is expensive ... (K. Chukovsky)

Asyndeton- non-union - the absence of unions between homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence. It serves to convey the intensity of actions, the saturation of phenomena.

Example : All the time grasping the thread of fate, events,

Live, think, feel, hurry, make discoveries ... (B. Pasternak)

4. Figurs permutations

Inversion- violation of the traditional arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase. With inversion, the word is isolated, which the author needs to emphasize, and the logical stress is redistributed.

Example : Smooth horns rustle in the straw

Sloping cow's head (N. Zabolotsky)

Hyperbaton- such a violation of the order of words, in which those members of the sentence are distanced, which, in accordance with grammatical norms, cannot distance themselves. It is necessary to convey the features of the work of the thought of a lyrical hero and to simulate a state of emotional stress.

Example : Thunders in verses about the Volga bank,

About the Persian Razin in love (I. Severyanin).

Chiasmus- mirror arrangement of parts of the statement. Usually serves for intonation emphasizing of repeating elements, accompanied by visual perception.

Example : In the hour when horror is faceless

Expand empty pupils

You will rise from the black, from the wild,

From wild and black longing (V. Sorgenfrey)

Figures of dialogism:

This group of rhetorical figures is used to create a dialogic effect in monologue speech. The content of each statement can be evaluated by the audience, and the rhetor, using this assessment, depicts a dialogue with the audience. Dialogism can take a different place in monologue speech, from a single phrase to a whole text.

Dialog- is an image of a dialogue in monologue speech in the form of direct or indirect speech, which can be accompanied by the author's text commenting on the remarks.

Quote represents the actual words of any source, included in the text in the form of direct or indirect speech.

Responsibility- a question on behalf of the audience and the answer to it on behalf of the speaker.

Message- a question addressed to the audience, and an answer on behalf of the audience, which is sometimes supplemented by a commentary.

Rhetorical address- an underlined appeal to someone or something, designed to express the author's attitude to this or that object, to characterize it.

Example : I love you, my damask dagger,

Comrade light and cold (M. Lermontov)

Rhetorical exclamation- a stylistic figure that increases the emotional level of speech.

Example : Long live the sun,

Let the darkness hide! (A. Pushkin)

Rhetorical question- a question asked not to get an answer, but to draw the addressee's attention to an important moment of speech or to some phenomenon.

Example : Don't I know him, this lie he's soaked in? (L. Tolstoy)

Chapter II. The use of tropes and figures of speech in judicial practice

Judicial eloquence is represented by the genres of court speeches of the petitioning type, which are distinguished by their rhetorical orientation and are designed to have a targeted impact on the court, the ability to convince judges, jurors and citizens present in the courtroom of the truth of the speaker's opinion; thus, in form and style, it is oratory.

Judicial public speaking is one of the most ancient and most revered occupations on earth, one of the oldest types of oratory, and every era, country, people make their own changes to it. The birthplace of judicial eloquence is Ancient Greece.

Russian judicial eloquence begins to develop in the second half of the 19th century, after the judicial reform of 1864. Porohovshchikov P.S., The art of speech in court, M .: 2009. , with the introduction of the jury and the establishment of the sworn advocacy. Judicial speeches of talented Russian lawyers A.F. Koni, V.D. Spasovich, K.K. Arsenyeva, A.I. Urusova, P.A. Alexandrova, V.I. Zhukovsky, N.P. Karabchevsky is justifiably called excellent examples of judicial oratory, mastery of the word.

From the 20th century the development of judicial eloquence followed the path of speech formalization, its standardization, and the neutralization of the psychological side of speech. Speeches of famous prosecutors N.V. Krylenko, R.A. Rudenko, V.I. Tsarev, lawyers I.D. Braude, Ya.S. Kiselev is distinguished by strict logic, accuracy, convincing evidence, legally justified estimates.

Find out, prove, convince - three interrelated goals that determine the linguistic features of the genre. Judicial speech is limited by the scope of use, since it is an official, highly professional speech delivered only in court.

The presentation in court speeches is subject to the identification of causal relationships, and therefore it is focused on the accuracy and consistency of the expression. In general, the style of court speeches is distinguished by a combination of standard and emotional means of expression, since the purpose of these genres requires the use of clear legal clichés and formulas. However, the implementation of the persuasive function makes it necessary to use speech means of influence that form expression, which gives not only emotionality, but also harmony, logical argumentation, accuracy in word usage, clarity in the expression of thoughts.

"The expression of emotions in speech is always expressive, but expression in speech is not always emotional."

Expression is created by contact-setting (for example, a change in tone, slowing down and speeding up the pace of speech, intonational emphasis on individual words, pauses, logical stresses, amplification of the sound of consonants), as well as figurative and expressive language means.

Let us consider those figurative and expressive means that are most characteristic of judicial speech. And their correct use not only subjugates the judges and the audience with its influencing force, conveys the thoughts of the speaker, but also makes it possible to experience

feeling of contact with someone else's misfortune.

2.1 Trail use

In the texts of court speeches, more often than other tropes, metaphor, which consists in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects (phenomena, actions, signs) to characterize another object that is similar to the given one in some respect. Metaphor is the use of a word not according to its direct meaning, as a result of which its semantic structure is transformed.

In the speeches of F.N. Plevako, S.A. Andreevsky, P.A. Alexandrova, A.F. Horses of metaphor, as a rule, created an accurate description or conveyed the state of the defendant and the victims, revealed the story of their life: “ If a cold, thieving snake, nestled in his heart turned heart in the midst of a feast and stung him with a reproach of conscience, then this blow was drowned out by a dashing gypsy song ... ".

N.I. Kholev, using a metaphor, explores the relationship between the Maksimenko spouses: “But, perhaps, these feelings faded and faded, and then came for the young spouses, as the prosecutor put it, “ autumn love? Is it so?".

M.G. Kazarinov, through metaphors, gave characteristics to the victims and defendants (Olga Stein, with her whole being, got used to light, brilliance, noisy adventures, to play on the rapids and whirlpools of life, at the sharpest pitfalls).

S.A. Andreevsky, through the use of metaphors, showed the conditions for the formation of the character of the defendant: on rich black soil, under the sun- and it seems good; another lived in the swamp- came out much worse. Do you know what quagmire the entire past service of Mironovich.

A metaphor can be used by a speaker in a debate with a procedural opponent, an expert, a witness, an investigator, etc.

Soviet lawyer A.I. Rozhansky, using metaphors, assessed the testimony of the witness: “Such testimony necessary pass through a fine sieve related facts and circumstances.

Modern public prosecutor A.V. Melnikov used a metaphor to characterize family relations victim and defendant: "The first alarm call sounded for Andrey in May 1997 ... But he endured, forgave ... In November 1999 family boat again cracked».

Comparison- trails, based on a comparison of two phenomena, objects that are supposed to have a common feature. Comparisons help court speakers present phenomena most vividly.

N.P. Karabchevsky, with the help of a comparison, showed the sinking ship: “Remember the unanimous testimony of all the witnesses who watched the sinking of the Vladimir. Only by the lights did they know that he was still struggling with death. Fires flashed on it all the time; it was the faltering breathing of a patient in agony, it faded away only with him».

F.N. Plevako used a detailed comparison to clarify the causes of the crime: “But there were instigators. I have found them and I betray them with my head to your justice: they are instigators, they are instigators, they are the cause of all causes ... Enter the menagerie when the hour comes to throw food to the starving beasts; enter the nursery, where the awakened children do not see the nanny. There - a simultaneous growl, here - a simultaneous cry. Look for an instigator between them. And he will not be found in a separate animal, not in an older or younger child, but you will find him in hunger or fear that has seized everyone at the same time.

Comparison is often used next to metaphor, as in the speech of S.A. Andreevsky, who, by comparison, evaluated the testimony of a witness: “... she, with her story illuminated, like lightning, everything that was in the dark.

P.A. Alexandrov used a comparison to characterize the victim - General Trepov: “Every official commanding person seems to me two-faced Janus…».

The same comparison was used by the modern state prosecutor A.V. Melnikov to characterize the defendant: “I have already said that the defendant is trying to arouse your pity by presenting herself as a victim who fell under the influence of Romakh. But it is absolutely clear that she is not a victim. cabbage is "two-faced Janus"» .

Another path through which one can give a fair, objective assessment of actions and events is irony. Irony most often takes place in statements containing a positive assessment that the speaker rejects. A sharp, subtle mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment.

V.I. was a great master of irony. Zhukovsky. As a rule, he used it in polemics with a procedural opponent. In a speech on the Gulak-Artemovskaya case, the speaker said: “Starting to analyze the charge, I mean it in its entirety, that is, the indictment, the judicial investigation, and then artistic stucco work prosecutor, who, having scooped out all the dirt from the scum of the case, blinded from this mud bust Artemovskaya, believing that this is enough to charge her.

Irony enhances the polemical tone of speech, its emotional impact on listeners.

Often and quite successfully they used the irony of N.P. Karabchevskiy, A.I. Urusov, N.I. Kholev for opening and assessing investigative errors ( ingenious discovery! It, no doubt, could have arisen only in the fertile homeland of the immortal Gogol Patsyuk, to whom, as you know, dumplings, and, moreover, dipped in sour cream, flew into his mouth), to assess the opinion of an expert.

A.F. Koni, with the help of irony, appreciated the conclusion given by the assistant bailiff: “We know that the young attendant married, beat the student and was put under arrest. The next day after that, they found his wife in the Zhdanovka river. insightful the assistant bailiff saw in her death her suicide out of grief for her husband ... ".

R.A. Rudenko at one time, with the help of irony, assessed the actions of American intelligence: “The leading statesmen of the United States would not mind covering up their criminal aggressive actions with peaceful intentions. But everyone knows the price sincerity such statements. Like " good intentions"As you know, the road to hell is paved."

Precise expression of thought contributes to the exact choice epithets.

Arguing the innocence of the defendant Maksimenko, accused of poisoning her husband, N.I. Kholev used the epithet innocent: Innocent glass of tea. Important Details in the testimony of a witness he calls precious detail.

An effective means of persuasion, and hence influence, is paronomasia- a deliberate clash of paronyms in one statement in order to shade, highlight the differences between concepts: “The prosecutor here called Yugov hidden man. I wouldn't say that he secretive. Remember how frankly he spoke about himself, about his life.

Or: “Given his impeccable past life, the team of the air squadron at the general meeting, discussed and judged crime, nevertheless put forward a public defender, not a public prosecutor.”

2.2 Use of figures of speech

Great opportunities for increasing the expressiveness of judicial speech and creating emotionality in assessing certain circumstances of the case are provided to judicial speakers by stylistic syntax: figures of speech, stylistic figures, rhetorical devices, i.e. language means that give speech imagery and expressiveness.

A stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts is called antithesis.

F.N. Plevako used it to characterize the victim Maksimenko: “He fell and dropped, but he knew how to get up and raise your prey". You will find a magnificent antithesis in his speech on the case of the workers of the Konshinskaya factory; with its help, the conditions and causes that contributed to the commission of the crime were revealed.

In his speech on the case of the Georgian antithesis, it is an argumentative means for establishing the causes of the crime: “What happened to him, the trouble that befell him, is clear to all of us: he was rich- his robbed] he was honest- his dishonored; he I loved and was loved- his separated from wife and in his declining years they forced him to look for the caresses of a random acquaintance, some Fenya; he was a husband- his the bed was defiled; he was a father- him children were taken by force and in their eyes they defamed him…”

The speeches of pre-revolutionary Russian lawyers were characterized by statements with partial denial, based on the antithesis: “I don't say phrasesryu. Every word I say is checked.

Or not, I don't want to tell the story of the rod before you, I want to give only a few memories of the last days of her life.

Or: "The means of life are obtained not hard and honest work but by the fact that it pleases the visitors.

Or: “... be ashamed not Kelesh“They are not arsonists, but those other arsonists who inflated this case.”

This technique allows the court to focus on the second, opposing phenomenon.

Has great expressive power gradation- a stylistic device consisting of two or more units, placed in increasing intensity of action or quality. This allows you to recreate events, actions, thoughts and feelings in development. Thanks to this, the impression they make increases.

In the speech of A.F. Koni gradation creates a characterization of Yegor Emelyanov's wife: " So, this is what kind of personality: quiet, submissive, lethargic and boring, main - boring».

N.I. Kholev, with the help of gradation, shows his attitude to the analyzed circumstance of the case: “ The professor called this fact "strange"; I think that it can only be called sad, deeply regrettable". Here is how he characterizes the arguments: For the judge in his decision, weighty facts, solid, indisputable facts are necessary.».

The Krasnoyarsk prosecutor used gradation to assess the actions of the defendant, to characterize the defendant himself: “He kidnapped not just a tape recorder worth 80 rubles, but also the camera worth 30 rubles, stolen tights cost 5 rubles, grabbed even baby gift worth 2 rubles 50 kopecks". AT last example a double gradation is noted: ascending and descending. In the ascending one, verbs with different stylistic coloring are used: the official word kidnapped, interstyle - stolen and colloquial grabbed. Particle even enhances the growth of the quality of greed, illegibility. Descending gradation is built on reducing the value of stolen items. And both together they create the image of a person who does not disdain anything, who is able to offend even a child.

To highlight and emphasize certain phenomena, details in judicial speech, it is widely used inversion, - a stylistic device consisting in a deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence with the aim of semantic or emotional highlighting them. This creates expressiveness of speech, helps emotional impact.

Convince yourself of this using examples from the speeches of Russian lawyers: “Is it true that in the courts, according to the charter of November 20, we were taught to “flog the little ones for the pleasure of the big ones”? No, everyone is equal before the court, at least be a generalissimo».

Or: " Shakhmuradov is hiding something afraid of some of his dark deeds.

Or: “Her hostile feelings for her son-in-law have already been discussed. Mother-in-law was not at heart».

An inversion is also the setting of a definition after the word being defined: “Stepina saved up these their labor money».

It not only creates emotionality, but also gives persuasiveness to speech, argues this or that phenomenon. anaphora- a figure of speech consisting in the repetition of words and expressions.

Repetition allows you to draw the attention of the court to important points, emphasize the significance of any fact or argument, and also allows you to clarify the idea: “And he did not pass such a test, did not take it first serious test.

Anaphora helps the lawyer to prove the innocence of his client in one of the episodes: “Dolgareva explained that this unidentified criminal had kicked her husband in the side. It is from this blow her husband lost consciousness. It is from this blow, as she explained, he curled up in a ball.

Lawyer A.I. Rozhansky, using an anaphora, argues the guilt of a person who is involved in the case as a witness: “... it's him even at the time when she worked as a laboratory assistant, he brought her various imported goods and forced her to sell to her colleagues, and to return the proceeds to him; it's him sold the same goods to his dormitory mates; it's him persuaded her to go to work in the shipping company, in order to cash in on the imported goods; it's him before the last flight, he sold her five pounds sterling, which she illegally smuggled across the border ... ".

An example from the speech of I.M. Kisenishsky: “Everyone is looking forward to the outcome of this lawsuit; are waiting friends, colleagues, students... Waiting for the verdict wise and just waiting for the celebration law and truth!"

Repetition is an effective method of expressiveness. Here is a special intonation pattern: a repeated word is pronounced in a raised tone, which emphasizes its meaning.

The means of speech expression and emotionality is parceling- a stylistic device consisting in dividing a sentence into several intonation-semantic units.

These units (part of the utterance) are separated from the main part by a separating pause, for example: “But, comrade judges, is it possible, for one blow by a minor, from this blow there were no serious consequences at all, to ask the court for four years in prison? The man who first appeared in the dock. And with such a great feature.».

Citation - one of the most powerful, understandable and simple figures. It is incomparably more difficult to convey someone else's feeling, someone else's thought in descriptive terms than in those words in which this feeling or thought is expressed directly.

« Lover pointed out to wives a more convenient way to poison her husband". The jury listens and thinks it might or might not have happened. An experienced accuser will say: I did not hear their conversation, but it is not difficult for us to guess its content. She, a woman, hesitates, he, a man, decided firmly and persistently. " go he says, powder on the shelf, the husband dozed off; wake up and drink". In these words, the whole picture of the poisoning is conveyed, and if the assumption of incitement is already substantiated by the speaker, it seems to the jury that they are not hearing him, but the defendant himself at the scene of the crime. This technique is indispensable as an explanation of the motives of action, and as an addition to the characteristics, and as an expression of the moral assessment of the actions of a particular person.

Interrogative constructions in a monologue judicial speech, they are subject to the need to clarify all the circumstances of the case, give them the correct qualification, convince the judges of the correctness of the speaker's position, and also ensure a targeted and effective impact on the citizens present in the courtroom. Interrogative constructions are an important oratorical technique: attracting the attention of judges, they include them in active mental activity, they emphasize the importance of these evidence for the court's decision. And the court, following the development of the speaker's thought, performs the same mental work.

Increased emotionality of judicial speech gives rhetorical question. A rhetorical question is characterized by a contradiction between form and content: a negative interrogative sentence contains expressive affirmative information; an affirmative interrogative sentence also carries expressive, but negative information. A rhetorical question, as a rule, contains an assessment of what the speaker is talking about. Used in the introduction, it, emphasizing one or another judgment, creates the effect of emotional amplification and gives the emotional mood of the whole speech.

“... And then the children got out of control of their parents. And here is the result. And if parents continue to educate their children in this way, then what will we come to?". In this case, the rhetorical question makes it possible to pose moral problems for educational purposes.

Arguing with a procedural opponent, a court speaker quite often uses rhetorical questions expressing an expressive and emotional confident denial of the opposite position and an appeal to the court: “We are told that in order to commit this crime, the defendants entered into a criminal conspiracy. But, respected judge,aboutwhat conspiracy can be discussed if the defendants, as they explained,yetDidn't they really know each other?».

In addition to rhetorical evaluation questions, court speeches often use rhetorical questions containing a conclusion from what has been said. Their goal is to help the court draw the right conclusions, correctly qualify this or that fact, for example: “When asked how she could help him, Tishchenko said that he would help if he died, and that the Kuban River is big, it will wash away all traces. Isn't that a death threat?».

The rhetorical question that completes the logical unity has a resultative-investigative meaning; however, it contains an element of evaluation. This is the emotional reaction of the speaker. As a result of the use of interrogative structures, a psychological and intellectual contact is created between the speakers and judges, the passivity of the listeners disappears, and interest in the topic of the speech is maintained.

During trials, in addition to the above figures of speech and tropes, dialogue, message, response, rhetorical exclamations, rhetorical appeals are also widely used. However, hyperbole and grotesque are inappropriate in judicial speech, since there should not be any exaggerations in it. It also lacks humor. A.I. spoke about “inappropriate gaiety in court”. Urusov in his speech on the Mironovich case.

trope figure speech judicial

Conclusion

The choice of one or another visual means depends both on the culture of the speaker's thinking, on the degree of his eloquence, and on the specific speech situation, on the target setting of the speaker and the subject of speech.

Using pictorial means, the judicial orator should not forget that they will not save a speech that is weak in content, unconvincing. An unsubstantiated speech cannot be brightened up with rhetorical devices. They are only auxiliary material for an objective study of the case materials, for a fair assessment of certain facts; are not a goal, but a means, subject to the intention of the speaker, due to the content of speech. They are used as a means of success, not as a source of pleasure.

The successful use of expressiveness raises the level of text perception. The unsuccessful application of such a technique, on the contrary, lowers it. A text with unsuccessful use of expressiveness techniques determines the speaker as a person who is not intelligent, and this is the most difficult side effect in speech. .

The beauty of speech contributes to the success of the speaker, because it draws attention to what has been said. Speakers always strive to be understood by the audience. Decorated figurative speech is something that everyone understands, regardless of the level of education. Decorated speech is remembered better precisely because it is more expressive, the rhetorical trope makes it possible to enhance both the content and the external expression of what was said with the help of voice, facial expressions, and gesture.

The result of inaccurate wording in court can lead to inaccurate wording of the charge and the excessive use of pictorial means may also detract from the materials of the case.

Bibliography

1. Cherkasova M.N., Cherkasova L.N. Russian language and culture of speech. - M.: Dashkov Publishing and Trade Corporation, 2009.

2. Maksimova V.I. Stylistics and literary editing. - M .: Gardariki, 2007.

3. Chernyak V.D. Russian language and culture of speech. - M .: Education, 2007.

4. Stylistic encyclopedic Dictionary Russian language, edited by Kozhin M.N. - M .: Flint: Nauka, 2008.

5. Kuznetsova N.V. Russian language and culture of speech. - M .: Alter, 2008.

Articles:

1. Porohovshchikov P.S., The art of speech in court, M .: 2009.

2. Vinogradova T.Yu. Functional and stylistic features of public judicial speech: Dis. ... candidate of philology. - Voronezh, 2007.

3. Vinogradova T.Yu. Judicial eloquence of Russian lawyers of the past - M., 2007

4. Ivakina N.N. The culture of judicial speech. - M., 2008

5. Reznichenko I.M. Fundamentals of judicial speech - Vladivostok, 2009.

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TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or turns of speech in a figurative, allegorical sense. Trails - important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a kind of trail based on exaggeration ("rivers of blood", "sea of ​​laughter"). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in the ancient epic in different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially

V. Mayakovsky ("I", "Napoleon", "150,000,000"). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwined with other artistic means (metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc.). The opposite - litotes.

Book vocabulary is one of the main categories of literary vocabulary, along with colloquial vocabulary (see) and neutral vocabulary (see); has a predominant distribution in book speech (see).

K. l. characterized by thematic diversity - in accordance with the breadth and diversity of the problems of the texts of book speech, its functional and stylistic options. Usually to K. l. include socio-political vocabulary and terminology, often combined with socio-economic terminology; scientific (including philosophical) terminology; general scientific vocabulary (doctrine, concept, methodology, method, thesis, position, determinism, etc.); official business vocabulary, ch. arr. lexical clericalisms (see); common book vocabulary (advance, emergency, gratuitous, reality, doctrinaire, given, further, some, real, problematic, acceptable, etc.). In the composition of K. l. includes the vast majority of Slavicisms (see), borrowings (see) 18-20 centuries, international words (see). K. l. a certain generalization and abstractness of semantics are inherent, especially in comparison with razg. vocabulary. Against the backdrop of neutral and open. vocabulary K. l. characterized by increased expressive coloration, cf. stylistic synonyms mouth - mouth (neutr.), death - death (neutr.), declare - say (neutr.), broadcast - speak (neutr.) - chat (colloquial).

K. l. from the point of view of the expression contained in it, it is usually divided into “high”, or solemn, “poetic”, official, journalistic, bookish, or, according to the definition of A. N. Gvozdev, “moderately bookish”.

The main part of the "high" vocabulary is made up of Slavic words, for example. bless, blessing, resurrection, rebirth, rise to grow light"), in vain, a sign, irresistible, finger, transfiguration, proclaim, sacrament, etc., among which there are many archaisms (see). "High words are called words" rare situations " "(M. V. Panov), because they are used in ceremonial, festive, ritual and dramatic situations, in order to give speech a touch of solemnity, and can also be used to create a comic effect, for example. "But in anticipation of the desired minute self-hugging ... "(Saltykov-Shchedrin). Colloquial vocabulary is one of the main

categories of the vocabulary of the literary language, along with book (see. Book vocabulary) and neutral vocabulary (see). R. l. form words that are common prem. in colloquial speech (see). Like units of other levels of the language, functioning Ch. arr. in unfolding speech, R. l. focused on informal communication in conditions of interpersonal communication (easy communication and, accordingly, expression of thoughts, feelings, attitudes to the subject of conversation). Therefore, R. l. reduced expressive coloring.

R. l is subdivided into two main layers, unequal in volume: everyday vocabulary (majority of R. l.) and “lit. vernacular."

In everyday vocabulary from the lexical-semantic point of view, the following are distinguished. groups.

1) Situational occasional names (single-word). They are characterized by specific semantics (at the same time, the same object, phenomenon has several names), for example. the neutral word clothespins ("clips for attaching linen, dresses, etc., hung to a rope") corresponds to a number of declensions. words: clips, clips, clips, clamps, clamps, holders, hooks, bartacks, paper clips, hairpins.

2) Words with a general, broad meaning: a) nouns that act with “indefinite pronominal” meanings, for example: thing, subject, being, type, fact, piece, bandura, bagpipe, business, history, music, etc. [^Tolerance in itself is a good thing* (Pushkin); And the matter is already approaching dawn; Here such a story happened]; b) words with very general or amorphous semantics (words-“sponges”), for example: temporary house, piece of wood, eatery, piece of iron, glass, normal, simple, direct, empty, etc. The meaning of such words is specified by the situation and context; for example, a cafe, a canteen, a snack bar, a buffet, etc., can be called an eatery, and the meaning of the adjective simple is specified in such oppositions as simple - with patterns, - with decoration, - with cream, - silk, - nylon, - festive, - extra, - lux, etc. For the words of the 1st and 2nd groups, clarifying, concretizing contexts and speech situations are necessary. 3) Words of ascertaining meaning (dad, train, canteen, locker room, etc.). The “decrease” of such words is obvious when comparing

with their neutral synonyms: father, electric train, canteen, wardrobe. 4) Estimated words. In R. l. words with a negative assessment predominate: dunce, bungler, shantrap, snooze, drape, etc. A negative assessment in the contexts of coll. speeches acquire neutral words (dog, bitch, bull, mare, cf. eagle - with a positive assessment - about a brave man). Words with a positive assessment: hare, honey (appeal), little boy.

From the point of view of the functional (functionally expressive) selection of c.-l. layers, groupings in everyday vocabulary presents significant difficulties due to the diffuseness of the boundaries between its categories, fragmentation and a certain syncretism of emotional and expressive characteristics, the ability of many words to express a number of expressive shades. This is primarily due to the situational nature of the speech, which creates a dependence of semantics and especially expressive coloring of words on specific situations and contexts of their use.

From the functional-expressive point of view, two series of phenomena stand out. One row - 1) ascertaining vocabulary, devoid of expressive-evaluative shades (five - "school grade" or "five rubles"; look, get sick), and 2) expressively colored vocabulary (significantly large in volume), it is also familiar, to -ruyu is distinguished by dynamic expressiveness, emotional intensity, a wide range of expressive coloring - from friendly familiar to roughly familiar and abusive.

Another row - 1) neutral-everyday vocabulary. It is used in situations characterized by a balanced relationship between the interlocutors, a calm, serious and / or friendly attitude when discussing Ph.D. questions. It includes the words Preim. friendly familiar (including joking), for example: darling, gang, son, horse, tremble ("fear for k.-l."), rush, rush, have time, etc .; 2) colloquial vocabulary. It is realized in affective speech, generated by various kinds of extraordinary situations, suggesting an emotionally elevated, tense state of the participants in the dialogue (polylogue). This includes ch. arr. rough familiar vocabulary preim. with a negative assessment [balabolit, bend over ("die"), devilry, etc.]. Words with a positive assessment are also possible (head, trouble, zdbrovo).

Artistic speech

Artistic speech

Artistic speech is speech that realizes the aesthetic functions of language. Artistic speech is divided into prose and poetry.

Artistic speech:

Formed in oral folk art;

Allows you to transfer signs from one object to another by similarity (metaphor) and by adjacency (metonymy);

Forms and develops the polysemy of the word;

Gives speech a complicated phonological organization. artistic speech

expression of the figurative content of a work of art by means of language. Externally, artistic speech may not differ in any way from ordinary colloquial speech, but it performs primarily an aesthetic function. Artistic speech with each used word, construction, etc., realizes the author's intention and reveals the content of the work. Language acts both as a means of representation and as a subject of representation, since the author, on the one hand, uses it to describe events, people and objects, and on the other hand, together with readers, reflects on the linguistic features of the characters' speech.

One of the striking features of artistic speech is the transfer of features of the characters of the work (the so-called speech characteristics) with the help of language means. For example, in "Dead Souls" by N. V. Gogol characteristic feature the speech of the landowner Manilov is exaggerated politeness, the use of diminutive suffixes. Along with a description of the appearance, actions, the place where this hero lives, his characterization with the help of artistic speech helps the reader to understand the image. The means of artistic speech can convey the characteristics and the author's assessment not only of the characters, but also of any object and phenomenon depicted in the work.

Another important function of artistic speech, which also plays on the double use of linguistic means, is the separation of the author's speech from the speech of the characters. The extreme expression of this is a tale, where the author, remaining in the shadows, “gives” the word to some character. Usually, artistic speech in a tale has striking features (common, dialect words, etc.) and, as it were, unites the author and the reader, who look at the narrator from the side. A vivid example of a tale is the stories of M. M. Zoshchenko, where the main narrator is a poorly educated person, a worker or a small employee from the story “An Honest Citizen (letter to the police)”, which is expressed approximately like this: and threw me money, which fell on the stove; and their poodle has slandered and does not let go. Artistic speech can also reflect the switching of presentation - the transfer of the word to one of the characters, his internal monologue; for example, in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky, where the so-called. "polyphony" (M. M. Bakhtin) of the voices of the characters and the author is created by means of artistic speech.

Publicistic style of speech. General characteristics.

Serves a wide area of ​​public relations: politics, economics, culture. Reflects everything that is currently in the spotlight. It is implemented in the language of the media, radio, television, newspaper journalism.

A wide thematic range of journalistic texts: issues of ideology, philosophy, culture, economics, everyday problems.

An assessment of facts, events is directly expressed, the material is presented in such a way as to create public opinion.

2 functions:

informative

Influencing

The interaction of these functions determines the nature of the style, which predetermines the language specificity of the style.

The implementation of the informative function requires the same language means - speech standards, clichés that are reproduced in speech and make it possible to quickly transmit information, neutral means.

The influencing function involves the use of other means in texts: evaluative vocabulary, expressive means of morphology and syntax in order to convey the author's attitude.

The combination of expression and standard is a characteristic feature of newspaper journalism. This is where the stamps come from.

Social appraisal - social appraisal changes with changes in society.

Positive and negative evaluators. Positive ones characterize everything connected with the social system (at that time), negative-evaluative ones are used to characterize the capitalist system.

Since the 1990s, the effect of social evaluation has been preserved, but this evaluation can be expressed indirectly, for example, using irony. Evaluation manifests itself in more subtle forms, which determines the structure of speech.

Author category. On the one hand, the author is a genuine real, private person, which is associated with documentary, emotional and subjective speech. The author of the journalistic text speaks for himself, therefore, personal forms are widely represented (pronouns and verbs of 1.2 persons). But on the other hand, the author is not only private, but also social person. This reflects the socio-political principle, and not only the subjective. Therefore, rhetorical devices are widely used. Methods of controversy and social analysis are involved. The combination of two hypostases determine wide range journalistic works: from analytical to personal-biased. The latter are characteristic of modern journalism.

The personal and social principles manifest themselves in different ways in different periods of the country's development. Modernity is characterized by intimization, orientation towards a conversation with the reader.

There is a tendency to dialogic speech, which entails the use of colloquial speech. In this regard, some change in genres is indicative. The role of the interview is increasing, which, on the one hand, occupies a significant place and becomes part of other genres.

Traditionally distinguished:

Information genres (chronicle, information note, reportage, Internet)

Analytical genres (article, correspondence, artistic journalism - essay, feuilleton, essay, review)

The main form of implementation is written, but it can also be implemented orally (parliamentary speeches, speeches at meetings, public organizations). Journalistic style occupies a leading place in the stylistic structure of the Russian language system, as it now influences the development of the literary language as a whole. The linguistic taste of native speakers of the literary language is being formed. It is in the journalistic style that everything new is tested, new speech norms are formed.

Lexical Features scientific style of speech

The main purpose of a scientific text, its vocabulary is to designate phenomena, objects, name them and explain, and for this, first of all, nouns are needed.

The most common features of scientific style vocabulary are:

a) the use of words in their direct meaning;

b) lack of figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, poetic symbols, hyperbole;

c) wide use of abstract vocabulary and terms.

In scientific speech, there are three layers of words:

The words are stylistically neutral, i.e. common, used in different styles.

For example: he, five, ten; in, on, for; black, white, large; goes, happens, etc.;

General scientific words, i.e. occurring in the language of different sciences, and not of any one science.

For example: center, force, degree, magnitude, speed, detail, energy, analogy, etc.

This can be confirmed by examples of phrases taken from texts of different sciences: administrative center, center of the European part of Russia, city center; center of gravity, center of movement; the center of the circle.

The terms of any science, i.e. specialized vocabulary. You already know that the main thing in the term is accuracy and its unambiguity. The main features of the scientific style of speech

The most common specific feature of this style of speech is the logical presentation. Any coherent statement should have this quality. But the scientific text is distinguished by its emphasized, strict logic. All parts in it are rigidly connected in meaning and are arranged strictly sequentially; conclusions follow from the facts presented in the text. This is done by means typical of scientific speech: linking sentences with repeated nouns, often in combination with a demonstrative pronoun.

Adverbs also indicate the sequence of development of thought: first, first of all, then, then, further; as well as introductory words: firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, so, therefore, vice versa; conjunctions: because, because, so that, therefore. The predominance of allied communication emphasizes the greater connection between sentences.

Accuracy is another typical feature of the scientific style of speech. Semantic accuracy (unambiguity) is achieved by careful selection of words, the use of words in their direct meaning, the wide use of terms and special vocabulary. In the scientific style, the repetition of key words is considered the norm.

Abstraction and generalization certainly permeate every scientific text. Therefore, it is widely used abstract concepts which are difficult to imagine, see, feel. In such texts there are often words with an abstract meaning, for example: emptiness, speed, time, strength, quantity, quality, law, number, limit; formulas, symbols, symbols, graphs, tables, diagrams, diagrams, drawings are often used

Official business style of speech

The official business style of speech is used in the field of legal relations, service, production.

Main style features:

a) accuracy, not allowing any other interpretation;

b) non-personal character;

c) standardization, stereotyping of the construction of the text;

d) obligatory-prescriptive character.

Let's take a look at each of these features. The accuracy of formulations for legislative texts is manifested primarily in the use of special terminology, in the unambiguity of non-terminological vocabulary. A typical feature of business speech is the limited possibilities of synonymous replacement; repetition of the same words, mostly terms.

The impersonal nature of business speech is expressed in the fact that it lacks the forms of the verbs of the 1st and 2nd person and the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, and the forms of the 3rd person of the verb and pronoun are often used in an indefinitely personal meaning . In addition, collective nouns are often used: elections, citizens, army, weapons.

The standardization of this style of speech is characterized by an abundance of stable turns of business speech: after the expiration of the term, to enter into force, in in due course, not subject to appeal, etc.

The prescriptive nature of business documents encourages the use of an indefinite form of the verb, sometimes chains of verbs - interconnected infinitives. To enhance the categoricalness, stylistically colored adverbial words are used: it is necessary to decisively eliminate, it is obliged to fulfill unquestioningly. For example: An entrepreneur is obliged: to fulfill the obligations arising from the law .., to conclude ... employment contracts ... to fully pay off all employees .., to carry out social ... and other types of insurance .., to comply with decisions ... (Law RF "On enterprises and entrepreneurial activity").

Publishing process

PUBLISHING PROCESS - the process of preparing and publishing a publication from the conclusion of the author. agreement or consideration of the original proposed by the author before the delivery of the circulation to the bookselling network or the enterprise distributing publications by subscription.

I. p. includes several stages: 1) editorial - editorial evaluation and preparation of the ed. original for production; 2) publishing - proofreading and technical. markup ed. the original, as well as the preparation and processing of the original layout; 3) production - a set in a printing house, reproduction work, printing, stitching, binding and finishing work in the same place; 4) marketing (flows in parallel with all the others or even ahead of them).

During the proofreading exchange, the stages are interleaved: the production process is interrupted one or more times for proofreading in the publishing house, and, thus, the editorial and publishing. stages at this time are ongoing.

In the editorial and publishing the stages also include reading and checking blank sheets, approval of the signal copy for publication; circulation acceptance; to the production department - distribution of legal copies according to the established list and delivery of circulation. Proofreading may be included in the editorial, and not the ed. stage in those cases when it is carried out in the editorial office, and not in the proofreader.

trails (from Greek trope - turn, change) - these are turns of speech in which words or expressions are used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. A trope is any change in the meaning and meaning of a word, any use of a word in its non-basic meaning.

The ratio of direct and figurative meanings is based either on the similarity of the compared phenomena, or on their close relationship, or on their contrast. Tropes reinforce the statement due to the fact that emotionally expressive shades are added to the logical content.

The most common classification of trails is as follows. They are divided into two groups. The first one includes word trails. These are metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, antonomasia, onomatopoeia, catachresis, metalepsis, etc. The second group consists of sentence trails. These include: allegory, epithet, emphasis, paraphrase, irony, hyperbole, etc.

Let's give a description of the most frequently used word tropes.

Metaphor there is a transfer of the properties of one object (phenomenon) to another according to the principle of their similarity in some respect or contrast (sometimes they say: a metaphor is an abbreviated similarity). There are four options for such a property transfer:

a) things creature(“solid man”, “stone heart”, “thoughts fluctuate”);

b) a living being on an inanimate object (“gloomy sea”, “face of the earth”, “rays laugh”, “thirsty desert”, “unbridled winds”);

c) an inanimate object to an inanimate one (“boiling sand in the waves”, “the sky is colored with stars”);

d) a living being to an action or process (“greedy gaze”, “flying thoughts”).

Metonymy - replacing one word with another based on the relationship of their meanings by adjacency. Its essence is that the name of one object is used instead of the name of another object on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. Between direct and figurative meanings there is any real dependence. Usually there are several types of such dependencies:

a) between the object and the material from which the object is made (“Our athletes brought gold and silver from international competitions”, i.e. gold and silver medals);

b) between content and containing (“He ate two plates”);

c) between the action and the instrument of this action (“He lived by his pen”);

e) between the place and the people who are in this place (“The audience listened to the speaker with bated breath”).

Synecdoche - a kind of metonymy, the use of the name of the part instead of the name of the whole, the individual instead of the general, or vice versa. The following options are used:

a) species instead of genus ("flower" instead of "rose");

b) the whole instead of the part (“the Egyptians quench their thirst with the Nile” instead of “water from the Nile”);

c) a part instead of the whole (“one hundred heads” instead of “one hundred people”);

d) plural instead of singular (“he speaks redder than Cicero” instead of “Cicero”);

e) singular instead of plural (“Russian warrior triumphs” instead of “Russian warriors”);

e) a substance instead of an object made of this substance ("pierced by iron" instead of "sword").

Antonomasia - this is the replacement of a proper noun by a common noun or vice versa. Typical use cases:

a) a proper name is used instead of a common noun ("Hercules" instead of "strong", "Cicero" instead of "eloquent");

b) common noun instead of proper (“Apostle says” instead of “Paul”; “poet writer” instead of “Virgil”);

c) ancestors or founders instead of descendants (“Slavens” instead of “Slavs”);

d) instead of a proper name, the name of the place of birth ("Arpinian", that is, a native of Arpin, instead of "Cicero"; "Trojan", that is, a resident of Troy, instead of "Aeneas");

Let's take a look at some of the sentence tropes.

Allegory - this is the capture of something abstract, some idea in a specific image, a type of imagery based on allegory. Almost all the parables with which Jesus Christ addresses his disciples are based precisely on this path. For example, the parable of the prodigal son (obviously, this refers to a repentant sinner or a newly converted pagan).

Epithet - figurative “definition”, highlighting either one of the essential properties (“proud horse”), or metaphorically * transferring property (“living water”), or highlighting an invariable sign (usually in fairy tales, epics, songs: “good fellow”, “ red girl").

Paraphrase - replacement of the direct name with a verbose description, which contains signs of a person not directly named, the subject: “the brilliant author of the novel War and Peace” instead of “Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy”, “the first cosmonaut of the planet Earth” instead of “Yu.A. Gagarin").

These trails do not exhaust their entire list. If you need a deeper study of them, you should refer to the specialized literature.

At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that the use of tropes involves not only knowledge of their types and the content of each of them, but also the mechanism of formation of tropes, which is based on the ability to transform concepts. All metaphors, for example, are based on the multiplication of concepts. Metonymy and synecdoche imply the ability to form generic concepts, to find their types. The structure that unites all paths is proportion.

For example, consider the metaphor "brush of grapes". Let's write it as a proportion:

grape brush

genus liana part of the hand

The proportion reads as follows: the ratio of grapes to the genus of vines is equal to the ratio of the brush to part of the hand. It follows from the proportion: grapes are a genus of vines that have the property of a hand. In the definition obtained, the specific feature "to have the properties of a hand" is not proper for the generic concept "genus of lianas", t.e. not characteristic of him in the main sense. Therefore, a metaphor is a definition in which the specific feature is not proper for the generic one.

If a metaphor requires knowledge of all members of the proportion, is built by multiplying its members, then with metonymy and synecdoche, as a rule, only one member of the proportion is given. The relation of its Parts is the essence of these paths.

Consider the metonymy "to eat a bowl of soup". It is formed by the proportion:

soup content

Assimilation of containing instead of content and creates dan ny trope.

The synecdoche "to have wheels" is formed by the proportion:

wheel part

car whole

The assimilation of a part instead of the whole forms this trope. If the meanings of words change with the help of tropes, then the meaning of phrases and sentences changes with the help of figures.

Figure of speech - This is a syntactic construction that has an emotionally expressive coloring. A rhetorical figure is any deviation from some generally accepted norm. There are figures of speech and figures of thought. The first change from retelling in other words, the second do not change.

Word shapes usually divided into three groups:

1. 
   addition figures;
2. 
   decrease figures;
3. 
   location or displacement figures.

The first group includes: anaphora, epiphora, simploc, ana-diplosis, gradation and polysyndeton.

Anaphora - this is a figure that occurs when, for greater expression and persuasiveness, one word (or several words) is repeated at the beginning of each semantic period or thought. Here is an example of an anaphora from a poem by the outstanding Russian poet V. Khlebnikov:

When horses die, they breathe, When grasses die, they dry up, When suns die, they go out, When people die, they sing songs.

Epiphora - repetition of a word or group of words at the end of several verses or phrases. This figure, for example, was used by O. Mandelstam in an epigram on the artist N.I. Altman:

This is the artist Altman,

A very old man.

In German it means Altman -

A very old man.

Simplock - figure, which is a combination of anaphora and epiphora. As an example, we give the following lines of P. Vasiliev:

Why are you, my song, silent?

What are you, my fairy tale, silent?

Anadyplosis - repetition of the last word (or last words) of a verse or rhythmic-intonational unit (colon) at the beginning of the next:

Oh, spring without end and without edge - Without end and without edge dream!

(A. Blok)

polysyndeton - repetition of the union, which is perceived as redundant, but creating a certain effect of the sublimity of style:

And the heart beats in rapture, And for him resurrected again And the deity, and inspiration, And life, and tears, and love.

(A. S. Pushkin)

The second group (decreasing figures) includes ellipsis, sylleps, asyndeton.

Ellipsis is called omission of words or sentences that are easily implied. The use of this figure creates an expression effect. For example: “He lit a cigarette at a gas station - the deceased was 22 years old” (American joke).

Silleps - combining text elements that are essentially uncombinable: “I drank tea with cognac and a lieutenant” (BUT. P. Chekhov).

Asindeton - such a construction of sentences in which conjunctions are omitted to enhance expression. An example is the following lines of A.S. Pushkin:

Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts, Drum beat, screams, rattle.

The third group (figures of location or displacement) consists of various types of inversion and parallelism, as well as chiasm.

Inversion - violation of the "natural" word order. Its main types are anastrophe and hyperbaton. Antistrophe - this is a rearrangement of adjacent words to highlight them, enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: "My bells, steppe flowers ..." Hyperbaton - separating adjacent words to highlight them, enhance the expressiveness of speech. Here is how AC used this figure. Pushkin: “And the guests of this alien land are not reassured by the death of this alien land” (i.e., guests of this alien land, not reassured even by death).

Parallelism - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text to create a single poetic or artistic image. It is structurally subdivided into isocolon, antithesis, homeotelevton.

Isocolon - this is a figure of parallel arrangement of parts of speech in adjacent sentences. For example, V. Kamensky has such an isocolon:

I am a strange wandererstrange countries.

Antithesis - a figure based on a sharp opposition of images and concepts. For example: "Shamefully indifferent to good and evil" (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Homeotelevtdn - this is a kind of endings, a kind of embryo of rhyme. Usually widely used in rhythmic prose. As an example, let us cite the following lines of the famous Persian poet Saadi:

Be afraid! When an orphan cries, Height fluctuates over the world. Bow down to him, O wise, merciful one. Comfort him, follow him diligently.

Chiasmus - a figure, which consists in the fact that in two adjacent sentences built on parallelism, the second sentence is built in the reverse order of members. In other words, chiasm is a cross arrangement of parallel terms in two adjacent sentences of the same form. In an excerpt from the notebooks of K.S. Stanislavsky contains two chiasma at once:

There are people who know how to take only the bad from art. They are harmful to art, and art is harmful to them. But there are people who know how to take, or at least strive to take only the highest from art. These people need art, and art needs them.

Figures of Thought do not have such a clear classification as the figures of the word. Therefore, we restrict ourselves to the characteristics of the most common of them.

Definition. It is very important to emphasize the fundamental difference between this figure and the definition in logic with its strict rules. Here we are talking about the impact on the listeners, and therefore the definition (as a figure of rhetoric) has a qualitatively new meaning. Here is the definition of science, which M.V. Lomonosov cites as a model characterizing this figure:

Science is a clear knowledge of the truth, enlightenment of the mind, immaculate amusement in life, praise of youth, old age, a support, a builder of cities, a fortress of regiments, a joy in misfortune, an ornament in happiness, a faithful and unceasing companion everywhere.

In clear accordance with the requirements of rhetoric (but not logic), K.S. Stanislavsky:

Theater is big family with which you live soul to soul or quarrel for life and death. The theater is a beloved woman, sometimes capricious, evil, ugly and selfish, sometimes charming, affectionate, generous and beautiful. The theater is a beloved child, unconsciously cruel and naively charming. He capriciously demands everything, and there is no strength to refuse him anything. The theater is a second homeland that feeds and sucks strength. The theater is a source of mental anguish and unknown joys. The theater is air and wine, which you need to breathe more often and get drunk.

Saying is a summary of general ideas, usually with an edifying purpose. For example: “Happiness is afraid of the strong, oppresses the lazy”, “What is difficult to endure is sweet to remember”, “Speed ​​is the mother of success”, “Clarity is the best decoration of a truly deep thought”, “Philosophy is a microscope of thought”.

questioning or rhetorical question. In this case, the question is asked not to clarify something unknown, but for a stronger, more vivid depiction of things or events that are certainly known. For example, rhetorical questions can be found in the poems of A. Akhmatova:

And if I die, then who will write My verses to you, Who will help the words not yet spoken become ringing? omission, or paralepsy - this is a figure when, according to the ancient rhetorician Demetrius, the orator, “having expressed everything he wanted, nevertheless says that he misses it, as if he had another, stronger, thing that he could say 1 . A classic example is the third philippic of Demosthenes (a speech exposing the aggressiveness and treachery of the Macedonian king Philip II):

I will not speak of Olynthes, nor of Meton, nor of Apollonia, nor of those thirty-two cities that lie on the way to Thrace.

Prosopopoyia. Through it, listeners are forced to imagine that with the words that the speaker utters, they are addressed by their homeland, ancestors, mother, etc. Demetrius gives this example:

Imagine that these words and these reproaches are addressed to you by your ancestors, or Hellas, or your homeland, only assuming the form of a woman.

Default - this is a deliberate break in thought, after which a new semantic period begins, emphasizing the significance of what is omitted. Cicero brilliantly took advantage of this figure, referring to Herennius:

Do you now dare to say this, which recently to a strange house?., I don’t dare to say, in order, having said what is proper for you, not to say that it is indecent for me.

Let us name some more figures of thought, the essence of which should be clear without a detailed explanation. It - responsible (a question is asked to oneself, to which an answer is given), appeal, indication, message, liberty, doubt, desire, supplication, admiration, exclamation etc.

Paths - the use of a word or expression in a figurative sense, a way to show a phenomenon from a new, unexpected side. All paths are based on comparison: visual, auditory images, images based on tactile sensations. It is important that in the minds of the addressee and the speaker there are simultaneously two meanings, two meanings of such a word - direct and figurative. This is a metaphor, metonymy, irony. The figurative, figurative use of a word or expression will never leave the addressee indifferent. Rhetorical tropes ensure the implementation of the third law of rhetoric - the law of the emotionality of speech. Paths enable the listener to enjoy the speech addressed to him, and the speaker to involve the addressee in joint reflection. Thus, they also serve to fulfill the fourth law of rhetoric - the law of pleasure. As the famous Roman rhetorician Quintilian noted: “He who listens willingly understands better and believes more easily.”

Metaphor is one of the ways to transfer the name of a word in language and speech. It is carried out by transferring the name from one object to another based on external or internal similarity.

Example: “From the testimony of witnesses and victims, given by them during the investigation and in court, a chilling picture of the criminal revelry of militants arises” (V. Ustinov). As you can see, the metaphorical transfer is based on a hidden comparison. Chilling picture and chilling permafrost of the North. The metaphorical meaning of the word in explanatory dictionaries usually accompanied by the litter "trans.". “The motives for which it [the court case] returned to a new investigation, the entire course of the present process, where all the circumstances of the case were re-examined for the third time in the most thorough manner, clearly demonstrate how responsibly the court approaches the fulfillment of its high duty” (V Postanogov).

High. 1. Large in length from bottom to top or far located in such a direction (high mountain, high house). 2. trans. Outstanding in its value, very important, honorable. This metaphor is characteristic of the book style: high debt, high reward.

Metonymy is one of the ways of transferring the name of a word in language and speech. It consists in the use of one word instead of another on the basis of proximity, contiguity in time or space, based on the cause-and-effect relationships that have been established between phenomena, events, facts.

For example, we call silver items (spoons, forks, dishes) silver: I bought silverware (I bought not the precious metal of a grayish-white color with a sheen, but items made from it). Here we see metonymy in that the object (silver) is designated by the material from which it is made (silver). “The Alexandrov family was a big friendly house...” (V. Viktorovich). Home is used here in the sense of positive relationships within the family.

The pun is a play on words. “Yes, we have a murderous untruth before us, but there is no murder” (F. Plevako). It usually assumes an ironic context: If a man of great intelligence decides to do something stupid, he will do something that all fools will not invent. Oxymoron - a combination of incompatible words belonging to different parts speeches: public loneliness. Often found in author's texts: "The Living Corpse" (L. Tolstoy), "Dead Souls" (N. Gogol), "Hot Snow" (Yu. Bondarev). “It doesn’t matter that the“ old New Year ”is celebrated not on the tenth, but on the thirteenth of January” (L. Sokolova). In modern legal speech, the oxymoron friendly takeover (of enterprises, firms, companies) has appeared. Its antithesis is the expression hostile takeover.

Personification - endowing an inanimate object with phenomena, properties of a living, animate being. Often found in journalistic style of speech.

“The conscience has awakened in the criminal. Yes, we have been waiting for this moment for a long time ”(from the newspapers). Compare: People woke up. “I believe that in the case of Terkin the voice of doubt about his guilt cannot be silenced, and this is enough for him to be acquitted” (Y. Kiselev).

paraphrase- replacement of a single word with a turn of speech for the purpose of greater expressiveness. The guardian of the law is the judge. Third Rome - Moscow. The use of paraphrases is typical for official business style: cash (money)

Allegory - the use of words and expressions in a figurative (allegorical) sense: firefighters (firefighters). Allegory always requires clarification.

For example, the Soviet lawyer V. Viktorovich crowned his defense speech with the following allegory: “In 1951, in the magazine“ New world"The undeservedly forgotten" Notes of a Judge "by Shalaginov were published. The author managed to speak remarkably poetically and figuratively about our court.

He compares the judge to an arborist walking through the forest, in love with life, with the forest, with every tree. Nothing escapes his penetrating gaze. Here is an old, rotten stump that needs to be uprooted, here is a dry branch that cripples a tree, there are weeds from which it is necessary to free the young growth, covering the clear, clear sky above it. And here, he says, “a shattered tree. It requires a firm sympathetic hand - you need to put a support, sprinkle bare roots with fresh earth ... "

“A shattered tree”, requiring a “firm sympathetic hand ...” - I can’t find more expressive words that could define the tasks of justice in this case.

Comparison- this trope is a prototype of a metaphor. “Do not be afraid to listen sometimes to the delirium of the patient: the destroyed human body, like the old ruins of an ancient temple, with their remains sometimes more eloquently testifies to the truth than living and healthy people ”(F. Plevako). Comparison is based on the method of analogy and comparison of natural, social and other phenomena. “The real thing is like a stick that has two ends” (V. Spasovich).

Epithets are a stylistic figure of speech. Bright, memorable definitions in the text carry an informational function, inform, convey to the reader the author's meaning of the statement. “But under all conditions, the evidence should not be ridiculous, the accusation should not be inconsistent, and the verdict should not be inconsistent, refuting itself” (G. Reznik).

Rhetorical figure of speech means a turn of speech and is a special form of syntactic construction, with the help of which the expressiveness of speech is enhanced. It is appropriate to quote P. Sergeevich, who said: “In any practical reasoning, not only what is said is important. But as said. Rhetoric indicates some artificial methods of strengthening thoughts with the help of the form of their presentation. Consider such figures of speech, the need to use which is obvious. They are now found in almost any public speech, and among educated interlocutors - in any conversation; efficient and easy to use.

We single out several groups of rhetorical figures. First group figures in which the structure of the phrase is determined by the ratio of the meaning of the words in it. These are antithesis, gradation and inversion.

Antithesis - a combination in one context of words with different meanings. “The fate of the soldiers will be so mitigated, the fate of the officer will be so aggravated” (V. Spasovich). Often used in the titles of various texts: "Theory and Practice" (K. Pobedonostsev), "Reason and Feeling" (P. Sergeich), "The Word is Living and Dead" (N. Gal). “In unity we will stand. Without unity, we will fall. Without unity, a return to the gloomy Middle Ages is inevitable. In unity, we can save the world and show it the right path” (W. Churchill). Antithesis helps the author to express his main idea more clearly. For example, the Soviet lawyer Y. Kiselev ended his defense speech in this way: “The voice of confidence sounds loud and authoritative. Quiet and unhurried voice of doubt. But until the voice of doubt is silenced, the voice of certainty cannot be heard. The antithesis is based on a pair of antonyms, linguistic or contextual. An antithesis is a form in which aphoristic judgments are clothed. Contradiction occupies an important position among the already mentioned generalities. This figure helps to develop an idea about the subject, does not tire the listener, and most importantly, it is usable always and everywhere, as it corresponds to the eternal contradictions of life: life and death, joy and sorrow.

Gradation - enhances the impression due to a gradual change (increase or decrease) in the meaning of a word or phrase. Here we are talking about the degree of expressiveness or expressiveness of the expression of a word, phrase.

The gradation can be ascending or descending. Ascending gradation is more common, when each subsequent word reinforces the previous one. This is exactly how he arranged the phrases in his appeal to the court F.N. Plevako (“The Case of the Murder of Attorney Staroselsky”): “Your role is different: your word is the last word in essence, the word that passes into life, like the word of freedom or death alive. Your final word is the highest act of fairness and justice; it does not expect criticism, and therefore it must be furnished with all possible conditions that ensure its truth.

Descending gradation, on the contrary, shows a decrease, a decrease in words in a sentence. “It is a crime to deprive a person of freedom for a day, for an hour, for a minute, but the father's measure against the recalcitrant is not subject to condemnation” (F. Plevako).

Inversion - This is an indirect, reverse, word order in a sentence. The direct word order is called the usual, most common, reverse - less common. Let's go to the field - straight; went into the field - the opposite. By changing the order of words in a sentence, we change the meaning of the statement.

Use inversion to pay attention to the main, key, word in the statement. It can be either at the beginning or at the end of a phrase. “The long and difficult stage of the judicial investigation has ended” (V. Ustinov). The direct word order would be as follows: The multi-day and difficult stage of the judicial investigation is over. “He was so extraordinary, this story. (V. Viktorovich). Accordingly: This story was so extraordinary.

Second group figures of speech are such rhetorical figures that make it easier to listen, understand and remember speech. These are the figures: repetition, parallelism and period.

Repeat as a rhetorical device, this is a repetition of a topic, a repetition of the general thesis of a speech, a repetition of key words. Moreover, repetition creates the rhythm of speech, makes it in a certain sense musical, and therefore easy to learn. The listener is already tuned in to a certain pattern of the phrase, he understands what to expect. These repetitions include anaphora and epiphora.

Anaphora - unanimity. Words in a sentence begin with the same word or phrase. This achieves a kind of parallelism in the structure of speech, its special logic:

“When they [bandits] in masks and without masks grabbed children, women and old people on the street. They beat them with rifle butts, shot over their heads and directly at people as a warning.

When they broke down doors, broke into houses and apartments, dragged frightened citizens out of there.

When they shot through the door, not knowing who was behind the door: a child, a woman, or an old man? (V. Ustinov).

Epiphora- repetition of the final elements of the phrase. “I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why a titular adviser?” (N.V. Gogol).

Parallelism- this is the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech, compares or contrasts phenomena: The young are dear to us everywhere, the old people are honored everywhere (L.-K.). A cloud is moving across the sky, a barrel is floating on the sea.Period- This is a special construction of the phrase. A periodically organized sentence consists of two parts: ascending and descending in intonation. They are separated by a culmination - the highest point of rise in movement as meaning. So are the voices. This point is marked with a pause. The beginning and end of the phrase is pronounced calmly. “When we are told about a great crime…; when we think. that it was directed against the whole family...; when his victim is a weak girl...; each of us, indignant, takes the side of the offended ”(P. Sergeyich) .; introduction to the text of fictional speech - the actual speaker or someone else's.

polyunion- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the deliberate use of repeating unions for logical and intonational underlining of the members of the sentence connected by unions, to enhance the expressiveness of speech: Thin rain was sown on the forests, and on the fields, and on the wide Dnieper (Gogol). The ocean was moving before my eyes, and it swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity. (Korolenko).

Asyndeton- this is a stylistic figure, consisting in the intentional omission of unions between members of a sentence or sentences. Gives the statement swiftness, saturation with impressions within the overall picture: Night, street, lamp, pharmacy, meaningless and dim light. (A. Blok).

Third group- these are those rhetorical forms that are used as methods of dialogization of monologue speech, and therefore attract the attention of the addressee. These are figures of rhetorical address; Rhetorical exclamation; rhetorical question, approval; belittling. This can include irony, allusion.

These rhetorical figures will be discussed in more detail in the chapter "Fundamentals of Public Speaking".

Rhetorical question- a stylistic figure that is in form interrogative sentence. “But is this true, real freedom?”(K. Pobedonostsev). Such a phrase does not imply an answer. Emotionally influencing the listener, the rhetorical question already contains the answer: "No, this is not true, not real freedom."

Irony is a sly allegory. Words and phrases are arranged in such a way that the seriousness of what is reported in the text is called into question.

Lawyer G. Reznik is ironic about the competence of experts: “Needless to say: the most valuable information, which, as the court considered, the spy Pasko was going to pass on to his enemies - Japanese journalists?! One could laugh at state secret specialists if, on the basis of their wild conclusions, people were not sent to jail.”

| “Those were the days when Prussian militarism, in its own words, “hacked its way through a small, weak neighboring country (Belgium), whose neutrality and independence the Germans swore not only to respect, but also to protect. But maybe we are wrong, maybe our memory is cheating on us? Dr. Goebbels, with his propaganda apparatus, recounts in his own way the events that took place twenty-five years ago. Listen to them, so you might think that Belgium invaded Germany. These peaceful Prussians lived for themselves, harvesting their crops, when suddenly evil Belgium, at the instigation of England and the Jews, attacked them. And of course, she would have captured Berlin if corporal Adolf Hitler had not arrived in time to help, who turned everything differently. The fable does not end there. ... "(W. Churchill).

Phraseological units- stable turns in language and speech. Used in a figurative sense. For example, in his speeches A.F. Horses repeatedly used turns: in broad daylight, God knows, ends in water, float to the surface, unclean on hand, make ends meet, live with the world, etc. They create a special imagery of judicial speech: tear their hair, wash their hands, do from an elephant fly, etc.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

DONETSK NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

"Tropes and rhetorical figures in speech"

Performed:

2nd year student

group 0509 ukr

Faculty of Accounting and Finance

Khalil D.H.

Teacher

Donetsk 2010

1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..3

2. Classification and types of trails ……………………………………………… ..3

3. Rhetorical figures………………………………………………………………6

4. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..8

5. List of used literature ……………………………………………9

Introduction

Speech without embellishment is a dry presentation of facts, it does not evoke an emotional response from the audience. The beauty of a phrase is no less important than its correctness. Therefore, when preparing for a speech, the speaker selects not only strong arguments, but also vivid, memorable phrases that are built according to certain models. To revitalize speech, give it expressiveness, imagery, rhetorical figures and tropes are used. Both, according to the prominent Russian linguist L.A. Novikov, are a deliberate deviation from standard speech in order to attract the attention of listeners, make them think, see the versatility of the picture and, ultimately, better understand the meaning, feel the image. All of them should seem natural in the performance, almost random. According to Pyotr Sergeyevich, "a speech should always seem like an improvisation, and every decoration of it should be unexpected for the speaker himself." As decorations for speech, the speaker can use tropes and rhetorical figures.

Ancient rhetoric contrasted the trope as a word and the rhetorical figure as a phrase. However, in many cases, already ancient theorists hesitated where to attribute one or another turnover - to paths or to figures. So, Cicero refers the paraphrase to the figures, Quintilian - to the paths.

Classification and types of trails

trails- these are speech turns and individual words used in a figurative sense, which allow you to achieve the necessary emotional expressiveness and imagery. In Greek, "tropos" means turn. Paths always have a second, hidden plan, and it creates an image. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to us close in some respect for the clarity of the image of objects, phenomena.

Trails can be roughly divided into three groups:

1) Paths in which the main meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (meanings) in it(epithet, comparison, paraphrase, etc.)

Comparison- a comparison of two objects or phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other. “The rowan flaming in the garden with the bright sun”, “Eyes as blue as the sky”. Comparison has a great persuasive power, stimulates associative and figurative thinking among listeners, and thus allows the speaker to achieve the desired effect.

Epithet- this is a bright definition, a sign expressed by an adjective. There are common language epithets - "biting frost", "quiet evening"; folk poetic - "gray wolf", "open field"; there are individual author's epithets - for Chekhov - "marmalade mood", for Pisarev - "chunky indifference".

paraphrase- a trope, consisting in replacing the one-word name of an object or phenomenon with a description of the essential features and characteristics that define it. For example, Pushkin has a parodic paraphrase: “The young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (meaning a young talented actress). "I'm not going to the zoo! They put the king of beasts in a cage!” One type of paraphrase is euphemism- replacement by a descriptive turn of a word, for some reason recognized as obscene. So with Gogol: "get by with a handkerchief."

2) Tropes based on the use of the word in a figurative sense (i.e. with a shift in the main meaning of the word) (metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, antonymy, allegory).

Quintillian considered the most beautiful and most frequently used trope of rhetoric metaphor- a hidden comparison, built on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words "as", "as if", "as if" are absent, but implied. For example, "trees in winter silver" - meaning - trees in the snow, as in silver. A classic example of a metaphor given by Cicero is "the murmur of the sea."

Adjacent to metaphors and comparisons Metonymy- convergence, comparison of concepts by adjacency, i.e. proximity in location, time, cause-and-effect relationships, etc. "The steel speaker is dozing in a holster" - a revolver; “He led swords to a plentiful feast” - he led the soldiers. Cicero, feeling the approach of old age, said that his "speech is beginning to turn gray."

One type of metonymy is Synecdoche- a trope based on the relations of genus and species, part and whole, singular and plural. When Chichikov's father taught his son: "And most of all, Pavlusha, take care of a penny," then, of course, he had in mind much larger amounts.

Antonomasia- a trope based on replacing a proper name with a common noun and vice versa: "Hercules" instead of - strong, "mentor" instead of mentor. The classic example given by Quintilian is "destroyer of Carthage" instead of "Scipio".

Allegory- the image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through specific objects and images. Cunning is depicted as a fox, Themis is a symbol of justice with a blindfold (impartiality) and scales in her hands.

3) Paths in which not the main meaning of the word changes, but one or another shade of this meaning(hyperbole, litote, irony)

Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration used to enhance the impression. For example, Lomonosov: "running, speedy wind and lightning."

Litotes- an artistic understatement: "the sea is knee-deep", "a boy with a finger."

Irony- an expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning, a hidden mockery. Cicero described Catiline as follows: “Yes! Human
he is timid and meek..."

Rhetorical figures

Rhetorical figures they call turns of speech developed by the experience of the construction used to enhance the expressiveness of the utterance. A figure always consists of several words. There are several classifications of figures. We will consider the following: there are figures of thought and figures of speech.

To figures of thought include a rhetorical question, a rhetorical appeal, a rhetorical exclamation, etc.

Rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something, attracts the attention of listeners, reveals your point of view. For example, in Cicero: “How long, Catiline, will you abuse our patience?” Or Gogol: “Oh, troika, troika bird, who invented you?”

Rhetorical address- pseudo-address, can be addressed to an absent person, a historical figure, as well as an inanimate object. For example, in Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard" Gaev's appeal is "Dear esteemed closet!".

Rhetorical exclamation- one or more exclamatory sentences designed to emotionally impact listeners. Pushkin: “The years have passed by an imperceptible succession. And how they have changed us!

Word shapes - These include:

Antithesis- opposition of various circumstances, properties, statements. This figure has been used since antiquity: "The Living and the Dead", "Wolves and Sheep", "War and Peace".

It adjoins Oxymoron- a figure consisting in combining two opposite concepts into one whole: "Eloquent silence", "Bitter joy", "Happy pessimists".

Often, to strengthen the statement, they resort to such a figure as repeat. There are several forms of repetition:

Anaphora- repetition at the beginning of a sentence (unity). For example, Simonov's poem "Wait for me."

Epiphora- repetition at the end of the phrase: "unceasing rain is flowing, languishing rain."

Assonance- sound repetition of vowels. Nekrasov: “I’m riding on cast-iron rails, thinking of my own mind.”

Alliteration- repetition of consonants. Pasternak: “But suddenly the rain will run through the curtain, measuring the silence with steps, you will enter like the future” (sounds Zh and Sh imitate the light rustle of a woman's dress).

Inversion- intentional violation of the usual order of words, their rearrangement for the purpose of greater expressiveness, focusing on the rearranged word. In Pushkin: “And for a long time I will be so kind to the people that I awakened proud feelings with a lyre” (inversion of the word proud).

Chiasmus- a figure consisting in the central symmetry of a complex phrase, the parallel parts of which mirror each other. “We recognize weapons as criticism and criticism as weapons” (Lunacharsky A.V.), from La Rochefoucauld: “A brother may not be a friend, but a friend is always a brother.”

A number of figures are associated with the reduction of words - these are ellipsis, sylleps and aposiopesis.

Ellipsis Omitting words or sentences that are easily understood. The use of this figure creates an expression effect: "He lit a cigarette at a gas station - the deceased was 22 years old."

Silleps- combining elements of the text, essentially uncombinable: "He washed clothes with diligence and with soap."

Aposiopesis- reticence, silence at the end of a phrase. For example, Khlestakov’s conversation with the mayor in Gogol’s Inspector: “How dare you? Yes, here I am ... I serve in St. Petersburg. I, I, I..."

Conclusion

So, rhetorical figures and tropes are powerful means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech, allowing us to make our words easy to remember, vivid, and effective. The way of expressing a thought is often no less significant than the content of the statement. The harmony of thought and word, the content and design of speech is the most important condition for successful communication.

List of used literature:

L. A. Novikov. The art of the word. 2nd edition - Moscow: "Pedagogy" 1991-305s

Aleksandrov D.N. "Rhetoric" - Moscow: UNITI, 2008-329s

Anushkin V.I. "History of Russian rhetoric" - Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 2009-224s trails and figures who have since... a single, non-repeating speech. public speeches in medium audiences they assume ... rules for constructing documents, public speeches, scientific essays, letters, ...

1. Use of direct and indirect speech by court speakers

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Expressiveness (expressiveness) speeches speaker depends on independence ... (thirty-seven) paths and 44 (forty-four) rhetorical figures. We will review ... used and often found both in public speeches as well as in everyday speech. ...

2. Rhetoric in Russia. Traditions of ancient Russian eloquence

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Questions of the culture of the public speeches, arguments, compositions... adjectives. Comparison - trope, which is a comparison... of a specific sequence. Parallelism - rhetorical figure, which is a homogeneous syntactic ...

3. The main features of rhetoric as a science

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   divisions (for example, the rhetoric of television speeches is a subsection of journalistic rhetoric). ... Tarasov and others). 3. Individual developers rhetorical directions - theories figures, trails, the theory of expressivity (N.A. Kupina, T.V. Matveeva ...