Description: War Thunder is a next generation military MMO game dedicated to...
languages and peoples. Today, the peoples of the world speak more than 3,000 languages. There are about 4000 forgotten languages, some of them are still alive in the memory of mankind (Sanskrit, Latin). By the nature of the language, many researchers judge the degree of kinship between peoples. Language is most often used as an ethno-differentiating feature. The linguistic classification of peoples is most recognized in world science. At the same time, language is not an indispensable feature that distinguishes one people from another. The same Spanish language is spoken by several different Hispanic peoples. The same can be said about Norwegians and Danes, who have a common literary language. At the same time, the inhabitants of North and South China speak different languages, but identify themselves as belonging to the same ethnic group.
Each of the great literary languages of Europe (French, Italian, English, German) dominates a territory that is linguistically much less homogeneous than the territory of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples (L. Gumilyov, 1990). Saxons and Tyroleans hardly understand each other, and Milanese and Sicilians do not understand each other at all. The English of Northumberland speak a language close to Norwegian, as they are descendants of the Vikings who settled in England. The Swiss speak German, French, Italian and Romansh.
The French speak four languages: French, Celtic (Breton), Basque (Gascon) and Provençal. Linguistic differences between them can be traced from the beginning of the Romanization of Gaul.
Taking into account their intra-ethnic differences, the French, Germans, Italians, British should not be compared with Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, but with all Eastern Europeans at once. At the same time, such systems of ethnic groups as the Chinese or Indians do not correspond to the French, Germans or Ukrainians, but to Europeans in general (L. Gumilyov, 1990).
All languages of the peoples of the world belong to certain language families, each of which unites languages similar in linguistic structure and origin. The process of formation of language families is associated with the isolation various peoples from each other in the process of human settlement around the globe. At the same time, peoples that are initially genetically separated from each other can enter into one language family. So, the Mongols, having conquered many peoples, adopted foreign languages, and the Negroes resettled by slave traders in America speak English.
Human races and language families. According to biological characteristics, people are divided into races. The French scientist Cuvier singled out at the beginning of the 19th century three human races - black, yellow and white.
The idea that the human races came from different centers, was established in Old Testament: "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, and the leopard his spots." On this basis, among the English-speaking Protestants, the theory of the "Nordic, or Indo-European God's chosen man" was created. Such a man was put on a pedestal by the French Comte de Gobineau in a book with the provocative title A Treatise on Inequality human races". The word "Indo-European" eventually transformed into "Indo-Germanic", and the ancestral home of the primitive "Indo-Germans" began to be sought in the region of the North European plain, which at that time was part of the kingdom of Prussia. In the XX century. ideas about racial and national elitism turned into the bloodiest wars in the history of mankind.
By the middle of the XX century. there were many classifications of human races - from two (Negroid and Mongoloid) to thirty-five. Most scientists write about four human races with such centers of origin: the Greater Sunda Islands - the birthplace of the Australoids, East Asia- Mongoloids, Southern and Central Europe - Caucasians and Africa - Negroids.
All these races, their languages and centers of origin are related by some researchers to different original hominids. The ancestors of the Australoids are the Javanese Pithecanthropes, the Mongoloids are the Sinanthropes, the Negroids are the African Neanderthals and the Caucasians are the European Neanderthals. The genetic connection of certain ancient forms with the corresponding modern races can be traced with the help of morphological comparisons of cranial boxes. Mongoloids, for example, are similar to Sinanthropus with a flattened face, Caucasoids approach European Neanderthals with strongly protruding nasal bones, and broad-nosedness makes Negroids related to African Neanderthals (V. Alekseev, 1985). In the Paleolithic, people were as black, white, yellow as they are today, with the same differentiation of skulls and skeletons. This means that differences between civilizations date back to ancient times, to the beginning of the human race. These include interlingual differences.
The oldest finds of representatives of the Negroid race were discovered not in Africa, but in Southern France, in the Grimaldi cave near Nice, and in Abkhazia, in the Kholodny grotto. An admixture of Negroid blood is found not only among Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, residents of the south of France and the Caucasus, but also among residents of the north-west - in Ireland (L. Gumilyov, 1997).
Classical Negroids belong to the Niger-Kordofanian language family, which began to populate Central Africa from North Africa and Western Asia quite late - somewhere at the beginning of our era.
Before the arrival of the Negroids (Fulbe, Bantu, Zulu) to Africa, the territory south of the Sahara was inhabited by the Capoids, representatives of a recently isolated race, which includes the Hottentots and Bushmen, belonging to the Khoisan language family. Unlike Negroes, capoids are not black, but brown: they have Mongoloid facial features, they speak not on exhalation, but on inhalation, and differ sharply from both Negroes and Europeans and Mongoloids. They are considered the remnant of some ancient race of the southern hemisphere, which was driven out of the main areas of its settlement by Negroids (L. Gumilyov, 1997) .. Then many Negroids were transported to America by slave traders
Another ancient race of the southern hemisphere is the Australoid (Australian family). Australoids live in Australia and Melanesia. They have huge beards with black skin color, Wavy hair, and broad shoulders, exceptional responsiveness. Their closest relatives lived in southern India and belong to the Dravidian language family (Tamils, Telugu).
Representatives of the Caucasoid (white) race, belonging mainly to the Indo-European language family, inhabited not only, as now, Europe, Asia Minor and North India, but also almost the entire Caucasus, a significant part of Central and Central Asia and Northern Tibet.
The largest ethnolinguistic groups of the Indo-European language family in Europe are Romance (French, Italians, Spaniards, Romanians), Germanic (Germans, English), Slavic (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs). They populate North Asia (Russians), North America(Americans), South Africa (immigrants from England and Holland), Australia and New Zealand (immigrants from England), a significant part South America(Hispanic and Portuguese-speaking Latinos).
The largest representative of the Indo-European family is the Indo-Aryan group of the peoples of India and Pakistan (Hindustani, Bengalis, Marathas, Punjabs, Biharis, Gujars). This also includes the peoples of the Iranian group (Persians, Tajiks, Kurds, Balochs, Ossetians), the Baltic group (Latvians and Lithuanians), Armenians, Greeks, Albanians ..
The most numerous race is the Mongoloids. They are divided into sub-races belonging to different language families.
Siberian, Central Asian, Central Asian, Volga and Transcaucasian Mongoloids form the Altaic language family. It unites the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu ethnolinguistic groups, each of which, in turn, is divided into ethnolinguistic subgroups. So, the Turkic Mongoloids are divided into the Bulgar subgroup (Chuvash), southwestern (Azerbaijanis, Turkmens), northwestern (Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs), southeastern (Uzbeks, Uighurs), northeastern (Yakuts) subgroups.
The most widely spoken language in the world, Chinese, belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family (over 1 billion people). It is used in writing by North Chinese and South Chinese Mongoloids (Chinese or Han), who differ significantly in anthropological and colloquial speech. Tibetan Mongoloids belong to the same language family. The Mongoloids of Southeast Asia belong to the Paratai and Austroasiatic language families. The peoples of the Chukchi-Kamchatka and Eskimo-Aleut language families are also close to the Mongoloids.
There are also sub-races with which groups of certain languages usually correspond, that is, the system of human races is arranged hierarchically.
Representatives of the listed races include 3/4 of the population the globe. The rest of the peoples belong to small races or micro-races with their own language families.
At the contact of the main human races, mixed or transitional racial forms are encountered, often forming their own language families. 
Thus, the mixing of Negroids with Caucasians gave rise to mixed-transitional forms of the peoples of the Afroasian, or Semitic-Hamitic family (Arabs, Jews, Sudanese, Ethiopians). The peoples speaking the languages of the Uralic language family (Nenets, Khanty, Komi, Mordovians, Estonians, Hungarians) form transitional forms between Mongoloids and Caucasoids. Very complex racial mixtures have developed into the North Caucasian (Abkhazians, Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians, Chechens, Ingush peoples of Dagestan) and Kartvelian (Georgians, Mingrelians, Svans) language families.
Similar racial mixing took place in America, only it went much more intensively than in the Old World, and, in general, did not affect linguistic differences.
All languages change over time. Comparison of the Russian language of the period of "The Tale of Bygone Years", the times of A.S. Pushkin and the modern one shows us how language changes over the centuries.
If two people speaking the same language are settled in different places, then over time their languages will change in many directions. First, they will have a different accent, then the vocabulary of the language will change (either under the influence of other languages, or due to natural processes). When this happens, various dialects appear; but still people speaking different dialects will be able to understand each other. If dialects continue to develop on their own, there will come a time when spoken language cannot be understood. At this stage, people will begin to speak different languages.
There is a vivid example in the history of Western civilization emergence of different languages from one. Latin language was the language of the Roman Empire, AD. With the collapse of the empire in the 4th century, different parts of Europe: Italian peninsula, Gaul, Iberian peninsula, Carpathians became isolated from each other along with the peoples who inhabited them spoke Latin (folk Latin). The languages of these peoples began to develop independently and modern languages were formed: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian, etc..
Modern languages India: Hindi, urdu, Punjabi, Bengal come from Sanskrit language spoken in North India.
Old Persian gave rise to such languages as Farsi, Kurdish and Pashto.
Over time, in the conditions of various migrations of peoples, one language can develop into a whole family languages.
A group of related languages with one common ancestor is called a language family. languages of one groups are closely related languages that have split in the last 1000 - 2000 years ( Latin, for example, gave rise to Romanesque group languages Indo-European family).
The languages of different groups of the same family can be considered as related languages. In most families, the separation of such languages occurred over 2,000 years ago. Every family has a different timeline.
Within the same family, languages have many common grammatical features and a large number of keywords, especially words more early origin, which indicate a common origin. The table below gives an example of comparing the word "month" in various Indo-European languages:
It is possible to make a comparison given word month in languages of other language families (non-Indo-European).
Languages. Dialects.
The difference between the concept language" and "dialect" maybe more political than linguistic. For example, linguistically Croatian and Serbian very closely related dialects of the same language. However, they use different scripts; and the people who speak these languages belong to different religions: Catholic Christianity in Croatia and Orthodox Christianity in Serbia. For political reasons, these languages are considered separate.
Bulgarians consider Macedonian dialect of their language, while they themselves Macedonians call it a separate language. Since Bulgaria for a long time claimed Macedonia as part of its own territory, then the motives of each side become quite understandable!
Low German(which is spoken in Northern Germany) and Dutch (Netherlands) from a linguistic point of view are dialects of the same language, but politically they are different languages. Low German and Swiss German languages differ so much that speakers of these languages may not understand each other, but both are considered German. Between languages spoken in different cities Italy, much more difference than between Dutch, Norwegian and Swedish.
Main language Iraq and Morocco counts Arab, which is different here and there. official language China counts m Andarin
- other languages of the republic are considered as dialects (for example, Cantonese and at), while they are sometimes very different from each other.
By studying languages and their relationships, we get an idea of the migration of peoples over the course of history. We can also trace when the domestication of plants, the domestication of animals, the appearance of tools took place. Every language is a unique way of thinking. Those peoples who live in isolated parts of the world and are not technologically advanced have less perfect language than those peoples who live in modern cities. Every language has simple and complex parts. But the complexity of a language does not depend on the way of life of the people who speak it (compare the grammar of Latin and French, Old Russian and Russian).
1. How many peoples live in Russia?
Russia is a multinational state, which is also reflected in its constitution. More than 200 peoples live on its territory.
2. The peoples of what language families and groups are represented in Russia?
Indo-European family: Slavic group, Armenian group, Iranian group, Indo-Aryan group, Roman group, Baltic group; Altai family: Turkic group, Mongolian group, Tungus-Manchurian group; North Caucasian family: Nakh-Dagestan group, Abkhaz-Adyghe group; Ural family: Finno-Ugric group, Samoyed group; Chukchi-Kamchatka family; Yukaghir family; Yenisei family.
3. Choose the correct answer. Most Russians speak the languages of the family: a) Caucasian; b) Altai; c) Indo-European.
4. Choose the correct answer. The most numerous people after the Russians in Russia? a) Ukrainians; b) Tatars; c) Chuvash.
5. Why is it almost impossible to single out ethnically “pure” territories in Russia?
It is practically impossible to find "pure" ethnic territories on the territory of Russia, since our country is multinational and in every territory, in every subject one can meet different nations, ethnic groups and nationalities. Also, Russians - as the most numerous people of Russia - are present in every subject of the country.
6. What is the role of the Russian language for the peoples of Russia?
Russian, as the state language and the most widespread in Russia, is used as the language of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia. The Russian language is a form of culture, it is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of Russians.
7. In the map legend on p. 248-249 Applications find and write down the names of peoples unknown to you. In the Internet search engine Yandex (heading "Dictionaries") or in encyclopedias, find these peoples. Note their number and location.
Unknown (small) peoples of Russia:
Avars are one of the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus, historically living in mountainous Dagestan;
Kumyks are a Turkic-speaking people, one of the indigenous peoples of Dagestan, they also live compactly in North Ossetia and in Chechnya;
The Laks are one of the indigenous peoples of Dagestan. Laks historically live in the central part of Nagorno-Dagestan;
Tabasarans are one of the indigenous peoples of the North Caucasus. The main territory of settlement is the southeastern slope of the Caucasus, facing the Caspian Sea;
Nogais are a people in the North Caucasus, in the south of the Lower Volga region, in the Crimea, as well as in the Northern Black Sea region;
Evenks are the indigenous people of Eastern Siberia.
8. Using geographical and local history literature, conduct an ethnographic study of your locality and find out: a) what is the national composition of the population; b) what is the ratio of the main peoples; c) what characterizes the dynamics of the population and its national composition.
Ethnic composition of the city of Chelyabinsk:
a) Ethnic composition: Russians, Tatars, Bashkirs, Ukrainians, Germans, Belarusians, Armenians, Mordvins, Tajiks, Kazakhs;
b) The ratio of the number: Russians - 936.5 thousand people (86.53%), Tatars - 54.4 thousand (5.03%), Bashkirs - 33.7 thousand (3.11%), Ukrainians - 15.6 thousand (1.44%), Germans - 7.1 thousand (0.65%), Belarusians - 4 thousand (0.37%), Armenians - 3.7 thousand (0.34%), Mordovians - 3.1 thousand (0.29%), Tajiks - 3 thousand (0.27%), Kazakhs - 2.9 thousand (0.26%);
c) Dynamics of the population of the city of Chelyabinsk: the population of Chelyabinsk according to the census Russian Empire 1897 was only 20 thousand people. By 1926, the population had tripled and amounted to 59 thousand people. In the post-war years, when the population was evacuated to the Urals and Siberia, after the industrialization of the 1930s and the construction of the largest metallurgy and engineering enterprises, as well as chemical and other industries that ensured the supply of military equipment during the war years, as well as agricultural equipment, the population increased by more than 10 times and amounted to 689 thousand people by 1959. The rapid development of Chelyabinsk in the post-war years led to a rapid population growth: on October 13, 1976, the millionth resident of the city was born. For almost three centuries, the population of Chelyabinsk has grown by more than 1080 times. National composition: due to the border position Chelyabinsk region, there is a great ethnic diversity in the city of Chelyabinsk, although the majority are Russians. Thanks to the position on Southern Urals, in ethnic composition In Chelyabinsk there are Turkic peoples (Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs); Since Chelyabinsk is an industrial city, in the war and post-war years, German prisoners of war were brought to work at enterprises, many of them remained to live in the city, which diversified the ethnic composition.
9. When did you first think about your nationality? What nationalities are there in your family? What did you or members of your family adopt from them (from everyday life, culture)? Write an essay on the topic national character: I am in the dialogue of cultures”.
Everyone in our family considers themselves Russians. Despite this, cultural "responses" of other nations are often found in the family. For example, on grandmother's carpets, which she wove herself, there are often patterns of Finno-Ugric peoples, mother often cooks Ukrainian borscht, Tatar chak-chak, Uzbek pilaf and Kazakh Lakman; sometimes in our family they remember the holidays of European peoples, such as Valentine's Day or Catholic Christmas. Composition: "National character: I am in the dialogue of cultures." On formation Russian culture a number of factors dominated: the need to develop large areas on which numerous nationalities united and interacted; affirmation of Orthodoxy as a special branch of Christianity, focused on spirituality, adherence to established traditions; long-term temporary isolation of development from Western European civilizational processes and intense struggle to overcome such isolation; the prevalence of the idea of the priority of statehood over personal interests, the subordination of the interests of the individual to the interests of the state. Russian mentality is a specific cumulative archetype of the people, which arose as a result of the interaction of a unique subject and the circumstances of his life. It leaves a significant imprint on the character of the Russian community and changes along with it. The Russian people are the recognized creator of one of the "axial" cultures. In the conditions of the great "change of all" "and the formation of the Russian civilization of the XXI century, the solution of the" single and indivisible "problem of continuity with cultural heritage and its renewal became a condition for the spiritual revival of Russia. “Do not divide, do not crush Russian history ... follow primarily the connection of phenomena, the direct succession of forms, do not separate the beginnings, but consider them in interaction.”
