Kolchkov V.I. METROLOGY, STANDARDIZATION AND CERTIFICATION. M.: Tutorial

3. Metrology and technical measurements

3.2. Types and methods of measurements

Measurement- the process of finding the value of a physical quantity empirically using measuring instruments.

The result of the process is the value of the physical quantity Q = qU, where q- numerical value of a physical quantity in accepted units; U- unit of physical quantity. The value of a physical quantity Q found during the measurement is called valid.

Measuring principle- a physical phenomenon or a set of physical phenomena underlying measurements. For example, the measurement of body weight by weighing using gravity proportional to the mass, the measurement of temperature using the thermoelectric effect.

Measurement method- a set of methods for using the principles and means of measurement.

Measuring instruments (SI) are used t Technical means having normalized metrological properties.

There are various types of measurements. The classification of measurement types is carried out based on the nature of the dependence of the measured quantity on time, the type of measurement equation, the conditions that determine the accuracy of the measurement result and the methods of expressing these results.

• According to the nature of the dependence of the measured value on the measurement time, they distinguish static and dynamic measurements.

Static are measurements in which the measured value remains constant over time. Such measurements are, for example, measurements of product dimensions, constant pressure, temperature, etc.

dynamic - these are measurements during which the measured value changes with time, for example, the measurement of pressure and temperature when gas is compressed in an engine cylinder.

• According to the method of obtaining results, determined by the type of measurement equation, they distinguish direct, indirect, aggregate and joint measurements.

Direct - These are measurements in which the desired value of a physical quantity is found directly from experimental data. Direct measurements can be expressed by the formula Q = X, where Q- the desired value of the measured quantity, and X- the value directly obtained from the experimental data. Examples of such measurements are: length measurement with a ruler or tape measure, diameter measurement with a caliper or micrometer, angle measurement with a goniometer, temperature measurement with a thermometer, etc.

Indirect - These are measurements in which the value of a quantity is determined on the basis of a known relationship between the desired quantity and the quantities whose values ​​are found by direct measurements. Thus, the value of the measured quantity is calculated by the formula Q = F(x1, x2 ... xN), where Q- the desired value of the measured quantity; F- known functional dependence, x1 , x2, … , xN- values ​​of quantities obtained by direct measurements. Examples of indirect measurements: determining the volume of a body by direct measurements of its geometric dimensions, finding the electrical resistivity of a conductor by its resistance, length and cross-sectional area, measuring the average thread diameter using the three-wire method, etc. Indirect measurements are widespread in cases where the desired value cannot be measured or is too difficult to measure by direct measurement. There are cases when the magnitude can be measured only indirectly, for example, the dimensions of the astronomical or intraatomic order.

Cumulative - these are measurements in which the values ​​of the measured quantities are determined by the results of repeated measurements of one or more quantities of the same name with various combinations of measures or these quantities. The value of the desired quantity is determined by solving a system of equations compiled from the results of several direct measurements. An example of cumulative measurements is the determination of the mass of the individual weights of a set, i.e. carrying out calibration according to the known mass of one of them and according to the results of direct measurements and comparison of the masses of various combinations of weights. Consider an example of cumulative measurements, which consists in calibrating a weight, consisting of weights with a mass of 1, 2, 2*, 5, 10 and 20 kg. A number of weights (except 2*) represent exemplary weights of different sizes. An asterisk marks a weight that has a value other than the exact value of 2 kg. Calibration consists in determining the mass of each weight using one standard weight, for example, using a weight of 1 kg. By changing the combination of weights, we will take measurements. Let's make equations, where we denote the mass of individual weights by numbers, for example, 1abr means the mass of a standard weight of 1 kg, then: 1 = 1abr + a; 1 + 1rev = 2 + b; 2* = 2 + c; 1 + 2 + 2* = 5 + d etc. Additional weights that must be added to or subtracted from the mass of the weight indicated on the right side of the equation to balance the scales are indicated a, b, c, d. By solving this system of equations, you can determine the value of the mass of each weight.

Joint - these are measurements made simultaneously of two or more opposite quantities in order to find a functional relationship between them. Examples of joint measurements are the determination of the length of a rod depending on its temperature or the dependence of the electrical resistance of a conductor on pressure and temperature.

• According to the conditions that determine the accuracy of the result, the measurements are divided into three classes.

1. Measurements of the highest possible accuracy, achievable with the current state of the art. This class includes all high-precision measurements and, first of all, reference measurements related to the maximum possible accuracy of reproduction of the established units of physical quantities. This also includes measurements of physical constants, primarily universal ones, such as the measurement of the absolute value of the gravitational acceleration.

2. Control and verification measurements, the error of which with a certain probability should not exceed a certain given value. This class includes measurements performed by laboratories of state control (supervision) over compliance with the requirements of technical regulations, as well as the state of measuring equipment and factory measuring laboratories. These measurements guarantee the error of the result with a certain probability, not exceeding some predetermined value.

3. Technical measurements , in which the error of the result is determined by the characteristics of the measuring instruments. Examples of technical measurements are measurements performed during the production process in industrial enterprises, in the service sector, etc.

• Depending on the way of expressing the results of measurements, there are absolute and relative measurements.

Absolute refers to measurements that are based on direct measurements of one or more fundamental quantities or on the use of values ​​of physical constants. Examples of absolute measurements are: determining the length in meters, the strength of the electric current in amperes, the acceleration of gravity in meters per second squared.

Relative called measurements in which the desired value is compared with the value of the same name, playing the role of a unit or taken as the original. Examples of relative measurements are: measurement of the shell diameter by the number of revolutions of the measuring roller, measurement relative humidity air, defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapor in 1 cubic meter of air to the amount of water vapor that saturates 1 cubic meter of air at a given temperature.

• Depending on the method of determining the values ​​of the desired quantities, there are two main methods of measurement method of direct estimation and method of comparison with measure.

Direct evaluation method - a method of measurement in which the value of a quantity is determined directly from the reading device of a direct-acting measuring device. Examples of such measurements are: measuring length with a ruler, measuring parts with a micrometer, goniometer, pressure with a pressure gauge, etc.

Measure comparison method - a method of measurement in which the measured value is compared with the value reproduced by the measure. For example, to measure the diameter of a caliber, the optimeter is set to zero by a block of end gauge blocks, and the measurement result is obtained from the indication of the optimeter needle, which is a deviation from zero. Thus, the measured value is compared with the size of the end block block. There are several varieties of the comparison method:

a) method opposition, at which the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure, simultaneously act on the comparison device, which allows you to establish the relationship between these quantities, for example, measuring resistance in a bridge circuit with the inclusion of a diagonal of the bridge of the indicating device;

b) differential a method in which a measurand is compared with a known quantity reproducible by the measure. This method, for example, determines the deviation of the controlled diameter of the part on the optimeter after it is set to zero by the block of gauge blocks;

in) null method - also a kind of comparison method with a measure, in which the resulting effect of the impact of quantities on the comparison device is brought to zero. This method measures the electrical resistance according to the bridge circuit with its full balancing;

d) with the method coincidences the difference between the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure is determined using the coincidence of scale marks or periodic signals. For example, when measuring with a caliper, the coincidence of the marks of the main and vernier scales is used.

• Depending on how measurement information is obtained, measurements can be contact and non-contact.
• Depending on the type , applied measuring instruments , distinguish instrumental, expert, heuristic and organoleptic measurement methods.

instrumental method based on the use of special technical means, including automated and automatic.

expert method The evaluation is based on the use of the judgments of a group of specialists.

Heuristic methods estimates are based on intuition.

Organoleptic methods estimates are based on the use of the human senses. Assessment of the state of the object can be carried out element-by-element and complex measurements. Element by Element the method is characterized by the measurement of each parameter of the product separately. For example, eccentricity, ovality, cutting of a cylindrical shaft. Complex method characterized by the measurement of the total quality indicator, which is influenced by its individual components. For example, measuring the radial runout of a cylindrical part, which is affected by eccentricity, ovality, etc.; profile position control along limit contours, etc.

Theory Workshop Tasks Information

In the scientific literature, technical measuring instruments are divided into three large groups. These are: measures, calibers and universal measuring instruments, which include measuring instruments, control and measuring instruments (CIP), and systems.

1. A measure is a measuring instrument that is intended to reproduce the physical quantity of the prescribed size. Measures include plane-parallel length measures (tiles) and angular measures.

2. Calibers are some devices, the purpose of which is to be used to control and search within the required boundaries of dimensions, the relative positions of surfaces and the shape of parts. As a rule, they are divided into: smooth limit calibers(staples and plugs), as well as threaded gauges, which include threaded rings or staples, threaded plugs, etc.

3. Measuring device, presented in the form of a device that generates a signal of measuring information in a form understandable for the perception of observers.

4. Measuring system, understood as a certain set of measuring instruments and some auxiliary devices that are interconnected by communication channels. It is designed to produce measurement information signals in a form that is suitable for automatic processing, as well as for translation and use in automatic control systems.

5. Universal measuring instruments, the purpose of which is used to determine the actual dimensions. Any universal measuring tool is characterized by its purpose, principle of operation, that is, the physical principle underlying its construction, design features and metrological characteristics.

In the control measurement of angular and linear indicators, direct measurements are used; relative, indirect or cumulative measurements are less common. In the scientific literature, among direct measurement methods, as a rule, the following are distinguished:

1) direct evaluation method, which is a method in which the value of the quantity is determined by the reading device of the measuring device;

2) method of comparison with a measure, which is understood as a method in which a given value can be compared with the value reproduced by the measure;

3) the method of addition, which is usually understood as a method when the value of the obtained value is supplemented by a measure of the same value so that the instrument used for comparison is affected by their sum equal to a predetermined value;

4) differential method, which is characterized by measuring the difference between a given value and a known value, a reproducible measure. The method gives a result with a fairly high accuracy rate when using rough measuring instruments;

5) the zero method, which, in fact, is similar to the differential method, but the difference between the given value and the measure is reduced to zero. Moreover, the zero method has a certain advantage, since the measure can be many times smaller than the measured value;

6) substitution method, which is a comparative method with a measure, in which the measured value is replaced by a known value, which is reproduced by the measure. Recall that there are also non-standardized methods. This group typically includes the following:

1) the method of opposition, which implies a method in which the given value, as well as the value reproduced by the measure, at the same time act on the comparison device;

2) the coincidence method, characterized as a method in which the difference between the compared values ​​is measured using the coincidence of marks on the scales or periodic signals.

Measuring instrument (SI)- this is a technical tool or a set of tools used to carry out measurements and has normalized metrological characteristics. With the help of measuring instruments, a physical quantity can be not only detected, but also measured.

Measuring instruments are classified according to the following criteria:

1) according to the methods of constructive implementation;

2) according to metrological purpose.

According to the methods of constructive implementation, measuring instruments are divided into:

1) measures of magnitude;

2) measuring transducers;

3) measuring instruments;

4) measuring installations;

5) measuring systems.

Measures of magnitude- these are measuring instruments of a certain fixed size, reused for measurement. Allocate:

1) unambiguous measures;

2) multivalued measures;

3) sets of measures.

A number of measures, technically representing a single device, within which it is possible to combine the existing measures in different ways, is called a store of measures.

The object of measurement is compared with the measure by means of comparators (technical devices). For example, a balance scale is a comparator.

Standard samples (RS) belong to unambiguous measures. There are two types of standard samples:

1) standard samples of the composition;

2) standard property patterns.

Reference material for composition or material- this is a sample with fixed values ​​​​of quantities that quantitatively reflect the content in a substance or material of all its constituent parts.

A standard sample of the properties of a substance or material is a sample with fixed values ​​of quantities that reflect the properties of a substance or material (physical, biological, etc.).

Each standard sample must necessarily pass metrological certification in the bodies of the metrological service before it can be used.

Reference materials can be applied at different levels and in different areas. Allocate:

1) interstate SOs;

2) state SOs;

3) industry SS;

4) SO of the organization (enterprise).

Measuring transducers (IP)- these are measuring instruments that express the measured value through another value or convert it into a signal of measuring information, which can later be processed, converted and stored. Measuring transducers can convert the measured value in different ways. Allocate:

1) analog converters (AP);

2) digital-to-analog converters (DAC);

3) analog-to-digital converters (ADC). The measuring transducers can occupy different positions in the measurement chain. Allocate:

1) primary measuring transducers that are in direct contact with the measurement object;

2) intermediate measuring transducers, which are located after the primary transducers. The primary measuring transducer is technically isolated; signals containing measuring information enter the measuring circuit from it. The primary measuring transducer is a sensor. Structurally, the sensor can be located quite far from the next intermediate measuring instrument, which should receive its signals.

Mandatory properties of the measuring transducer are normalized metrological properties and entry into the measurement circuit.

Measuring device is a means of measurement by means of which the value of a physical quantity belonging to a fixed range is obtained. The design of the device usually contains a device that converts the measured value with its indications into an optimally easy-to-understand form. To output measuring information in the design of the device, for example, a scale with an arrow or a digital indicator is used, through which the value of the measured value is recorded. In some cases, the measuring device is synchronized with a computer, and then the measurement information is output to the display.

In accordance with the method for determining the value of the measured quantity, the following are distinguished:

1) direct action measuring instruments;

2) measuring instruments for comparison.

Direct acting measuring instruments- these are devices by means of which it is possible to obtain the value of the measured quantity directly on the reading device.

Comparison measuring instrument is a device by means of which the value of a measured quantity is obtained by comparison with a known quantity corresponding to its measure.

Measuring instruments can display the measured value in different ways. Allocate:

1) indicating measuring instruments;

2) recording measuring instruments.

The difference between them is that with the help of an indicating measuring device, it is only possible to read the values ​​of the measured value, and the design of the recording measuring device also allows recording the measurement results, for example, by means of a diagram or drawing on some information carrier.

Reading device- a structurally isolated part of the measuring instrument, which is intended for reading readings. The reading device can be represented by a scale, pointer, display, etc. Reading devices are divided into:

1) scale reading devices;

2) digital reading devices;

3) registering reading devices. Scale reading devices include a scale and a pointer.

Scale- this is a system of marks and their corresponding sequential numerical values ​​of the measured quantity. The main characteristics of the scale:

1) the number of divisions on the scale;

2) division length;

3) division price;

4) indication range;

5) measurement range;

6) measurement limits.

Scale division is the distance from one mark on the scale to the next mark.

Division length- this is the distance from one axial to the next along an imaginary line that passes through the centers of the smallest marks of this scale.

Scale division value is the difference between the values ​​of two neighboring values ​​on a given scale.

Dial Range is the range of values ​​of the scale, the lower limit of which is the initial value of the given scale, and the upper one is the final value of the given scale.

Measuring range is the range of values ​​within which the normalized maximum permissible error is established.

Measurement limits is the minimum and maximum value of the measuring range.

Almost uniform scale- this is a scale in which the division prices differ by no more than 13% and which has a fixed division price.

Significantly uneven scale is a scale in which the divisions are narrowed and for divisions of which the value of the output signal is half the sum of the limits of the measuring range.

There are the following types of scales of measuring instruments:

1) one-sided scale;

2) two-sided scale;

3) symmetrical scale;

4) zero-free scale.

One-sided scale is a scale with zero at the beginning.

double sided scale is a scale in which zero is not at the beginning of the scale.

Symmetric scale is a scale with zero in the center.

Measuring setup- this is a measuring instrument, which is a set of measures, IP, measuring instruments, etc., performing similar functions, used to measure a fixed number of physical quantities and collected in one place. If the measuring setup is used for product testing, it is a test stand.

Measuring system- this is a measuring instrument, which is a combination of measures, IP, measuring instruments, etc., performing similar functions, located in different parts a certain space and designed to measure a certain number of physical quantities in a given space.

According to the metrological purpose, measuring instruments are divided into:

1) working measuring instruments;

2) standards.

Working measuring instruments (RSI) are the measuring instruments used to carry out technical measurements. Working measuring instruments can be used in different conditions. Allocate:

1) laboratory measuring instruments that are used in scientific research;

2) production measuring instruments that are used in the control over the course of various technological processes and product quality;

3) field measuring instruments that are used during the operation of aircraft, cars and other technical devices.

Certain requirements are imposed on each individual type of working measuring instruments. The requirements for laboratory working measuring instruments are a high degree of accuracy and sensitivity, for industrial RSI - a high degree of resistance to vibrations, shocks, temperature changes, for field RSI - stability and proper operation in various temperature conditions, resistance to a high level of humidity.

Standards- these are measuring instruments with a high degree of accuracy used in metrological studies to transmit information about the size of a unit. More accurate means of measurement transmit information about the size of the unit, and so on, thus forming a kind of chain, in each next link of which the accuracy of this information is slightly less than in the previous one.

Information about the size of the unit is transmitted during the verification of measuring instruments. The verification of measuring instruments is carried out in order to approve their suitability.

Metrological properties of measuring instruments- these are properties that have a direct impact on the results of measurements carried out by these means and on the error of these measurements.

Quantitative metrological properties are characterized by indicators of metrological properties, which are their metrological characteristics.

Metrological characteristics approved by ND are standardized metrological characteristics Metrological properties of measuring instruments are divided into:

1) properties that establish the scope of the measuring instruments:

2) properties that determine the precision and correctness of the obtained measurement results.

The properties that establish the scope of application of measuring instruments are determined by the following metrological characteristics:

1) measuring range;

2) threshold of sensitivity.

Measuring range- this is the range of values ​​of the quantity in which the limiting values ​​of errors are normalized. The lower and upper (right and left) limits of measurements are called the lower and upper limits of measurements.

Sensitivity threshold- this is the minimum value of the measured value that can cause a noticeable distortion of the received signal.

The properties that determine the precision and correctness of the obtained measurement results are determined by the following metrological characteristics:

1) the correctness of the results;

2) precision of results.

The accuracy of the results obtained by certain measuring instruments is determined by their error.

Error of measuring instruments- this is the difference between the result of measuring a quantity and the real (actual) value of this quantity. For a working measuring instrument, the real (valid) value of the measured quantity is the indication of the working standard of a lower level. Thus, the basis of comparison is the value shown by the measuring instrument, which is higher in the verification scheme than the tested measuring instrument.

Q n \u003d Q n? Q 0,

where AQ n is the error of the tested measuring instrument;

Q n - the value of a certain quantity obtained using the tested measuring instrument;

Rationing of metrological characteristics- this is the regulation of the limits of deviations of the values ​​of the real metrological characteristics of measuring instruments from their nominal values. The main goal of standardization of metrological characteristics is to ensure their interchangeability and uniformity of measurements. The values ​​of real metrological characteristics are established during the production of measuring instruments, in the future, during the operation of measuring instruments, these values ​​must be checked. In the event that one or more of the normalized metrological characteristics goes beyond the regulated limits, the measuring instrument must either be immediately adjusted or withdrawn from service.

The values ​​of metrological characteristics are regulated by the relevant standards of measuring instruments. Moreover, the metrological characteristics are normalized separately for normal and operating conditions for the use of measuring instruments. Normal conditions of use are conditions in which changes in metrological characteristics due to the influence of external factors (external magnetic fields, humidity, temperature) can be neglected. Operating conditions are conditions in which the change in influencing quantities has a wider range.

Metrological support, or MO for short, is the establishment and use of scientific and organizational foundations, as well as a number of technical means, norms and rules necessary to comply with the principle of unity and the required accuracy of measurements. To date, the development of MO is moving in the direction of transition from the existing narrow task of ensuring the unity and required measurement accuracy to new task ensuring the quality of measurements The meaning of the concept of "metrological assurance" is deciphered in relation to measurements (testing, control) in general. However, this term is also applicable in the form of the concept of "metrological support of the technological process (production, organization)", which implies MO measurements (tests or control) in this process, production, organization. The object of MO can be considered all stages of the life cycle (LC) of a product (product) or service, where the life cycle is perceived as a certain set of successive interrelated processes of creating and changing the state of a product from the formulation of initial requirements for it to the end of operation or consumption. Often, at the stage of product development, in order to achieve a high quality product, the choice of controlled parameters, accuracy standards, tolerances, measuring instruments, control and testing is made. And in the process of developing MO, it is desirable to use a systematic approach, in which the specified support is considered as a certain set of interrelated processes united by one goal. This goal is to achieve the required measurement quality. In the scientific literature, as a rule, a number of such processes are distinguished:

1) establishing the range of measured parameters, as well as the most appropriate accuracy standards for product quality control and process management;

2) feasibility study and selection of measuring instruments, tests and control and establishment of their rational nomenclature;

3) standardization, unification and aggregation of the used control and measuring equipment;

4) development, implementation and certification of modern methods for performing measurement, testing and control (MVI);

5) verification, metrological certification and calibration of KIO or instrumentation, as well as test equipment used at the enterprise;

6) control over the production, condition, use and repair of KIO, as well as over the strict adherence to the rules of metrology and standards at the enterprise;

7) participation in the process of creating and implementing enterprise standards;

8) introduction of international, state, industry standards, as well as other regulatory documents of the State Standard;

9) carrying out metrological examination of projects of design, technological and regulatory documentation;

10) analysis of the state of measurements, development on its basis and implementation of various measures to improve the MO;

11) training of employees of relevant services and divisions of the enterprise to perform control and measuring operations.

The organization and holding of all events of the Moscow Region is the prerogative of the metrological services. Metrological support is based on four layers. Actually, they bear a similar name in the scientific literature - the foundations. So, these are the scientific, organizational, regulatory and technical foundations. Special attention I would like to turn to the organizational foundations of metrological support. The organizational services of metrological support include the State Metrological Service and the Departmental Metrological Service.

The State Metrological Service, or GMS for short, is responsible for providing metrological measurements in Russia at the intersectoral level, and also carries out control and supervisory activities in the field of metrology. The HMS includes:

1) state scientific metrological centers (SSMC), metrological research institutes responsible, according to the legislative framework, for the application, storage and creation of state standards and the development of regulations on maintaining the uniformity of measurements in a fixed form of measurements;

2) bodies of the State Migration Service on the territory of the republics that are part of the Russian Federation, bodies of autonomous regions, bodies of autonomous districts, regions, territories, cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The main activity of the HMS bodies is aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements in the country. It includes the creation of state and secondary standards, the development of systems for transferring the sizes of PV units to working measuring instruments, state supervision over the condition, use, production, and repair of measuring instruments, metrological examination of documentation and the most important types of products, methodological guidance for legal entities' MS. The HMS is managed by Gosstandart.

A departmental metrological service, which, in accordance with the provisions of the Law “On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements”, can be created at an enterprise to ensure MO. It must be headed by a representative of the administration with appropriate knowledge and authority. is mandatory. Such areas of activity include:

1) health care, veterinary medicine, environmental protection, maintenance of labor safety;

2) trading operations and mutual settlements between sellers and buyers, which, as a rule, include transactions using slot machines and other devices;

3) state accounting operations;

4) defense of the state;

5) geodetic and hydrometeorological works;

6) banking, customs, tax and postal operations;

7) production of products supplied under contracts for the needs of the state in accordance with the legislative framework of the Russian Federation;

8) control and testing of product quality to ensure compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards of the Russian Federation;

9) certification of goods and services without fail;

10) measurements carried out on behalf of a number of government agencies: courts, arbitration, prosecutors, government bodies of the Russian Federation;

11) registration activities related to national or international records in the field of sports. The metrological service of the state governing body includes the following components:

1) structural subdivisions of the chief metrologist as part of the central office of the state body;

2) head and base organizations of metrological services in industries and sub-sectors, appointed by the governing body;

3) metrological service of enterprises, associations, organizations and institutions.

Another important section of IR is its scientific and methodological foundations. Thus, the main component of these foundations are the State Scientific Metrological Centers (SSMC), which are created from the enterprises and organizations or their structural subdivisions under the jurisdiction of the State Standard, performing various operations on the creation, storage, improvement, application and storage of state standards of units of quantities, and , in addition, developing normative rules for the purpose of ensuring the uniformity of measurements, having in its composition highly qualified personnel. As a rule, granting an enterprise the status of a GNMC does not affect its form of ownership and organizational and legal forms, but only means that they are included in a group of objects that have special forms of state support. The main functions of the SSMC are as follows:

1) creation, improvement, application and storage of state standards of units of quantities;

2) carrying out applied and fundamental research and development in the field of metrology, which can include the creation of various experimental installations, initial measures and scales to ensure the uniformity of measurements;

3) transfer from state standards of initial data on the size of units of quantities;

4) carrying out state tests of measuring instruments;

5) development of equipment required for HMS;

6) development and improvement of regulatory, organizational, economic and scientific foundations of activities aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements depending on specialization;

7) interaction with the metrological service of federal executive bodies, organizations and enterprises that have the status of a legal entity;

8) providing information about the uniformity of measurements of enterprises and organizations

9) organization of various events related to the activities of the GSVCH, GSSSD and GSSO;

10) conducting an examination of sections of the Ministry of Defense of federal and other programs;

11) organization of metrological examination and measurements at the request of a number of state bodies: court, arbitration, prosecutor's office or federal executive bodies;

12) training and retraining of highly qualified personnel;

13) participation in the comparison of state standards with national standards, available in a number of foreign countries, as well as participation in the development of international norms and rules.

The activities of the GNMC are regulated by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 12, 1994 No. 100.

An important component of the basis of MO are, as mentioned above, methodological instructions and guidance documents, which mean regulatory documents. methodological content, are developed by organizations subordinate to the State Standard of the Russian Federation. So, in the field of scientific and methodological foundations of metrological support, the State Standard of Russia organizes:

1) carrying out research activities and development work in the assigned areas of activity, and also establishes the rules for carrying out work on metrology, standardization, accreditation and certification, as well as state control and supervision in subordinate areas, provides methodological guidance for these works;

2) provides methodological guidance for training in the areas of metrology, certification and standardization, establishes requirements for the degree of qualification and competence of personnel. Organizes training, retraining and advanced training of specialists.

In the practice of using measurements, their accuracy becomes a very important indicator, which is the degree of closeness of the measurement results to some actual value, which is used for a qualitative comparison of measuring operations. And as a quantitative assessment, as a rule, the measurement error is used. Moreover, the smaller the error, the higher the accuracy is considered.

According to the law of the theory of errors, if it is necessary to increase the accuracy of the result (with the excluded systematic error) by 2 times, then the number of measurements must be increased by 4 times; if it is required to increase the accuracy by 3 times, then the number of measurements is increased by 9 times, etc.

The process of assessing the measurement error is considered one of the most important activities in ensuring the uniformity of measurements. Naturally, there are a huge number of factors that affect the measurement accuracy. Consequently, any classification of measurement errors is rather arbitrary, since often, depending on the conditions of the measurement process, errors can appear in different groups. In this case, according to the principle of dependence on the form, these expressions of the measurement error can be: absolute, relative and reduced.

In addition, on the basis of dependence on the nature of the manifestation, the causes and possibilities for eliminating measurement errors, they can be components. In this case, the following error components are distinguished: systematic and random.

The systematic component remains constant or changes with subsequent measurements of the same parameter.

The random component changes with repeated changes in the same parameter randomly. Both components of the measurement error (both random and systematic) appear simultaneously. Moreover, the value of the random error is not known in advance, since it can arise due to a number of unspecified factors. This type of error cannot be completely excluded, but their influence can be somewhat reduced by processing the measurement results.

The systematic error, and this is its peculiarity, when compared with a random error, which is detected regardless of its sources, is considered by components in connection with the sources of occurrence.

Components of the error can also be divided into: methodological, instrumental and subjective. Subjective systematic errors are associated with the individual characteristics of the operator. Such an error may occur due to errors in the reading of readings or the inexperience of the operator. Basically, systematic errors arise due to the methodological and instrumental components. The methodological component of the error is determined by the imperfection of the measurement method, the methods of using the SI, the incorrectness of the calculation formulas and the rounding of the results. The instrumental component appears due to the inherent error of the MI, determined by the accuracy class, the influence of the MI on the result, and the resolution of the MI. There is also such a thing as "gross errors or misses", which may appear due to erroneous actions of the operator, malfunction of the measuring instrument, or unforeseen changes in the measurement situation. Such errors, as a rule, are detected in the process of reviewing the measurement results using special criteria. An important element This classification is the prevention of errors, understood as the most rational way to reduce errors, is to eliminate the influence of any factor.

There are the following types of errors:

1) absolute error;

2) relative error;

3) reduced error;

4) basic error;

5) additional error;

6) systematic error;

7) random error;

8) instrumental error;

9) methodological error;

10) personal error;

11) static error;

12) dynamic error.

Measurement errors are classified according to the following criteria.

According to the method of mathematical expression, the errors are divided into absolute errors and relative errors.

According to the interaction of changes in time and the input value, the errors are divided into static errors and dynamic errors.

According to the nature of the appearance of errors, they are divided into systematic errors and random errors.

Absolute error is the value calculated as the difference between the value of the quantity obtained during the measurement process and the real (actual) value of the given quantity.

The absolute error is calculated using the following formula:

Q n \u003d Q n? Q 0,

where AQ n is the absolute error;

Q n- the value of a certain quantity obtained in the process of measurement;

Q 0 - the value of the same quantity, taken as the base of comparison (real value).

Absolute error of measure is the value calculated as the difference between the number, which is the nominal value of the measure, and the real (actual) value of the quantity reproduced by the measure.

Relative error is a number that reflects the degree of accuracy of the measurement.

The relative error is calculated using the following formula:

where?Q is the absolute error;

Q 0 is the real (actual) value of the measured quantity.

Reduced error is the value calculated as the ratio of the absolute error value to the normalizing value.

The normalizing value is defined as follows:

1) for measuring instruments for which a nominal value is approved, this nominal value is taken as a normalizing value;

2) for measuring instruments, in which the zero value is located on the edge of the measurement scale or outside the scale, the normalizing value is taken equal to the final value from the measurement range. The exception is measuring instruments with a significantly uneven measurement scale;

3) for measuring instruments, in which the zero mark is located within the measurement range, the normalizing value is taken equal to the sum of the final numerical values ​​of the measurement range;

4) for measuring instruments (measuring instruments), in which the scale is uneven, the normalizing value is taken equal to the entire length of the measurement scale or the length of that part of it that corresponds to the measurement range. The absolute error is then expressed in units of length.

Measurement error includes instrumental error, methodological error and reading error. Moreover, the reading error arises due to the inaccuracy in determining the division fractions of the measurement scale.

Instrumental error- this is the error arising due to the errors made in the manufacturing process of the functional parts of the error measuring instruments.

Methodological error is an error due to the following reasons:

1) inaccuracy in building a model of the physical process on which the measuring instrument is based;

2) incorrect use of measuring instruments.

Subjective error- this is an error arising due to the low degree of qualification of the operator of the measuring instrument, as well as due to the error of the human visual organs, i.e. the human factor is the cause of the subjective error.

Errors in the interaction of changes in time and the input value are divided into static and dynamic errors.

Static error- this is the error that occurs in the process of measuring a constant (not changing in time) value.

Dynamic error- this is an error, the numerical value of which is calculated as the difference between the error that occurs when measuring a non-constant (variable in time) quantity, and a static error (the error in the value of the measured quantity at a certain point in time).

According to the nature of the dependence of the error on the influencing quantities, the errors are divided into basic and additional.

Basic error is the error obtained under normal operating conditions of the measuring instrument (at normal values ​​of the influencing quantities).

Additional error- this is the error that occurs when the values ​​of the influencing quantities do not correspond to their normal values, or if the influencing quantity goes beyond the boundaries of the area of ​​normal values.

Normal conditions are the conditions under which all values ​​of the influencing quantities are normal or do not go beyond the boundaries of the range of normal values.

Working conditions- these are conditions in which the change in the influencing quantities has a wider range (the values ​​of the influencing ones do not go beyond the boundaries of the working range of values).

Working range of values ​​of the influencing quantity is the range of values ​​in which the values ​​of the additional error are normalized.

According to the nature of the dependence of the error on the input value, the errors are divided into additive and multiplicative.

Additive error- this is the error that occurs due to the summation of numerical values ​​and does not depend on the value of the measured quantity, taken modulo (absolute).

Multiplicative error- this is an error that changes along with a change in the values ​​​​of the quantity being measured.

It should be noted that the value of the absolute additive error is not related to the value of the measured quantity and the sensitivity of the measuring instrument. Absolute additive errors are unchanged over the entire measurement range.

The value of the absolute additive error determines the minimum value of the quantity that can be measured by the measuring instrument.

The values ​​of multiplicative errors change in proportion to changes in the values ​​of the measured quantity. The values ​​of multiplicative errors are also proportional to the sensitivity of the measuring instrument. The multiplicative error arises due to the influence of influencing quantities on the parametric characteristics of the instrument elements.

Errors that may occur during the measurement process are classified according to the nature of their occurrence. Allocate:

1) systematic errors;

2) random errors.

Gross errors and misses may also appear in the measurement process.

Systematic error- this is an integral part of the entire error of the measurement result, which does not change or changes naturally with repeated measurements of the same value. Usually, a systematic error is tried to be eliminated by possible means (for example, by using measurement methods that reduce the likelihood of its occurrence), but if a systematic error cannot be excluded, then it is calculated before the start of measurements and appropriate corrections are made to the measurement result. In the process of normalizing the systematic error, the boundaries of its admissible values ​​are determined. The systematic error determines the correctness of measurements of measuring instruments (metrological property).

Systematic errors in some cases can be determined experimentally. The measurement result can then be refined by introducing a correction.

Methods for eliminating systematic errors are divided into four types:

1) elimination of causes and sources of errors before the start of measurements;

2) elimination of errors in the process of already begun measurement by methods of substitution, compensation of errors in sign, oppositions, symmetrical observations;

3) correction of the measurement results by making an amendment (elimination of the error by calculations);

4) determination of the limits of systematic error in case it cannot be eliminated.

Elimination of the causes and sources of errors before the start of measurements. This method is the best option, since its use simplifies the further course of measurements (there is no need to eliminate errors in the process of an already started measurement or to amend the result obtained).

To eliminate systematic errors in the process of an already started measurement, apply various ways

Amendment method is based on knowledge of the systematic error and the current patterns of its change. When using this method, the measurement result obtained with systematic errors is subject to corrections equal in magnitude to these errors, but opposite in sign.

substitution method consists in the fact that the measured value is replaced by a measure placed in the same conditions in which the object of measurement was located. The substitution method is used when measuring the following electrical parameters: resistance, capacitance and inductance.

Sign error compensation method consists in the fact that the measurements are performed twice in such a way that the error, unknown in magnitude, is included in the measurement results with the opposite sign.

Contrasting method similar to sign-based compensation. This method consists in the fact that measurements are performed twice in such a way that the source of error in the first measurement has the opposite effect on the result of the second measurement.

random error- this is a component of the error of the measurement result, which changes randomly, irregularly during repeated measurements of the same value. The occurrence of a random error cannot be foreseen and predicted. Random error cannot be completely eliminated; it always distorts the final measurement results to some extent. But you can make the measurement result more accurate by taking repeated measurements. The cause of a random error can be, for example, a random change in external factors affecting the measurement process. A random error during multiple measurements with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy leads to scattering of the results.

Misses and blunders are errors that are much larger than the systematic and random errors expected under the given measurement conditions. Slips and gross errors may appear due to gross errors in the measurement process, a technical malfunction of the measuring instrument, and unexpected changes in external conditions.

Meter quality- this is the level of compliance of the device with its intended purpose. Therefore, the quality of a measuring instrument is determined by the extent to which, when using a measuring instrument, the purpose of the measurement is achieved.

The main purpose of the measurement is the receipt of reliable and accurate information about the object of measurement.

In order to determine the quality of the device, it is necessary to consider the following characteristics:

1) device constant;

2) sensitivity of the device;

3) sensitivity threshold of the measuring device;

4) the accuracy of the measuring instrument.

Instrument constant- this is a certain number multiplied by the reading in order to obtain the desired value of the measured value, i.e., the reading of the device. The constant of the device in some cases is set as the value of the division of the scale, which is the value of the measured quantity corresponding to one division.

Instrument sensitivity- this is a number in the numerator of which is the value of the linear or angular movement of the pointer (if we are talking about a digital measuring device, then the numerator will be a change in the numerical value, and the denominator will be the change in the measured value that caused this movement (or change in the numerical value)) .

Sensitivity threshold of the measuring device- a number that is the minimum value of the measured value that the device can fix.

Meter accuracy- this is a characteristic expressing the degree of compliance of the measurement results with the present value of the measured quantity. The accuracy of a measuring instrument is determined by setting lower and upper limits for the maximum possible error.

The division of devices into accuracy classes based on the value of the permissible error is practiced.

Accuracy class of measuring instruments- this is a generalizing characteristic of measuring instruments, which is determined by the boundaries of the main and additional permissible errors and other characteristics that determine accuracy Accuracy classes a certain kind measuring instruments are approved in the regulatory documentation. And for each separate class accuracy, certain requirements for metrological characteristics are approved. The combination of established metrological characteristics determines the degree of accuracy of a measuring instrument belonging to a given accuracy class.

The accuracy class of the measuring instrument is determined in the course of its development. Since metrological characteristics usually deteriorate during operation, it is possible, based on the results of the calibration (verification) of the measuring instrument, to lower its accuracy class.

The errors of measuring instruments are classified according to the following criteria:

1) according to the way of expression;

2) by the nature of the manifestation;

3) in relation to the conditions of use. According to the method of expression, absolute and relative errors are distinguished.

The absolute error is calculated by the formula:

?Q n \u003d Q n ?Q 0,

where ? Q n is the absolute error of the tested measuring instrument;

Q n- the value of a certain quantity obtained using the tested measuring instrument;

Q 0 - the value of the same quantity, taken as the base of comparison (real value).

Relative error is a number that reflects the degree of accuracy of a measuring instrument. The relative error is calculated using the following formula:

where ? Q is the absolute error;

Q 0 - the real (real) value of the measured value.

Relative error is expressed as a percentage.

According to the nature of the manifestation of errors, they are divided into random and systematic.

In relation to the conditions of application, the errors are divided into basic and additional.

Basic error of measuring instruments- this is the error, which is determined if the measuring instruments are used under normal conditions.

Additional error of measuring instruments- this is an integral part of the error of the measuring instrument, which occurs additionally if any of the influencing quantities goes beyond its normal value.

Metrological support- this is the approval and use of scientific, technical and organizational foundations, technical instruments, norms and standards in order to ensure the unity and established accuracy of measurements. Metrological support in its scientific aspect is based on metrology.

The following goals of metrological support can be distinguished:

1) achieving higher product quality;

2) ensuring the greatest efficiency of the accounting system;

3) provision of preventive measures, diagnostics and treatment;

4) ensuring effective production management;

5) Ensuring a high level of efficiency scientific works and experiments;

6) providing more high degree automation in the field of transport management;

7) ensuring the effective functioning of the system of regulation and control of working and living conditions;

8) improving the quality of environmental supervision;

9) improving the quality and increasing the reliability of communications;

10) ensuring an effective system for evaluating various natural resources.

Metrological support of technical devices- this is

a set of scientific and technical means, organizational measures and activities carried out by the relevant institutions in order to achieve unity and the required accuracy of measurements, as well as the established characteristics of technical instruments.

Measuring system- a measuring instrument, which is a combination of measures, IP, measuring instruments, etc., performing similar functions, located in different parts of a certain space and designed to measure a certain number of physical quantities in this space.

Measuring systems are used for:

1) technical specifications measurement object obtained by carrying out measurement transformations of a certain number of quantities dynamically changing in time and distributed in space;

2) automated processing of the obtained measurement results;

3) fixing the obtained measurement results and the results of their automated processing;

4) transfer of data to the output signals of the system. Metrological support of measuring systems implies:

1) definition and standardization of metrological characteristics for measuring channels;

2) verification of technical documentation for compliance with metrological characteristics;

3) carrying out tests of measuring systems to determine the type to which they belong;

4) carrying out tests to determine the conformity of the measuring system to the established type;

5) certification of measuring systems;

6) carrying out calibration (checking) of measuring systems;

7) ensuring metrological control over the production and use of measuring systems.

Measuring channel of the measuring system- this is a part of the measuring system, technically or functionally isolated, designed to perform a certain final function (for example, to perceive the measured value or to obtain a number or code that is the result of measurements of this value). Share:

1) simple measuring channels;

2) complex measuring channels.

Simple measuring channel is a channel that uses a direct method of measurement, implemented through ordered measurement transformations.

In a complex measuring channel, a primary part and a secondary part are distinguished. In the primary part, a complex measuring channel is a combination of a certain number of simple measuring channels. Signals from the output of simple measuring channels of the primary part are used for indirect, cumulative or joint measurements or to obtain a signal proportional to the measurement result in the secondary part.

Measuring component of the measuring system- this is a measuring instrument with separately normalized metrological characteristics. An example of a measuring component of a measuring system is a measuring instrument. The measurement components of the measurement system also include analog computing devices (devices that perform measurement conversions). Analog computing devices belong to the group of devices with one or more inputs.

Measuring components of measuring systems are of the following types.

Connecting component- this is a technical device or an element of the environment used to exchange signals containing information about the measured value between the components of the measuring system with the least possible distortion. An example of a connecting component is a telephone line, a high-voltage power line, transitional devices.

Compute Component is a digital device (part of a digital device) designed to perform calculations, with installed software. The compute component is used to compute

merging the results of measurements (direct, indirect, joint, cumulative), which are a number or a corresponding code, calculations are made on the basis of the results of primary transformations in the measuring system. The computing component also performs logical operations and coordination of the measuring system.

Complex component is an integral part of the measuring system, which is a technically or territorially united set of components. The complex component completes the measuring transformations, as well as computational and logical operations that are approved in the accepted algorithm for processing measurement results for other purposes.

Auxiliary Component is a technical device designed to ensure the normal functioning of the measuring system, but does not take part in the process of measuring transformations.

According to the relevant GOSTs, the metrological characteristics of the measuring system must be standardized for each measuring channel included in the measuring system, as well as for the complex and measuring components of the measuring system.

As a rule, the manufacturer of the measuring system determines the general standards for the metrological characteristics of the measuring channels of the measuring system.

The normalized metrological characteristics of the measuring channels of the measuring system are designed to:

1) ensure the determination of the measurement error using measuring channels under operating conditions;

2) to ensure effective control over the compliance of the measuring channel of the measuring system with the normalized metrological characteristics during the testing of the measuring system. If the determination or control over the metrological characteristics of the measuring channel of the measuring system cannot be carried out experimentally for the entire measuring channel, the normalization of the metrological characteristics is carried out for the constituent parts of the measuring channel. Moreover, the combination of these parts should be a whole measuring channel

It is possible to normalize the error characteristics as the metrological characteristics of the measuring channel of the measuring system both under normal conditions of use of the measuring components, and under operating conditions, which are characterized by such a combination of influencing factors, in which the modulus of the numerical value of the measurement channel error characteristics has the maximum possible value. For greater efficiency, for intermediate combinations of influencing factors, the measurement channel error characteristics are also normalized. These characteristics of the error of the measuring channels of the measuring system must be checked by calculating them according to the metrological characteristics of the components of the measuring system, which constitute the measuring channel as a whole. Moreover, the calculated values ​​of the error characteristics of the measuring channels may not be verified experimentally. But nevertheless, it is mandatory to carry out control of metrological characteristics for all constituent parts (components) of the measuring system, the norms of which are the initial data in the calculation.

Normalized metrological characteristics complex components and measuring components must:

1) ensure the determination of the error characteristics of the measuring channels of the measuring system under operating conditions of use using the normalized metrological characteristics of the components;

2) ensure that these components are effectively controlled during type testing and verification of compliance with specified metrological characteristics. For the computing components of the measuring system, if their software was not taken into account in the process of normalizing the metrological characteristics, the calculation errors are normalized, the source of which is the functioning software(calculation algorithm, its software implementation). For the computing components of the measuring system, other characteristics can also be normalized, provided that the specifics of the computing component are taken into account, which can affect the characteristics of the constituent parts of the measurement channel error (characteristics of the error component), if the component error occurs due to the use of this program for processing the measurement results.

The technical documentation for the operation of the measuring system must include a description of the algorithm and a program that operates in accordance with the described algorithm. This description should make it possible to calculate the error characteristics of the measurement results using the error characteristics of the component part of the measuring channel of the measuring system located in front of the computing component.

For connecting components of the measuring system, two types of characteristics are normalized:

1) characteristics that provide such a value of the error component of the measuring channel caused by the connecting component, which can be neglected;

2) characteristics that allow determining the value of the error component of the measuring channel caused by the connecting component.

When choosing measuring instruments, first of all, the permissible error value for a given measurement, established in the relevant regulatory documents, should be taken into account.

If the permissible error is not provided for in the relevant regulatory documents, the maximum permissible measurement error should be regulated in the technical documentation for the product.

The choice of measuring instruments should also take into account:

1) tolerances;

2) measurement methods and control methods. The main criterion for choosing measuring instruments is the compliance of measuring instruments with the requirements of measurement reliability, obtaining real (real) values ​​of measured quantities with a given accuracy at minimal time and material costs.

For the optimal choice of measuring instruments, it is necessary to have the following initial data:

1) the nominal value of the measured quantity;

2) the value of the difference between the maximum and minimum value of the measured value, regulated in the regulatory documentation;

3) information about the conditions for carrying out measurements.

If it is necessary to choose a measuring system, guided by the criterion of accuracy, then its error should be calculated as the sum of the errors of all elements of the system (measures, measuring instruments, measuring transducers), in accordance with the law established for each system.

The preliminary selection of measuring instruments is made in accordance with the criterion of accuracy, and the final choice of measuring instruments should take into account the following requirements:

1) to the working area of ​​values ​​of quantities that affect the measurement process;

2) to the dimensions of the measuring instrument;

3) to the mass of the measuring instrument;

4) to the design of the measuring instrument.

When choosing measuring instruments, it is necessary to take into account the preference for standardized measuring instruments.

Methods for determining and accounting for measurement errors are used to:

1) based on the measurement results, obtain the real (real) value of the measured quantity;

2) determine the accuracy of the results, i.e., the degree of their compliance with the real (real) value.

In the process of determining and accounting for errors, the following are evaluated:

1) mathematical expectation;

2) standard deviation.

Point Parameter Estimation(mathematical expectation or standard deviation) is an estimate of a parameter that can be expressed as a single number. The point estimate is a function of the experimental data and, therefore, must itself be a random variable distributed according to a law that depends on the distribution law for the values ​​of the original random variable.

Point estimates are of the following types:

1) unbiased point estimate;

2) effective point estimate;

3) consistent point estimate.

Unbiased point estimate is an estimate of the error parameter, the mathematical expectation of which is equal to this parameter.

Efficient Point Estimation is a point estimate. whose variance is less than the variance of any other estimate of this parameter.

Consistent point estimate- this is an estimate that, with an increase in the number of tests, tends to the value of the parameter being evaluated.

The main methods for determining grades:

1) maximum likelihood method (Fisher method);

2) the method of least squares.

1. Maximum likelihood method is based on the idea that information about the actual value of the measured quantity and the dispersion of measurement results obtained by multiple observations is contained in a series of observations.

The maximum likelihood method consists in finding estimates for which the likelihood function passes through its maximum.

Maximum Likelihood Estimates are estimates of the standard deviation and estimates of the true value.

If random errors are distributed according to a normal distribution, then the maximum likelihood estimate for the true value is the arithmetic mean of the observations, and the variance estimate is the arithmetic mean of the squared deviations of the values ​​from the mathematical expectation.

The advantage of maximum likelihood estimates is that these estimates:

1) asymptotically unbiased;

2) asymptotically efficient;

3) are asymptotically distributed according to the normal law.

2. Least square method consists in the fact that from a certain class of estimates, the estimate with the minimum variance (the most effective) is taken. Of all linear estimates of the real value, where some constants are present, only the arithmetic mean reduces to the smallest value of the variance. In this regard, under the condition of the distribution of random error values ​​according to the normal distribution law, the estimates obtained using the least squares method are identical to the maximum likelihood estimates. Estimation of parameters using intervals is carried out by finding confidence intervals within which the real values ​​of the estimated parameters are located with given probabilities.

Confidence limit of random deviation is a number representing the length of the confidence interval divided by two.

With a sufficiently large number of trials, the confidence interval decreases significantly. If the number of trials increases, then it is permissible to increase the number of confidence intervals.

Gross error detection

gross errors are errors that are much larger than the systematic and random errors expected under the given measurement conditions. Slips and gross errors may appear due to gross errors in the measurement process, a technical malfunction of the measuring instrument, and unexpected changes in external conditions. In order to exclude gross errors, it is recommended to approximately determine the value of the measured quantity before the start of measurements.

If, during measurements, it turns out that the result of an individual observation is very different from other results obtained, it is necessary to establish the reasons for such a difference. Results obtained with a sharp difference can be discarded and this value re-measured. However, in some cases, discarding such results can cause a noticeable distortion of the scatter of a number of measurements. In this regard, it is recommended not to discard thoughtlessly different results, but to supplement them with the results of repeated measurements.

If it is necessary to exclude gross errors in the process of processing the results obtained, when it is no longer possible to correct the conditions for the measurements and carry out repeated measurements, then statistical methods are used.

The general method for testing statistical hypotheses makes it possible to find out whether there is a gross error in a given measurement result.

Usually measurements are single. Under normal conditions, their accuracy is quite sufficient.

The result of a single measurement is presented in the following form:

where Y i- the value of the i -th indication;

I - amendment.

The error of the result of a single measurement is determined when the measurement method is approved.

In the process of processing measurement results, various types of distribution law are used (normal distribution law, uniform distribution law, correlation distribution law) of the measured value (in this case it is treated as random).

Processing the results of direct equal measurements Direct measurements- these are measurements by means of which the value of the measured quantity is directly obtained. Equivalent or equally scattered are called direct, mutually independent measurements of a certain quantity, and the results of these measurements can be considered as random and distributed according to one distribution law.

Usually, when processing the results of direct, equally accurate measurements, it is assumed that the results and measurement errors are distributed according to the normal distribution law.

After removing the calculations, the value of the mathematical expectation is calculated by the formula:

where x i is the value of the measured quantity;

n is the number of measurements taken.

Then, if the systematic error is determined, its value is subtracted from the calculated value of the mathematical expectation.

Then the value of the standard deviation of the values ​​of the measured value from the mathematical expectation is calculated.

Algorithm for processing the results of multiple equally accurate measurements

If the systematic error is known, then it must be excluded from the measurement results.

Calculate the mathematical expectation of the measurement results. As a mathematical expectation, the arithmetic mean of the values ​​is usually taken.

Set the value of the random error (deviation from the arithmetic mean) of the result of a single measurement.

Calculate the variance of the random error. Calculate the standard deviation of the measurement result.

Check the assumption that the measurement results are distributed according to the normal law.

Find the value of the confidence interval and confidence error.

Determine the value of the entropy error and the entropy coefficient.

Calibration of measuring instruments is a set of actions and operations that determine and confirm the real (actual) values ​​of metrological characteristics and (or) the suitability of measuring instruments that are not subject to state metrological control.

The suitability of a measuring instrument is a characteristic determined by the compliance of the metrological characteristics of the measuring instrument with the approved (in regulatory documents or by the customer) technical requirements. The calibration laboratory determines the suitability of the measuring instrument.

Calibration replaced the verification and metrological certification of measuring instruments, which were carried out only by the bodies of the state metrological service. Calibration, unlike verification and metrological certification of measuring instruments, can be carried out by any metrological service, provided that it has the ability to provide appropriate conditions for calibration. Calibration is carried out on a voluntary basis and can even be carried out by the metrological service of the enterprise.

Nevertheless, the metrological service of the enterprise is obliged to fulfill certain requirements. The main requirement for the metrological service is to ensure that the working measuring instrument complies with the state standard, that is, calibration is part of the national system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

There are four methods of verification (calibration) of measuring instruments:

1) method of direct comparison with the standard;

2) method of comparison using a computer;

3) method of direct measurements of the quantity;

4) method of indirect measurements of quantity.

Method of direct comparison with the standard funds

measurements to be calibrated with an appropriate standard of a certain discharge is practiced for various measuring instruments in such areas as electrical measurements, magnetic measurements, determination of voltage, frequency and current strength. This method is based on the implementation of measurements of the same physical quantity by a calibrated (verified) instrument and a reference instrument simultaneously. The error of the calibrated (verified) device is calculated as the difference between the readings of the calibrated device and the reference device (i.e., the readings of the reference device are taken as the real value of the measured physical quantity).

Advantages of the method of direct comparison with the standard:

1) simplicity;

2) visibility;

3) the possibility of automatic calibration (verification);

4) the possibility of calibration using a limited number of instruments and equipment.

Comparison method using a computer is carried out using a comparator - a special device, through which the comparison of the readings of the calibrated (verified) measuring instrument and the readings of the reference measuring instrument is carried out. The need to use a comparator is due to the impossibility of directly comparing the readings of measuring instruments that measure the same physical quantity. A comparator can be a measuring instrument that equally perceives the signals of the reference measuring instrument and the instrument being calibrated (verified). The advantage of this method is the sequence in time of comparison of values.

Method of direct measurements of quantity used in cases where it is possible to compare the calibrated measuring instrument with the reference one within the established measurement limits. The direct measurement method is based on the same principle as the direct comparison method. The difference between these methods is that using the method of direct measurements, a comparison is made on all numerical marks of each range (subrange).

Method of indirect measurements is used in cases where the real (real) values ​​of the measured physical quantities cannot be obtained through direct measurements or when indirect measurements are higher in accuracy than direct measurements. When using this method, to obtain the desired value, first they look for the values ​​of the quantities associated with the desired value by a known functional dependence. And then, based on this dependence, the desired value is calculated by calculation. The method of indirect measurements, as a rule, is used in automated calibration (verification) installations.

In order to transfer the dimensions of units of measurement to working instruments from the standards of units of measurement without large errors, verification schemes are compiled and applied.

Verification charts- this is a regulatory document that approves the subordination of measuring instruments involved in the process of transferring the size of a unit of measurement of a physical quantity from a standard to working measuring instruments using certain methods and indicating an error. Verification schemes confirm the metrological subordination of the state standard, discharge standards and measuring instruments.

Verification schemes are divided into:

1) state verification schemes;

2) departmental verification schemes;

3) local verification schemes.

State verification schemes established and valid for all measuring instruments of a certain type used within the country.

Departmental verification schemes are established and act on measuring instruments of a given physical quantity subject to departmental verification. Departmental verification schemes should not conflict with state verification schemes if they are established for measuring instruments of the same physical quantities. Departmental verification schemes can be established in the absence of a state verification scheme. In departmental verification schemes, it is possible to directly indicate certain types of measuring instruments.

Local verification schemes are used by metrological services of ministries and are also valid for measuring instruments of enterprises subordinate to them. A local verification scheme may apply to measuring instruments used at a particular enterprise. Local verification schemes must necessarily meet the subordination requirements approved by the state verification scheme. State verification schemes are compiled by the research institutes of the State Standard of the Russian Federation. The research institutes of the State Standard are the owners of state standards.

Departmental verification schemes and local verification schemes are presented in the form of drawings.

State verification schemes are established by the State Standard of the Russian Federation, and local verification schemes are established by metrological services or heads of enterprises.

The verification scheme approves the procedure for transferring the size of units of measurement of one or more physical quantities from state standards to working measuring instruments. The verification scheme must contain at least two steps of transferring the size of units of measurement.

The drawings representing the verification scheme must contain:

1) names of measuring instruments;

2) names of verification methods;

3) nominal values ​​of physical quantities;

4) ranges of nominal values ​​of physical quantities;

5) allowed values errors of measuring instruments;

6) permissible values ​​of errors of verification methods.

Unity of measurements- this is a characteristic of the measurement process, which means that the measurement results are expressed in units of measurement established and accepted by law and the measurement accuracy assessment has an appropriate confidence level.

The main principles of the unity of measurements:

1) determination of physical quantities with the obligatory use of state standards;

2) the use of legally approved measuring instruments subject to state control and with unit sizes transferred directly from state standards;

3) the use of only legally approved units of measurement of physical quantities;

4) ensuring mandatory systematic control over the characteristics of the operated measuring instruments at certain intervals;

5) ensuring the necessary guaranteed accuracy of measurements when using calibrated (verified) measuring instruments and established methods for performing measurements;

6) the use of the obtained measurement results under the obligatory condition of estimating the error of these results with a specified probability;

7) ensuring control over the compliance of measuring instruments with metrological rules and characteristics;

8) ensuring state and departmental supervision of measuring instruments.

The Law of the Russian Federation “On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements” was adopted in 1993. Prior to the adoption of this Law, the norms in the field of metrology were not regulated by law At the time of adoption, the Law contained many innovations, from approved terminology to licensing of metrological activities in the country The Law clearly delineated duties of state metrological control and state metrological supervision, new calibration rules have been established, the concept of voluntary certification of measuring instruments has been introduced.

Basic provisions.

The primary aims of the law are:

1) protection of the legitimate rights and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation, the rule of law and the economy of the Russian Federation from possible negative consequences caused by unreliable and inaccurate measurement results;

2) assistance in the development of science, technology and economics by regulating the use of state standards of units of quantities and the application of measurement results with guaranteed accuracy. Measurement results should be expressed in national units of measurement;

3) promoting the development and strengthening of international and inter-company relations and ties;

4) regulation of requirements for the manufacture, production, use, repair, sale and import of measuring instruments produced by legal entities and individuals;

5) integration of the measurement system of the Russian Federation into world practice.

Areas of application of the Law: trade; healthcare; environmental Protection; economic and foreign economic activity; some areas of production related to the calibration (verification) of measuring instruments by metrological services belonging to legal entities, carried out using standards subordinate to state standards of units of quantities.

The Law legislates the following basic concepts:

1) unity of measurements;

2) measuring instrument;

3) the standard of the unit of magnitude;

4) the state standard of the unit of magnitude;

5) regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements;

6) metrological service;

7) metrological control;

8) metrological supervision;

9) calibration of measuring instruments;

10) calibration certificate.

All definitions approved in the Law are based on the official terminology of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML).

The main articles of the law regulate:

1) the structure of the organization of state management bodies to ensure the uniformity of measurements;

2) regulatory documents that ensure the uniformity of measurements;

3) established units of measurement of physical quantities and state standards of units of quantities;

4) measuring instruments;

5) measurement methods.

The law approves the State Metrological Service and other services involved in ensuring the uniformity of measurements, the metrological services of state governing bodies and the forms of implementation of state metrological control and supervision.

The Law defines the types of liability for violations of the Law.

The Law approves the composition and powers of the State Metrological Service.

In accordance with the Law, an institution for licensing metrological activities has been established in order to protect the legal rights of consumers. Only the bodies of the State Metrological Service have the right to issue a license.

New types of state metrological supervision have been established:

1) for the quantity of alienated goods;

2) for the quantity of goods in the package in the process of their packaging and sale.

In accordance with the provisions of the Law, the area of ​​distribution of state metrological control is being increased. Banking operations, postal operations, tax operations, customs operations, and mandatory product certification were added to it.

In accordance with the Law, a system of certification of measuring instruments based on a voluntary principle is being introduced, which checks measuring instruments for compliance with metrological rules and requirements of the Russian system of calibration of measuring instruments.

The State Metrological Service of the Russian Federation (GMS) is an association of state metrological bodies and is engaged in coordinating activities to ensure the uniformity of measurements. There are the following metrological services:

1) State metrological service;

2) Public service of time and frequency and determining the parameters of the Earth's rotation;

3) State Service of Reference Materials for the Composition and Properties of Substances and Materials;

4) State Service for Standard Reference Data on Physical Constants and Properties of Substances and Materials;

5) metrological services of government bodies of the Russian Federation;

6) metrological services of legal entities. All the above services are managed by the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Standardization and Metrology (Gosstandart of Russia).

State metrological service contains:

1) state scientific metrological centers (SSMC);

2) bodies of the State Migration Service on the territory of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The State Metrological Service also includes the centers of state standards, specializing in various units of measurement of physical quantities.

The State Service for Time and Frequency and the Determination of the Parameters of the Earth's Rotation (GSVCH) is engaged in ensuring the unity of measurements of time, frequency and determination of the parameters of the Earth's rotation at the interregional and intersectoral levels. The measuring information of the GSVCH is used by the navigation and control services for aircraft, ships and satellites, the Unified Energy System, etc.

The State Service of Reference Materials for the Composition and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSO) is engaged in the creation and implementation of a system of reference materials for the composition and properties of substances and materials. The concept of materials includes:

1) metals and alloys;

2) petroleum products;

3) medical preparations and etc.

The GSSO is also developing instruments designed to compare the characteristics of reference materials and the characteristics of substances and materials produced by different types of enterprises (agricultural, industrial, etc.) in order to ensure control.

The State Service for Standard Reference Data on Physical Constants and Properties of Substances and Materials (GSSSD) develops accurate and reliable data on physical constants, properties of substances and materials (mineral raw materials, oil, gas, etc.). GSSSD measurement information is used by various organizations involved in the design of technical products with increased requirements for accuracy. GSSSD publishes reference data agreed with international metrological organizations.

Metrological services of state government bodies of the Russian Federation and metrological services of legal entities can be created in ministries, at enterprises, in institutions registered as a legal entity, in order to carry out various kinds of work to ensure the unity and proper accuracy of measurements, to ensure metrological control and supervision.

The state system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements was created to ensure the uniformity of measurements within the country. The state system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements is implemented, coordinated and managed by the State Standard of the Russian Federation. Gosstandart of the Russian Federation is the state executive body in the field of metrology.

The system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements performs the following tasks:

1) ensures the protection of the rights and legally enshrined interests of citizens;

2) ensure the protection of the approved legal order;

3) ensure the protection of the economy.

The system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements performs these tasks by eliminating the negative consequences of unreliable and inaccurate measurements in all spheres of human life and society using constitutional norms, regulations and decrees of the government of the Russian Federation.

The system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements operates in accordance with:

1) the Constitution of the Russian Federation;

2) Law of the Russian Federation "On ensuring the uniformity of measurements";

3) Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the organization of work on standardization, ensuring the uniformity of measurements, certification of products and services";

4) GOST R 8.000-2000 "State system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements".

The state system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements includes:

1) legal subsystem;

2) technical subsystem;

3) organizational subsystem.

The main tasks of the State System for Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements are:

1) assertion effective ways coordination of activities in the field of ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

2) ensuring research activities aimed at developing more accurate and advanced methods and methods for reproducing units of measurement of physical quantities and transferring their sizes from state standards to working measuring instruments;

3) approval of the system of units of measurement of physical quantities allowed for use;

4) establishment of measurement scales allowed for use;

5) approval of the fundamental concepts of metrology, regulation of the terms used;

6) approval of the system of state standards;

7) production and improvement of state standards;

8) approval of methods and rules for transferring the sizes of units of measurement of physical quantities from state standards to working measuring instruments;

9) carrying out calibration (verification) and certification of measuring instruments, which are not covered by the scope of state metrological control and supervision;

10) implementation of information coverage of the system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

11) improvement of the state system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

Legal subsystem- this is a set of interconnected acts (approved by law and by-law) that have the same goals and approve mutually agreed requirements for certain interconnected objects of the system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

Technical subsystem is the collection:

1) international standards;

2) state standards;

3) standards of units of measurement of physical quantities;

4) measurement scale standards;

5) standard samples of the composition and properties of substances and materials;

6) standard reference data on physical constants and properties of substances and materials;

7) measuring instruments and other instruments used for metrological control;

8) buildings and premises designed specifically for high-precision measurements;

9) research laboratories;

10) calibration laboratories.

The organizational subsystem includes metrological services.

State metrological control and supervision (GMKiN) is provided by the State Metrological Service to verify compliance with the norms of legal metrology, approved by the Law of the Russian Federation "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements", state standards and other regulatory documents.

State metrological control and supervision applies to:

1) measuring instruments;

2) measurement standards;

3) measurement methods;

4) the quality of goods and other objects approved by legal metrology.

The scope of the State metrological control and supervision extends to:

1) healthcare;

2) veterinary practice;

3) environmental protection;

4) trade;

5) settlements between economic agents;

6) accounting operations carried out by the state;

7) the defense capability of the state;

8) geodetic works;

9) hydrometeorological works;

10) banking operations;

11) tax transactions;

12) customs operations;

13) postal operations;

14) products, the supply of which is carried out under state contracts;

15) verification and quality control of products for compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards of the Russian Federation;

16) measurements that are carried out at the request of the judiciary, the prosecutor's office and other state bodies;

17) registration of national and international sports records.

It should be noted that the inaccuracy and unreliability of measurements in non-industrial areas, such as healthcare, can lead to serious consequences and a threat to safety. The inaccuracy and unreliability of measurements in the sphere of trade and banking operations, for example, can cause huge financial losses for both individuals and the state.

The objects of the State metrological control and supervision may be, for example, the following measuring instruments:

1) devices for measuring blood pressure;

2) medical thermometers;

3) devices for determining the level of radiation;

4) devices for determining the concentration of carbon monoxide in the exhaust gases of vehicles;

5) measuring instruments designed to control the quality of goods.

The Law of the Russian Federation establishes three types of state metrological control and three types of state metrological supervision.

Types of state metrological control:

1) determination of the type of measuring instruments;

2) verification of measuring instruments;

3) licensing of legal entities and individuals involved in the production and repair of measuring instruments. Types of state metrological supervision:

1) for the manufacture, condition and operation of measuring instruments, certified methods for performing measurements, standards of units of physical quantities, compliance with metrological rules and norms;

2) for the quantity of goods that are alienated in the course of trading operations;

3) for the quantity of goods packaged in packages of any kind, in the process of their packaging and sale.

Measurement- finding the true value of a physical quantity empirically using special technological devices with normalized characteristics.

There are 4 main types of measurements:

1) Direct measurement - a measurement in which the desired value of a physical quantity is found directly from experimental data or with the help of a technical measuring instrument that directly reads the value of the measured quantity on a scale. In this case, the measurement equation is: Q=qU .

2) Indirect measurement - a measurement in which the value of a physical quantity is found on the basis of a known functional relationship between this quantity and the quantities subject to direct measurements. In this case, the measurement equation has the form: Q=f(x1,x2,…,xn) , where x1 - xn are physical quantities obtained by direct measurements.

3) Aggregate measurements - simultaneous measurements of several quantities of the same name are made, in which the desired value is found by solving a system of equations obtained from direct measurements of various combinations of these quantities.

4) Joint measurements - made simultaneously by two or more non-identical physical quantities to find a functional relationship between them. As a rule, these measurements are carried out by cloning the experiment and compiling a table of the rank matrix.

In addition, the measurement is classified according to: the conditions for conducting, the accuracy characteristic, the number of measurements performed, the nature of the measurements over time, the expression of the measurement result.

9. Measurement method. Classification of measurement methods.

Measurement method- a set of methods for using the principles and means of measurement. All existing measurement methods are conditionally divided into 2 main types: Direct evaluation method- the value of the determined quantity is determined directly by the reporting device of the instrument or direct-acting measuring device. Measure comparison method– a value is measured that is compared with the value of a given measure. In this case, the comparison can be transitional, equal-time, different-time and others. The measure comparison method is divided into the following two methods:- Zero method- provides for the simultaneous comparison of the measured value and the measure, and the resulting effect of the impact is brought to zero with the help of a comparison device. - Differential- the measuring device is affected by the difference between the measured value and the known value reproduced by the measure, for example, an unbalanced bridge circuit.

Both of these methods are divided into the following:

1) Contrasting method- the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure, simultaneously affect the comparison device, with the help of which the ratios between these quantities are established. (how many times?)

2) substitution method- the measured value is replaced by a known value, a reproducible measure. It is widely used in the measurement of non-electric quantities, with this method, the measured value is simultaneously or periodically compared with the measured value, and then the difference between them is measured using the coincidence of scale marks or the coincidence of periodic signals in time.

3) Match method– the difference between the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure is measured using the coincidence of scale marks or periodic signals.

Of all measurement methods, the measure comparison method is more accurate than the direct evaluation method, with the differential measurement method being more accurate than the null measurement method.

The disadvantage of the zero measurement method is the need to have big number measures, various combinations for reproducing dimensional values ​​that are multiples of the measured ones. A variation of the zero method is the compensation measurement method, in which a physical quantity is measured without disturbing the process in which it participates.

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….3
1. Question 1……………………………………………………………...4
2. Question 2……………………………………………………………...8
3. Question 3…………………………………………………………….12
4. Question 4…………………………………………………………….15
5. Question 5…………………………………………………………….16
List of used literature…………………………………..20

1. The concept and classification of measurements. Brief description of the main types of measurements.

Measurement - a set of operations to determine the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit, stored in a technical tool (measuring tool). The resulting value is called the numerical value of the measured quantity, the numerical value, together with the designation of the unit used, is called the value of the physical quantity. The measurement of a physical quantity is experimentally carried out using various measuring instruments - measures, measuring instruments, measuring transducers, systems, installations, and so on. The measurement of a physical quantity includes several stages:
1) comparison of the measured value with the unit;
2) transformation into a form convenient for use (various ways of indication).
The measurement principle is a physical phenomenon (effect) underlying measurements.
Measurement method - a technique or a set of methods for comparing a measured physical quantity with its unit in accordance with the implemented measurement principle. The measurement method is usually determined by the design of measuring instruments.
A characteristic of measurement accuracy is its error or uncertainty. Measurement examples:
In the simplest case, by applying a ruler with divisions to any part, in fact, its size is compared with the unit stored by the ruler, and, after counting, the value of the value (length, height, thickness and other parameters of the part) is obtained.
With the help of a measuring device, the size of the value converted into the movement of the pointer is compared with the unit stored by the scale of this device, and a reading is taken.
In cases where it is impossible to perform a measurement (a quantity is not distinguished as a physical one, or a unit of measurement of this quantity is not defined), it is practiced to evaluate such quantities on conditional scales, for example, the Richter scale of earthquake intensity, the Mohs scale - a scale of hardness of minerals.
The science, the subject of which is all aspects of measurement, is called "Metrology".
1.1. Classification of measurements.
1. By types of measurements:
a) Direct measurement - a measurement in which the desired value of a physical quantity is obtained directly.
b) Indirect measurement - determination of the desired value of a physical quantity based on the results of direct measurements of other physical quantities that are functionally related to the sought value.
c) Joint measurements - simultaneous measurements of two or more quantities of different names to determine the relationship between them.
d) Aggregate measurements - simultaneous measurements of several quantities of the same name, in which the desired values ​​​​of the quantities are determined by solving a system of equations obtained by measuring these quantities in various combinations.
e) Redundant measurements - measurements of several series of homogeneous physical quantities, the dimensions of which are interconnected according to the law of arithmetic or geometric progression, at unchanged or normalized changed values ​​of the parameters of the nonlinear (in the general case) conversion function of the sensor (or the measuring channel as a whole), in which the desired value of the physical quantity is obtained reduced to the input of the measuring channel by processing the results of intermediate measurements according to the equation of redundant measurements, that is, indirectly .
Cumulative measurements are a special case of redundant measurements. Redundant measurements provide automatic (natural) exclusion of the systematic components of the error of the final measurement result.
2. By measurement methods:
a) Direct assessment method - a measurement method in which the value of a quantity is determined directly by the indicating measuring instrument.
b) Method of comparison with a measure - a measurement method in which the measured value is compared with the value reproduced by the measure.
c) Null method of measurement - a method of comparison with a measure, in which the resulting effect of the action of the measured quantity and the measure on the comparison device is brought to zero.
d) Method of measurement by substitution - a method of comparison with a measure, in which the measured quantity is replaced by a measure with a known value of the quantity.
e) Method of measurement by addition - a method of comparison with a measure, in which the value of the measured quantity is supplemented by a measure of the same quantity in such a way that their sum equal to a predetermined value acts on the comparison device.
f) Differential measurement method - a measurement method in which the measured quantity is compared with a homogeneous quantity having known value, slightly different from the value of the measured quantity, and at which the difference between these two quantities is measured.
3. According to the conditions that determine the accuracy of the result:
Metrological measurements are measurements of the highest possible accuracy achievable with the current state of the art. This class includes all high-precision measurements and, first of all, reference measurements related to the maximum possible accuracy of reproduction of the established units of physical quantities. This also includes measurements of physical constants, primarily universal ones, such as the measurement of the absolute value of the gravitational acceleration.
Control and verification measurements, the error of which, with a certain probability, should not exceed a certain specified value. This class includes measurements performed by laboratories of state control (supervision) over compliance with the requirements of technical regulations, as well as the state of measuring equipment and factory measuring laboratories. These measurements guarantee the error of the result with a certain probability, not exceeding some predetermined value.
Technical measurements, in which the error of the result is determined by the characteristics of the measuring instruments. Examples of technical measurements are measurements performed during the production process in industrial enterprises, in the service sector, etc.
4. According to the results of measurements:
Absolute measurement - a measurement based on direct measurements of one or more basic quantities and (or) the use of the values ​​of physical constants.
Relative measurement is the measurement of the ratio of a quantity to the same-named value, which plays the role of a unit, or the measurement of the change in the value in relation to the same-named value, taken as the initial one.

2. State metrological control and supervision: areas of distribution, characteristics of species. Rights and obligations of state inspectors to ensure the uniformity of measurements. Responsibility for violation of metrological rules.

State metrological control and supervision are carried out by the State Metrological Service of Gosstandart of Russia.
State metrological control includes:
- approval of the type of measuring instruments;
- verification of measuring instruments, including standards;
- licensing of activities of legal entities and individuals in the manufacture, repair, sale and rental of measuring instruments.
State metrological supervision is carried out:
- for the release, condition and use of measuring instruments, certified methods for performing measurements, standards for units of quantities, compliance with metrological rules and norms;
- for the quantity of goods alienated in the course of trading operations;
- for the number of packaged goods in packages of any kind during their packaging and sale.
State metrological control and supervision, carried out in order to verify compliance with metrological rules and norms, apply to:
- public health, veterinary medicine, environmental protection, labor safety;
- trading operations and mutual settlements between the buyer and the seller, including operations involving slot machines and devices;
- state accounting operations;
- ensuring the defense of the state;
- geodetic and hydrometeorological works;
- banking, tax, customs and postal operations;
- production of products supplied under contracts for state needs in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation;
- testing and quality control of products in order to determine compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards of the Russian Federation;
- mandatory certification of products and services;
- measurements carried out on behalf of the court, prosecutor's office, arbitration court, government authorities of the Russian Federation;
- registration of national and international sports records.
By the normative acts of the republics within the Russian Federation, the autonomous region, autonomous districts, territories, regions, cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg, state metrological control and supervision can be extended to other areas of activity.
State metrological control and supervision is carried out by officials of the State Standard of Russia - chief state inspectors and state inspectors for ensuring the uniformity of measurements of the Russian Federation, the republics within the Russian Federation, the autonomous region, autonomous districts, territories, regions, cities of Moscow and St. inspectors).
The implementation of state metrological control and supervision may be assigned to state inspectors for the supervision of state standards, acting in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation and certified as state inspectors for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. State inspectors who carry out verification of measuring instruments are subject to attestation as verification officers.
State inspectors exercising state metrological control and supervision in the relevant territory shall have the right to freely, upon presentation of a service certificate:
- visit facilities where measuring instruments are operated, produced, repaired, sold, maintained or stored, regardless of the subordination and ownership of these facilities;
- check the conformity of the units of quantities used with those approved for use;
- verify measuring instruments, check their condition and conditions of use, as well as compliance with the approved type of measuring instruments;
- check the application of certified measurement methods, the state of standards used for verification of measuring instruments;
- check the quantity of goods alienated in the course of trading operations;
- take samples of products and goods, as well as packaged goods in packages of any kind for supervision;
- use technical means and involve the personnel of the facility subject to state metrological control and supervision.
In case of violations of metrological rules and norms, the state inspector has the right:
- prohibit the use and release of measuring instruments of unapproved types or not corresponding to the approved type, as well as unverified ones;
- cancel the verification certificate in cases where the measuring instrument gives incorrect readings or the verification interval is overdue;
- if necessary, remove the measuring instrument from operation;
- submit proposals for the cancellation of licenses for the manufacture, repair, sale and rental of measuring instruments in cases of violation of the requirements for these types of activities;
- give mandatory instructions and set deadlines for the elimination of violations of metrological rules and norms;
- draw up protocols on violation of metrological rules and norms.

2.1 Responsibility of state inspectors.
State inspectors exercising state metrological control and supervision are obliged to strictly comply with the legislation of the Russian Federation, as well as the provisions of regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements and state metrological control and supervision.
For failure to perform or improper performance of official duties, excess of authority and for other violations, including disclosure of state or commercial secrets, state inspectors may be held liable in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.
Complaints against the actions of state inspectors are filed within 20 days from the date of their decision to the body of the State Metrological Service to which they are directly subordinate, or to a higher body. Complaints are considered and decisions on them are made within a month from the date of filing the complaint.
The actions of state inspectors may also be appealed to the court in accordance with the established procedure.
Appealing the actions of state inspectors does not suspend the implementation of their instructions.
Legal entities and individuals, as well as government authorities of the Russian Federation, guilty of violating the provisions of the Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements", bear criminal, administrative or civil liability in accordance with applicable law

3. State control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of technical regulations and state standards. Rights, duties and responsibilities of state inspectors.

State control and supervision over compliance by business entities with the mandatory requirements of state standards is carried out at the stages of development, preparation of products for production, their manufacture, sale (supply, sale), use (operation), storage, transportation and disposal, as well as during the performance of work and provision of services.
The procedure for exercising state control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards is established by the State Standard of Russia in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.
Officials of business entities are obliged to create all the conditions necessary for the implementation of state control and supervision.
The bodies exercising state control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards are the State Standard of Russia, other specially authorized state governing bodies within their competence.
The implementation of state control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards is carried out by officials of state governing bodies within their competence.
Direct implementation of state control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards on behalf of the State Standard of Russia is carried out by its officials - state inspectors:
Chief State Inspector of the Russian Federation for Supervision of State Standards;
chief state inspectors of the republics within the Russian Federation, territories, regions, autonomous regions, autonomous districts, cities for the supervision of state standards;
state inspectors for the supervision of state standards.
State inspectors exercising state control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards are representatives of state government bodies and are under the protection of the state.
The state inspector has the right:
free access to office and production premises of a business entity;
receive from the subject of economic activity the documents and information necessary for the implementation of state control and supervision;
use technical means and specialists of a business entity in the course of state control and supervision;
carry out, in accordance with the current regulatory documents on standardization, sampling and samples of products and services to monitor their compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards, attributing the cost of the samples used and the costs of testing (analysis, measurements) to the production costs of the inspected business entities;
issue instructions to eliminate identified violations of the mandatory requirements of state standards at the stages of development, preparation of products for production, their manufacture, sale (supply, sale), use (operation), storage, transportation and disposal, as well as during the performance of work and the provision of services;
issue orders to prohibit or suspend the sale (supply, sale), use (operation) of tested products, as well as the performance of works and the provision of services in cases of non-compliance of products, works and services with the mandatory requirements of state standards;
to prohibit the sale of products, the performance of work and the provision of services in the event of a business entity evading the presentation of products, works and services for verification.
The chief state inspector of the Russian Federation for the supervision of state standards, the chief state inspectors of the republics within the Russian Federation, territories, regions, an autonomous region, autonomous districts, cities for the supervision of state standards have the right to issue instructions to a business entity specified in paragraphs seven and eight of this paragraph, and also have the right:
adopt resolutions on the application of fines to business entities for violations of the mandatory requirements of state standards;
prohibit the sale of imported products and the provision of imported services that do not meet the mandatory requirements of state standards and have not passed state registration in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.
State inspectors in the event of non-compliance with the instructions and resolutions issued by them by business entities send the necessary materials to the arbitration court, prosecution authorities or the court for taking measures established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.
State inspectors in the exercise of their duties must protect the interests of consumers, business entities and the state, guided by the law.
State inspectors shall bear liability established by law for non-fulfillment and improper fulfillment of their duties, disclosure of state or commercial secrets.

JSC "DELA" received reliable information that a batch of frozen semi-finished products supplied by PE "Sokolov and K" does not meet the requirements of technical regulations. The director of OJSC "DELA" withdrew this product from sale, delivered it to the manufacturer with his own transport in order to return it. In addition, the buyer claimed compensation for the cost of the goods and reimbursement of transportation costs. Which was denied. Assess the legality of the actions of the parties. Support your answer with an article.

The consumer, in case of detection of defects in the goods, if they were not specified by the seller, at his choice has the right to:
demand a replacement for a product of the same brand (the same model and (or) article);
demand a replacement for the same product of a different brand (model, article) with a corresponding recalculation of the purchase price;
demand a commensurate reduction in the purchase price; demand immediate gratuitous elimination of product defects or reimbursement of expenses for their correction by the consumer or a third party;
refuse to fulfill the contract of sale and demand the return of the amount paid for the goods. At the request of the seller and at his expense, the consumer must return the goods with defects.
In this case, the consumer has the right to demand also full compensation for losses caused to him as a result of the sale of goods of inadequate quality. Losses are reimbursed within the time limits established by this Law to meet the relevant requirements of the consumer.

5. To ensure the technological process in public catering enterprises, various technical measuring instruments are used. As a person responsible for the condition and use of weighing equipment in the enterprise, indicate the installation location of the verification mark on the weights and dial bench scales. Explain what documents confirm the suitability of measuring instruments for use. Which document is drawn up in enterprises to ensure timely verification of measuring instruments. The procedure for its compilation. Attach copies of required documents.

Verification of measuring instruments - a set of operations performed by the bodies of the State Metrological Service (GMS bodies) or other authorized bodies and organizations in order to determine and confirm the compliance of measuring instruments with established technical requirements. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements", measuring instruments subject to state metrological control and supervision are subject to verification upon release from production or repair, upon import and operation. It is allowed to sell only certified measuring instruments. The result of verification is confirmation of the suitability of measuring instruments for use or recognition of a measuring instrument as unsuitable for use. If the measuring instrument, based on the verification results, is recognized as suitable for use, then an impression of the verification mark is applied to it and (or) the technical documentation and (or) a "Certificate of Verification" is issued. If, according to the results of verification, the measuring instrument is recognized as unsuitable for use, the imprint of the verification mark and (or) the “Certificate of Verification” are canceled and a “Notice of Unsuitability” is issued or a corresponding entry is made in the technical documentation.
Positive results of the state and departmental primary and periodic verifications are issued by:
a) when the scales are released from production - an entry in the passport (operating manual) of the manufacturer, certified by the verification officer with an impression of the verification mark;
b) in case of periodic departmental verification - a mark in the document drawn up by the departmental metrological service and agreed with the State Standard;
c) upon release from production of scales supplied assembled after repair and at the place of operation - by applying an imprint of the brand, depending on the type of scales and their design features on the:
stopper of the main scale; fixing plug of the main weight, plugs of the additional scale and weight; fixing plug of the transmission lever; fixing plugs of the racks holding the calibration weight of the rocker arm, if the stacks have a device that allows you to change the position of the center of gravity of the rocker, - for scales with a rocker arm;
fixing plugs of the built-in weights of the intermediate mechanism of scales; seals of the dial indicator and discrete reading device on both sides; gear lever slide - for scales with a dial indicator and a discrete reading device;
fixing plugs of the built-in weights of the intermediate mechanism of scales; projection pointer screws; gear lever slide - for scales with a projection indicator;
seals of the force-measuring sensor and the division price regulator on the pointing device - for electromechanical scales;
removable cups, non-through cork, pressed into the main arm of weight scales with an open mechanism;
removable cups, sealing wax, poured into a special device, mounted on the casing of weight scales with a closed mechanism;
a cork pressed into the rocker arm, as well as a cork covering the adjusting cavity of the movable weight - for steelyards.
Responsibility for the operation, storage and repair of measuring equipment in accordance with the requirements of the manufacturer's technical documentation is assigned to the heads of departments that directly use them in their work.
The development of annual schedules for state verification of measuring instruments and schedules for metrological certification of test equipment is carried out by responsible executors for metrological support on the basis of the Lists of measuring equipment that they maintain. The form of the schedule of state verification of SI is given below. These schedules are signed by responsible executors for metrological support and approved by the chief engineer of the enterprise at the end current year for the planned period.
Based on the schedules of state verification of measuring instruments, submitted by responsible executors for metrological support, those responsible for metrology develop a general schedule for the enterprise for periodic verification of measuring instruments. The developed schedule for periodic verification of measuring instruments is signed by the person responsible for metrology, approved by the general director of the enterprise and submitted for approval to an accredited body (CSM).

The form of the schedule for periodic verification of SI

SCHEDULE FOR PERIODIC VERIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

AGREED I APPROVE
____________________ _________________
______________ ____________
_______________ 200_ _______________ 200_

No. p / p
The code
funds
measurements

Name,
type Metrological
characteristics
Periodicity
verification
(month)
the date
latest
verification
Place of verification
Availability of SI on 01.01.
200_g.
count
To be verified in 200_.
count including by months Note

I
1 f
2 m
3 a
4 m
5 and
6 and
7 a
8 s
9 about
10 n
11 d
12
Class, category Limit
(range
measurements)

Signature

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Electronic resource. Access mode:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%E7%EC%E5%F0%E5%ED%E8%E5
2. Law of the Russian Federation of April 27, 1993 No. 4871-1 "On ensuring the uniformity of measurements." Electronic resource. Access mode: http://www.femida.info/25/zo27a1993N4871Ip003.htm
3. Law of the Russian Federation of June 10, 1993 No. 5154-1 "On standardization" (as amended on December 27, 1995, December 30, 2001, 10, July 25, 2002). Electronic resource. Access mode: http://www.femida.info/26/zo10i1993N5154Ip002.htm.
4. Law "On Protection of Consumer Rights", (as amended on June 2, 1993, January 9, 1996, December 17, 1999, December 30, 2001, August 22, November 2, December 21, 2004, July 27, October 16, November 25, 2006, October 25, 2007, July 23, 2008, June 3, November 23, 2009. Electronic resource Access mode: http://ozpp.ru/laws/zpp.php
5. GOST 8.453-82. State system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements. Scales for static weighing. Methods and means of verification. Electronic resource. Access mode: http://www.complexdoc.ru/text/%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2%208.453-82

Currently, there are many types of measurements, distinguished by the physical nature of the measured quantity and factors that determine various conditions and measurement modes. The main types of measurements of physical quantities, including linear-angular ones (GOST 16263–70), are straight, indirect, cumulative, joint, absolute and relative.

Most widely used direct measurements , consisting in the fact that the desired value of the measured quantity is found from experimental data using measuring instruments. The linear size can be set directly on the scales of the ruler, tape measure, caliper, micrometer, the acting force - with a dynamometer, temperature - with a thermometer, etc.

The direct measurement equation has the form:

where Q is the desired value of the measured value; X is the value of the measured quantity obtained directly from the readings of the measuring instruments.

Indirect- such measurements in which the desired value is determined by the known relationship between this value and other quantities obtained by direct measurements.

The indirect measurement equation has the form:

Q \u003d f (x 1, x 2, x 3, ...),

where Q is the desired value of the indirectly measured quantity; х 1 , х 2 , х 3 , ... are the values ​​of quantities measured by the direct type of measurements.

Indirect measurements are used in cases where the desired value is impossible or very difficult to measure directly, i.e. direct measurement, or when the direct measurement gives a less accurate result.

Examples of an indirect type of measurement are the establishment of the volume of a parallelepiped by multiplying three linear quantities (length, height and width) determined using the direct type of measurement, the calculation of engine power, the determination of the electrical resistivity of a conductor by its resistance, length and cross-sectional area, etc.

An example of an indirect measurement is also the measurement of the average diameter of an external fastening thread using the "three wires" method. This method is based on the most accurate determination of the average thread diameter d 2 as the diameter of a conditional cylinder, the generatrix of which divides the thread profile into equal parts P / 2 (Fig. 2.1):

where D meas is the distance, including wire diameters, obtained by direct measurements;

d 2 - wire diameter, providing contact with the thread profile at points lying on the generatrix d 2;

α is the angle of the thread profile;

P - thread pitch.

Cumulative measurements carried out by simultaneous measurement of several quantities of the same name, in which the desired value is found by solving a system of equations obtained by direct measurements of various combinations of these quantities. An example of cumulative measurements is the calibration of the weights of a set by the known mass of one of them and by the results of direct comparisons of the masses of different combinations of weights.

For example, it is necessary to calibrate a burnt mass of 1; 2; 5; 10 and 20 kg. An exemplary weight is 1 kg, marked 1 vol.

Let's take measurements, changing the combination of weights each time:

1 = 1 06 + a; 1 + l about = 2 + b; 2 = 2 + With; 1+2 + 2 = 5 + d etc.

Letters a, b, With, d– unknown values ​​of weights that have to be added or subtracted from the mass of the kettlebell. By solving a system of equations, you can determine the value of each weight.

Joint measurements- simultaneous measurements of two or more non-identical quantities to find the relationship between them, for example, measurements of the volume of a body made with measurements of different temperatures, causing a change in the volume of this body.

The main types of measurements, on the basis of the nature of the measurement results for various physical quantities, include absolute and relative measurements.

Absolute measurements are based on direct measurements of one or more physical quantities. An example of an absolute measurement is measuring the diameter or length of a bead with a caliper or micrometer, or measuring temperature with a thermometer.

Absolute measurements are accompanied by an evaluation of the entire measurand.

Relative measurements are based on measuring the ratio of the measured value, which plays the role of a unit, or measuring the value in relation to the value of the same name, taken as the initial one. As samples, exemplary measures in the form of plane-parallel end blocks of length are often used.

An example of relative measurements can be measurements of the calibers of plugs and staples on horizontal and vertical optimeters with the adjustment of measuring instruments according to exemplary measures. When using exemplary measures or exemplary parts, relative measurements can improve the accuracy of measurement results compared to absolute measurements.

In addition to the considered types of measurement, according to the main feature - the method of obtaining the measurement result, the types of measurements are also classified according to the accuracy of the measurement results - into equivalent and unequal, according to the number of measurements multiple and single, in relation to the change in the measured value in time - by static and dynamic, by the presence of contact of the measuring surface of the measuring instrument with the surface of the product - on contact and contactless and etc.

Depending on the metrological purpose, measurements are divided into technical– production measurements, control and calibration and metrological- measurements with the utmost possible accuracy using standards in order to reproduce units of physical quantities in order to transfer their size to working measuring instruments.

Measurement methods

In accordance with RMG 29–99, the main measurement methods include the method of direct assessment and comparison methods: differential, zero, substitution and coincidence.

direct method- a measurement method in which the value of a quantity is determined directly from the reading device of a direct-acting measuring device, for example, measuring a shaft with a micrometer and force with a mechanical dynamometer.

Measure Comparison Methods- methods in which the measured value is compared with the value reproduced by the measure:

differential method characterized by measuring the difference between the measured value and the known value, the reproducible measure. An example of a differential method is the measurement by a voltmeter of the difference between two voltages, of which one is known with great accuracy, and the other is the desired value;

null method- at which the difference between the measured value and the measure is reduced to zero. At the same time, the zero method has the advantage that the measure can be many times less than the measured value, for example, weighing on a scale, when the weight being weighed is on one arm, and a set of reference weights is on the other;

substitution method- a method of comparison with a measure, in which the measured value is replaced by a known value, reproducible by the measure. The substitution method is used when weighing with the alternate placement of the measured mass and weights on the same scale pan;

match method- a method of comparison with a measure, in which the difference between the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure is measured using the coincidence of scale marks or periodic signals. An example of the use of this method is the measurement of length with a vernier caliper.

Depending on the type of measuring instruments used, there are instrumental, expert, heuristic and organoleptic methods of measurement.

instrumental method based on the use of special technical means, including automated and automatic.

expert method The evaluation is based on the use of the judgments of a group of specialists.

Heuristic methods estimates are based on intuition.

Organoleptic methods estimates are based on the use of the human senses. Assessment of the state of the object can be carried out by element-by-element and complex measurements. The element-by-element method is characterized by the measurement of each product parameter separately. For example, eccentricity, ovality, cutting of a cylindrical shaft. The complex method is characterized by the measurement of the total quality index, which is influenced by its individual components. For example, measuring the radial runout of a cylindrical part, which is affected by eccentricity, ovality, etc.; profile position control along limit contours, etc.