Presentation on Roman names. Presentation on the topic: "Holy Roman Empire

In ancient Rome, the attitude to names was more than serious. There was even a saying: "Names are not subject to disclosure." Therefore, the Roman priests avoided pronouncing the names of the patron gods of Rome - the enemies will recognize these names and lure the gods to themselves. And the slaves did not have the right to call the name of their master to a stranger.

Roman male names.

Complex origin of roman names developed over the centuries and had a clear structure. The full male name consisted of three components - a personal name (prenomen), a generic name (nomen) and an individual nickname or name of a branch of the genus (cognomen). Personal Roman names there were few, and their ancient meaning forgotten in the classical era. The eldest son, as a rule, received the name of the father. Some genera had a limited number of such names. For example, the Cornelius Scipios had only Gnaeus, Lucius and Publius, while the Claudii Neroes had only Tiberius and Decimus. If any member of the family broke the law, then his name was forever excluded from the family memory. For this reason, the name Lucius was not found in the Claudian family, and in the Manleian family, boys were not called by the name Mark.

All members of the same genus had one common generic name. The interpretation of these names has long been forgotten, only a few have come down to us. Roman generic names With famous meaning - Octavius ​​(eighth), Ovidius (sheep), Fabius (bean), Asinius (donkey).

The third individual name (cognomen) was optional for plebeian families. It was the nickname of the founder of a branch of the family, which was passed on to his descendants. Cognomens spoke about the origin of the clan, significant events. But most often they named the distinctive features of their first carrier - Krasus (fat), Paullus (short), Rufus (red), Probus (honest).

Women's names.

Interestingly, personal names in ancient rome were assigned only to men, women were only given nicknames or a changed generic name. A girl born in the Yuliev family was named Yulia, in the Korneliev family - Cornelia. Naturally, in the same genus, female names were repeated. To avoid confusion, representatives of the same family differed in age - Yulia Mayor (senior), Yulia Sekunda (second), Yulia Minor (younger). Patricians added to their name the name of their father or husband - Cecilia Metella (daughter of Metella).

Slave names.

Roman slaves bore the names they had as freemen. Most often these were Greek names - Alexander, Antigonus, Museum, Philokal, Eros. Greek names were also given to barbarian slaves. Sometimes the name of a slave meant the place of his birth - Dacus (Dacian), Corinthus (Corinthian). It happened that instead of a name, slaves were simply assigned a serial number - First, Second. However, Roman slaves did not have derogatory nicknames. On the contrary, there were such names as Faustus (happy), Fortune (good luck). Released to freedom, the slave received the name of his master. For example, the freedman Apella, the slave of Mr. Mark Manney Primus, began to be called Mark Manney Apella.

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Roman names

Introduction

Names in Latin epigraphy have great importance because they are very common. To read a name in an inscription, one must know both the epigraphic rules for writing a full name and the basic patterns of Roman anthroponymy.

By the name, one can judge the social position of the mentioned person, and sometimes the time and authenticity of the inscription.

The Romans usually had three names, as we have - the first name, patronymic and surname. The first name - praenomen - was personal, like Peter or Mary. There were few such Roman names, there are only eighteen of them. In writing, they were abbreviated with one, two or three letters. Such abbreviations were very common, and therefore one must be able to open them; here are the most common: Appius, Gaius, Gnaeus, Decimus, Lucius, Manius, Mark, Publius, Quintus, Servius, Sextus, Tiberius, Titus, Vopisk.

The second name - nomen (nomen) - was the name of the genus and corresponded, approximately, to our surname.

The third name - cognomen (cognomen) - was a nickname that was assigned to everyone according to some signs: red - Ruf, dodger - Cato, nosy - Nason.

Let's consider in more detail various elements Roman names and their uses.

1. Men'snames

In classical times, a full Roman male name usually consisted of three components: a personal name, or prenomen (praenomen), a generic name, or nomen (nomen), and an individual nickname or name of a branch of the genus, cognomen (cognomen).

1.1 Praenomenon(praenomen)

The personal name was similar to the modern male name. The Romans used a small number of personal names (18 names out of a total of 72); as a rule, they were of such ancient origin that in the classical era the significance of most of them was forgotten. In the inscriptions, personal names were almost always written in abbreviated form (1-3 letters).

Other personal names were rarely used and were usually written in full: Agrippa, Ancus, Annius, Aruns, Atta, Cossus, Denter, Eppius, Faustus, Fertor, Herius, Hospolis, Hostus, Lar, Marius, Mesius, Mettus, Minatius, Minius, Nero, Novius, Numa, Opiter, Opiavus, Ovius, Pacvius (Paquius), Paullus, Pescennius (Percennius), Petro, Plancus, Plautus, Pompo, Popidius, Postumus, Primus, Proculus, Retus, Salvius, Secundus, Sertor, Statius, Servius, Tertius, Tirrus, Trebius, Tullus, Turus, Volero, Volusus, Vopiscus. The personal name Pupus (boy) was used only in relation to children.

The boy received a personal name on the eighth or ninth day after birth. There was a tradition to give a personal name only to the four eldest sons, and the rest could serve as a personal name ordinal numbers: Quintus (fifth, cf. Starorus. Pyatak), Sextus (sixth, cf. Starorus. Shestak), Septimus (seventh, cf. Starorus . Semak), Octavius ​​(eighth, cf. Old Russian Osmak), and Decimus (tenth). Over time, these names became common (that is, turned into personal ones), and as a result, a person bearing the name Sextus was not necessarily the sixth son in the family. As an example, we can recall the commander Sextus Pompey, the second son of a member of the first triumvirate of Gnaeus Pompey the Great, who fought Julius Caesar for a long time. Gaius Iulius Caesar (lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar July 13, 100 or 102 BC - March 15, 44 BC) is an ancient Roman statesman and politician, dictator, commander, writer.

Often the eldest son received the father's prenomen. In 230 BC e. this tradition was enshrined by a decree of the senate, so that the personal name of the father began, as a rule, to pass to the eldest son. For example, the emperor Octavian Augustus, like his great-great-grandfather, great-grandfather, grandfather and father, bore the name Guy.

In some genera, a limited number of personal names were used. For example, the Cornelius Scipios had only Gnaeus, Lucius and Publius, the Claudii Neroes had only Tiberius and Decimus, the Domitii Ahenobarbs had only Gnaeus and Lucius.

The personal name of the criminal could be forever excluded from the genus to which he belonged; for this reason the name Lucius was not used in the patrician family of the Claudians, and the name Mark in the patrician family of the Manlies. By decree of the Senate, the name Mark was permanently excluded from the Antonian clan after the fall of the triumvir Mark Antony.

1.2 Nomen(nomen)

The family name was the name of the genus and corresponded, approximately, to the modern surname. It was indicated in the form of a masculine adjective and ended in -ius in the classical era: Tullius - Tullius (from the Tullian clan), Julius - Julius (from the Julius clan); in republican time there are also endings -is, -i. Generic names of non-Roman origin had different endings from those named.

The total number of generic names, according to Varro Varromn, Mark Terentius, sometimes Varrom (lat. Marcus Terentius Varro, 116 - 27 BC) is a Roman scientist-encyclopedist and writer. reached a thousand. Most generic names are of such ancient origin that their meaning has been forgotten. Only a few have definite meaning: Asinius from asinus (donkey), Caelius from caecus (blind), Caninius from canis (dog), Decius from decem (ten), Fabius from faba (bean), Nonius from nonus (ninth), Octavius ​​from octavus (eighth), Ovidius from ovis (sheep), Porcius from porca (pig), Septimius from septimus (seventh), Sextius and Sextilius from sextus (sixth), Suillius from suilla (pork).

1.3 cognomen

Romangenus name

An individual nickname once given to one of the representatives of the genus often passed on to descendants and became the name of a family or a separate branch of the genus: Cicero - Cicero Mark Tullius Cicero (lat. Marcus Tullius Cicerf; January 3, 106 BC, Arpinum - - December 7, 43 BC, Formia) - an ancient Roman politician and philosopher, a brilliant orator. , Caesar - Caesar. For example, the families of Scipio, Rufinus, Lentulus, etc. belonged to the Cornelian clan. The presence of a cognomen is not necessary, and in some plebeian clans (among the Marius, Antonius, Octavius, Sertorii, etc.), personal nicknames, as a rule, were absent. However, the absence of a cognomen was an exception to the rule, since many of the genera of Rome were of such ancient origin that each of them consisted of several branches.

Since the personal name of the father passed to the eldest son, in order to distinguish the son from the father, it was necessary to use a third name. In the inscriptions there are Lucius Sergius the First, Quintus Emilius the Second; in one inscription, the grandfather, son, and grandson are called Quintus Fulvius Rusticus, Quintus Fulvius Attian, and Quintus Fulvius Carisianus.

Cognomens arose much later than personal and generic names, so their meaning is clear in most cases. They can talk about the origin of the genus (the Fufis moved to Rome from the Campanian town of Cales and therefore had the cognomen Calenus), about memorable events(in the plebeian genus Mucius, the cognomen Scaevola (left-handed) appeared after Gaius Mucius Gaius Mucius Scaevola (sometimes Kord; lat. Gaius Mucius Scaevola, Cordus) during the war with the Etruscans in 508 BC - the legendary Roman hero, a young patrician burned his hand on the fire of a brazier, which caused the enemies and their king Porsenna to tremble), about appearance (Crassus - fat, Laetus - obese, Macer - thin, Celsus - tall, Paullus - short, Rufus - red, Strabo - cross-eyed, Nasica - sharp-nosed, etc.), about the character (Severus - cruel, Probus - honest, Lucro - glutton, etc.).

1.4 Agnomen

There were cases when one person had two nicknames, the second of which was called agnomen (Latin agnomen). The appearance of the agnomen is partly due to the fact that the eldest son often inherited all three of his father's names, and thus there were several people with the same names in the same family. For example, the famous orator Mark Tullius Cicero had both father and son Mark Tullius Cicero.

Agnomen was most often a personal nickname in the event that the cognomen was hereditary. Sometimes a Roman received an agnomen for some special merit. Publius Cornelius Scipio Pumblius Cornemlius Scipiomne - the Roman commander of the Second Punic War, the winner of Hannibal, the censor in honor of the victory he won over Hannibal Hannibaml Bamrk, better known as simply Hannibal - the Carthaginian commander. Considered one of the most experienced generals and statesmen of antiquity. Was the number one enemy of the Roman Republic in Africa in 202 BC. e., began to be called solemnly African (lat. Africanus, cf. the nicknames of Russian commanders - Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Suvorov-Rymniksky, Potemkin-Tauride). Lucius Aemilius Paullus was nicknamed Macedonicus for his victory over the Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BC. e. The dictator Sulla himself added the agnomen Felix (fortunate) to his name, so that his full name became Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix. Agnomen Felix from a personal nickname turned into a hereditary one (consul 52 AD Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix).

As a rule, members of ancient and noble families had agnomen, numbering many branches and cognomens. In such genera, the cognomen sometimes almost merged with the generic name and was used inseparably with it for the name of the genus.

2. Women'snames

In late republican and imperial times, women did not have personal names, the female name was the feminine form of the generic name: Tullia - Tullia (from the Tullian clan, for example, daughter of Mark Tullius Cicero), Julia - Julia (from the Julius clan, for example, daughter Gaius Julius Caesar), Cornelia - Cornelia (from the Cornelian family, for example, daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio). Since all women in the same clan had a single name, they differed in age within the clan. When another daughter appeared in the family, a prenomen was added to the name of both: Minor (younger) and Major (older); other sisters were called Secunda (second), Tertia (third), Quintilla (fifth), etc.; the prenomen Minor was in the youngest.

A married woman retained her name, but her husband's cognomen was added to it: Cornelia, filia Cornelii, Gracchi - Cornelia, daughter of Cornelia, (wife) Gracchus.

Noble women could wear, in addition to the generic name, the cognomen of their father; for example, Sulla's wife was the daughter of Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmatica and was called Caecilia Metella, the wife of Emperor Augustus was the daughter of Mark Livius Drusus Claudian and was called Livia Drusilla.

2.1 Namesslaves

In ancient times, slaves did not have individual names. Legally, slaves were considered the children of the master (more precisely, the slaves were not the subject of law, but the object of law, that is, they were the master's thing) and were just as deprived of rights as all members of the family. This is how archaic slave names were formed, made up of the personal name of the master, the father of the surname, and the word puer (boy, son): Gaipor, Lucipor, Marcipor, Publipor, Quintipor, Naepor (Gnaeus = Naeos + puer), Olipor (Olos is an archaic form personal name Aulus).

There were no hard rules regarding the names of slaves. Therefore, when buying a slave in an official document, his name was accompanied by a clause “or whatever name he may be called” (lat. sive is quo alio nomine est).

In the inscriptions after the name of the slave, the name of the master in the genitive case and the nature of the slave's occupation are indicated. After the name of the master is the word servus (slave) is always abbreviated ser, very rarely s, it can also stand between two cognomens of the master; there is no strict word order. The word "slave" is often absent altogether; as a rule, slaves belonging to women do not have it. E.g., Euticus, Aug (usti) ser (vus), pictor - Euthikus, slave of Augustus (imperial slave), painter, Eros, cocus Posidippi, ser (vus) - Eros, cook, slave of Posidipp, Idaeus, Valeriae Messalin (ae) supra argentum -- Ideus, treasurer of Valeria Messalina.

3.Using a name

Here we will look at how to use Roman names. It should be noted that there can be no static rules here.

Latin vocative

When addressing someone, you need to change the ending of the name, indicating that you are addressing the person, and not talking about him. As a rule, names ending in -us take the ending -e (ex. Brutus -> Brute) (exactly what we were talking about, Custos), while -ius becomes -i (Tullius -> Tulli ). Names ending in -a usually do not change, as do names with other endings.

When addressing a person by their first name, it is polite to use cognomen. VIPs should always be addressed using cognomen. Ordinary people can also be called by nomen, this will not be an insult, however, at least it will be difficult to understand who, in fact, in question. If the person you are addressing has more than one cognomen, you should use the first one. Addressing a person by his agnomen, if, of course, he has one, is an obvious compliment. Adoptive should only be addressed to a person if you want to draw attention solely to their family and pre-adoption identification: this is not necessarily polite or impolite, but depends on the context. In the same way, addressing a person by his matronymic cognomen, first of all draws attention to maternal line his kind. Don't make the mistake of constantly calling a person by their adoptive cognomen. It is often tempting to do so, since in this way it is easy to distinguish between the adopted and the adopter in conversation, but this is not the Roman custom. For the Roman, the adopted person became, in every sense and respect, the son of his adoptive parents. Therefore, as a rule, it is not worth clicking on the use of its adoptive.

Only by pranomen

Pranomen is a highly personal name, for use within the family. You should not address a Roman only by pranomen unless he is a close relative or a very close friend of yours. Even spouses (!) usually don't call each other by their pranomina - they usually use nomina or cognomina.

Other appeals

Much more often than in the modern world, the Romans addressed each other without the help of names, or by combining such addresses with names.

Relatives

When speaking to or about each other, relatives refer to themselves by their first names or terms of kinship (eg Pater - father, soror - sister, patruus - uncle). These terms can be combined with affectionate words, which will be discussed below. As already noted, close relatives may refer to each other using praenomina.

Spouses and lovers

As already mentioned above, spouses and lovers usually addressed each other more often in cognomen than in praenomen. They could also call each other vir (husband) and uxor (wife), but most often they used affectionate ones.

Friends and acquaintances

As a rule, people who know each other, but are not particularly close, used first names, sometimes with "mi" (see below). Sometimes words such as iuvenis (young man), amicus (friend) senex (old man) were used. Depending on the relationship between people, they could use both affectionate and offensive epithets.

Strangers

The Romans had no direct equivalent to the modern words "lord" or "lady." If you met someone you didn't know, it was perfectly normal to resort to words like "petasate" ("you wearing a hat") or "senex" ("old man") or "viator" ("traveler"). "). Very often they said "quiquis es" ("whoever you are"). However, if your curiosity was not limited to setting the time of day, the most successful approach was to try to find out the name of the person you are addressing: "adulescens, dic mihi nomen tuum, quaeso" ("young man, please tell me your name") or "o qui vocaris?" ("Oh, what's your name?")

Affectionate expressions and comparisons

The Romans have always been very inventive with caresses. Very often "carissimus" was used, often in combination with a given name, e.g. "salve Brute carissime" ("Greetings, dear Brutus"), "salve soror carissima" ("Greetings, dear sister"). Also common were "dulcis" ("sweet"), "inclitus" ("glorious"), "magnus" ("great"), "optimus" ("best"), "fortissimus" (strongest). In general, this is enough to form a general impression of the subject.

Dominus & Domina

Some modern users of Latin use the words "dominus" and "domina" as equivalents to the English Mr and Miss (or Mrs). This is absolutely not correct. "Dominus" means "lord" or "master", and to refer to someone in this way is disrespectful to oneself. The exception is when lovers call each other that way, but this word is for the bedroom.

vestigia semper adora

Always honor the traces of the past (Stations)

Conclusion

A name is a means for one person talking about another to make it clear to everyone who exactly the conversation is about. Accordingly, the correct use of the name is determined by how clear it is about whom it is.

It is accepted that the more formal the situation, the more names are used. The use of all three (or more) names is very formal and rare. Calling someone M. Tullius Cicero is about the same as saying Mr. Robert James Grant, Esq.

Two names are usually enough to understand who you are talking about. The use of two names is quite formal and polite. To call someone M. Tullius is about the same as Robert Grant, or Mr. Grant. When you mention someone in a letter or speech for the first time, or when you greet someone, it is customary to use two names.

The use of one name is relatively loose and informal. If you are in the middle of talking to someone, or in the middle of talking about someone, you may well refer to them by one name, especially if you know the person relatively well. Calling someone Cicero is about the same as saying Robert in the modern world. But in formal situations, or when mentioning someone for the first time, using only one name can be too familiar and even impolite.

Which name you choose to address someone depends on how many names you use.

When calling someone by two names, you should choose these names depending on the status of the person you are calling. If this is an important person, he should be called by praenomen and cognomen (eg P. Scipio). If your interlocutor is not such an important bird, you can call him by praenomen and nomen (eg M. Tullius). Since in our time there are not so many Roman patricians and senators left, it is possible to address people precisely by praenomen and nomen. If you accidentally call a noble Roman that, he will most likely not be offended, especially if you apologize in time for your mistake. After all, if you're not sure, you can always ask.

Listliterature

1. Fedorova E.V. An introduction to Latin epigraphy. M., Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1982, 256 p. pp.85-101

2. Le Boek J. The Roman army of the era of the Early Empire. "Russian political encyclopedia". Moscow, 2001.

3. History ancient rome. Ed. Bokshchanina A.G. M., Higher School, 1971

4. Kumanetsky K. History of culture of ancient Greece and Rome M., Higher school, 1990

5. Mommsen T. History of Rome St. Petersburg, Lenizdat, 1993

6. History and culture of the ancient world. Under the editorship of Kobylin M.M. M., Nauka, 1977 (Vasilchenko S.N.)

7. Protasov M. On the ordering and unification of the transcription of proper names and historical terms in the history of the ancient world "Bulletin of Ancient History", 1940, No. 1

8. Lyast R.E. Some problems of the nomenclature of slaves and freedmen in foreign literature // Antique antiquity and the Middle Ages. Issue. 11. - Sverdlovsk, 1975.

9. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. -- M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969--1978.

10. Latin-Russian and Russian-Latin dictionary of winged words and expressions. - M.: Russian Language. N.T. Babichev, Ya.M. Borovskoy. 1982.

11. Aphorisms. Golden Fund of Wisdom. Eremishin O. - M.: Enlightenment; 2006

12. Hosted on Allbest.ru

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The idea of ​​an empire, a single state that united the entire civilized and Christian world, dating back to the times of Ancient Rome and experiencing a rebirth under Charlemagne, persisted even after the collapse of the Frankish Carolingian Empire. Empire in public consciousness was presented as the earthly incarnation of the Kingdom of God, best model organization of the state, in which the ruler maintains peace and tranquility in Christian countries, protects and cares for the prosperity of the church, and also organizes protection from external threats. The early medieval concept of the empire assumed the unity of the state and the church and the close interaction of the emperor and the pope, who exercised supreme secular and spiritual power. Although the capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aachen, the imperial idea was associated primarily with Rome, the center of Western Christianity and, according to the Gift of Constantine, the source of political power throughout Europe. Story…

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Otto I Great Coat of Arms of the Holy Roman Empire

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The imperial title did not give the kings of Germany great additional powers, although in theory they stood above all the royal houses of Europe. The emperors ruled in Germany using already existing administrative mechanisms, and interfered very little in the affairs of their feudal vassals in Italy, where their main support was the bishops of the Lombard cities. Beginning in 1046, Emperor Henry III gained the right to appoint popes, just as he held in his hands the appointment of bishops in the German church. He used his power to introduce in Rome the ideas of church government in accordance with the principles of canon law (the so-called Cluniac Reform) developed in the area that lay on the border between France and Germany. After Henry's death, the papacy turned the principle of freedom of the "divine state" against the authority of the emperor in matters of ecclesiastical government. Pope Gregory VII asserted the principle of the superiority of spiritual over secular power and, in what went down in history as the "struggle for investiture", which lasted from 1075 to 1122, launched an attack on the emperor's right to appoint bishops. German emperors...

Henry III Pope Gregory VII

Hohenstaufen on the imperial throne. The compromise reached in 1122 did not lead to final clarity on the issue of supremacy in state and church, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, the first Hohenstaufen emperor, who took the throne 30 years later, the struggle between the papacy and the empire flared up again, although by a specific the reason for it was now disagreements about the ownership of Italian lands. Under Frederick, the words "Roman Empire" for the first time added the definition "Sacred", which indicated the belief in the sanctity of the worldly state; this concept was further substantiated during the revival of Roman law and the revival of contacts with the Byzantine Empire. This was the period of the highest prestige and power of the empire. Frederick and his successors centralized the system of government in their territories, conquered the Italian cities, established feudal suzerainty over states outside the empire, and, as the Germans moved east, extended their influence in this direction as well. In 1194, the Kingdom of Sicily passed to the Hohenstaufen - through Constance, daughter of King Roger II of Sicily and wife of Emperor Henry VI, which led to the complete encirclement of papal possessions by the lands of the Holy Roman Empire.

Frederick I Barbaross Roger II Henry VI

The power of the empire was weakened civil war, which flared up between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens after the premature death of Henry in 1197. Under Innocent III, the papal throne dominated Europe until 1216, even insisting on its right to resolve disputes between applicants for the imperial throne. After the death of Innocent, Frederick II returned the imperial crown to its former greatness, but was forced to leave the German princes to do whatever they pleased in their destinies: renouncing the leadership in Germany, he focused all his attention on Italy in order to strengthen his position in the struggle here with the papacy and cities under the rule of the Guelphs. Shortly after Frederick's death in 1250, the papacy, with the help of the French, finally overcame the Hohenstaufen. The decline of the empire can be seen at least in the fact that in the period from 1250 to 1312 there were no coronations of emperors. Nevertheless, in one form or another, the empire existed for more than five centuries - thanks to its connection with the German royal throne and the vitality of the imperial tradition. Despite the constantly renewed attempts of the French kings to acquire imperial dignity, the crown of the emperor invariably remained in German hands, and the attempts of Pope Boniface VIII to belittle the status of imperial power caused a movement in its defense. Fall of an empire...

Innocent III Frederick II Boniface VIII

However, the glory of the empire remained largely in the past, and despite the efforts of Dante and Petrarch, the representatives of the mature Renaissance turned away from the obsolete ideals of which it was the embodiment. The sovereignty of the empire was now limited to Germany alone, since Italy and Burgundy fell away from it, and it received a new name - the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The last links with the papacy broke off towards the end of the 15th century, when the German kings made it a rule to assume the title of emperor without going to Rome to receive the crown from the hands of the pope. In Germany itself, the power of the princes increased, which happened at the expense of the rights of the emperor. Beginning in 1263, the principles of election to the German throne were sufficiently defined, and in 1356 they were enshrined in the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV (fig.). The seven Electors (electors) used their influence to make demands on the emperors, which greatly weakened the central authority. Decline of the empire ...

Beginning in 1438, the imperial crown was in the hands of the Austrian Habsburgs, who, following the general trend characteristic of Germany, sacrificed national interests in the name of the greatness of the dynasty. In 1519, King Charles I of Spain was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire under the name of Charles V, uniting Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Sicily and Sardinia under his rule. In 1556, Charles abdicated, after which the Spanish crown passed to his son Philip II. Charles's successor as Holy Roman Emperor was his brother Ferdinand I. During the 15th century. the princes unsuccessfully tried to strengthen the role of the imperial Reichstag (which represented electors, lesser princes and imperial cities) at the expense of the emperor. Occurred in the 16th century. The Reformation shattered all hopes of rebuilding the old empire, as it brought into being secularized states and religious strife. The power of the emperor became decorative, the meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats occupied with trifles, and the empire degenerated into a loose union of many small principalities and independent states. On August 6, 1806, the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Franz II, who had already become Emperor Franz I of Austria in 1804, renounced the crown and thus put an end to the existence of the empire. By this time, Napoleon had already proclaimed himself the true successor of Charlemagne, and political changes in Germany had deprived the empire of its last support. Habsburg Emperors...

Charles V Franz II Ferdinand I Philip II

Many Greek statues have not come down to us, but have been preserved in Roman copies, such as the famous sculpture of Myron "Discobolus"

Venus de Milo (II century BC)

Venus (Aphrodite) de Milo is perhaps the most famous ancient statue.

Great ancient Greek sculptors

there were no Greek sculptors, e.). Or they are not preserved; except for the alleged self-portrait of Phidias, on the shield of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon. Sculptor Depicted himself in the image of Daedalus.

"Normal childhood of mankind"

And why shouldn't the childhood of human society, where it has developed most beautifully, have eternal charm for us, like a stage that never repeats itself? There are ill-bred children and senilely intelligent children. Many of the ancient peoples belong to this category. Greeks were normal children.

Karl Marx

Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome.

1. Tsarist period. (754 or 753 - 510 or 509 BC).

2. Republic. (509 - 30 or 27 BC). a) Early Republic (509 -287 BC). b) Middle Republic (287-133 BC).

c) Late Republic (133 - 30 or 27 BC).

3. Empire (30 or 27 BC - 476 AD). a) Principate (30 or 27 BC - 192 AD). b) Crisis (192-284 AD).

c) Dominate (284-476 AD).

Octavian August. 1st century BC Vatican Museum

Two civilizations

As for the ancient Romans, their art was imitative. The Romans themselves understood this. And they gave the Greeks cultural priority. The attitude of the Romans towards the Greeks was ambivalent. On the one hand, they, as winners, despised the vanquished, calling the Hellenes the word "greculi" (buckwheat). On the other hand, they treated the Greeks as their cultural teachers, the level they did not hope to reach.

Roman attitude towards Greece

Greece, taken captive, captivated the wild conquerors Into Latium, the harsh art was introduced.

Horace "Messages"

Rome's attitude towards itself

Others will be able to create living statues of bronze Or it is better to repeat the appearance of men in marble, Litigation is better to conduct and the movements of the sky more skillfully Calculate or name rising stars, - I do not argue:

Roman! You learn to rule the peoples sovereignly - This is your art! - impose conditions of peace,

Show mercy to the humble and humble the haughty with war.

Virgil "Aeneid"

The nature of Roman civilization

Roman civilization was more technocratic than humanitarian, and the Romans themselves were great rationalists. But despite the fact that the Romans themselves recognized the Greeks as their teachers, they created their own great civilization, and in some cases managed to surpass their teachers.

Primary education in Rome

In Rome educational establishments, or schools (scholae) for the joint education of boys and girls, have been known since the 3rd century. BC.

The primary five-year school (from 7 to 12 years old) children passed under the guidance of a writer who taught them (as a grammarian in Greece) to read, write and count. Sometimes a special teacher, called a "calculator", was engaged in arithmetic.

The most severe discipline reigned in the school. Corporal punishment was also used.

The academic year started in March. There were many religious and state holidays, so that the children had time to take a break from the lessons.

There were no classes in the summer: approximately from

end of July, when Sirius was rising, the most School in ancient Rome bright star in the constellation Canis Major

(Canis Major), there were "vacations" (caniculares), that is, "days of dogs", the most sultry of the year. This is where our word "vacation" comes from.