(Battle on the Ice )

Artist V. Serov, 1942."Battle on the Ice"

In 1237, in the Eastern Baltic, on the territory inhabited by the tribes of Livs and Estonians, the Livonian Order was formed by German knights. Three years later, the order invaded the Pskov land. And, after a short siege by the Germans, Izborsk was taken.

The Pskov militia, which approached Izborsk, was defeated by the knights. After that, the Germans crossed the Velikaya River, pitched tents under the very walls of the Pskov Kremlin, burned the settlement and began to ravage the surrounding villages. As a result, the Livonian knights captured Pskov, took hostages and placed their garrison in the city.

Somewhat later, the Livonian Order also invaded the Novgorod lands. Novgorod turned for help to the great Vladimir prince Yaroslav. He sent armed detachments to Novgorod, led by his sons Andrei Yaroslavich and Prince Alexander Nevsky.

The Novgorod army, led by Alexander Nevsky, liberated Koporye and the Vodsk land occupied by the knights. Then the army united with the squad of brother Andrei, and led by Alexander Nevsky, marched on Pskov. The city was taken by storm.

Alexander sent the viceroys of the order in chains to Novgorod. And, inspired by the successes, the detachments of the Novgorodians invaded the territory of the Livonian Order and began to ravage the settlements of the Estonians, tributaries of the Crusaders.

At this very time, Alexander learned that the knights sent insignificant forces to Izborsk, and their main forces were moving straight to Lake Pskov. There he sent his army. The enemy armies converged on the shores Lake Peipus at the Voronye stone and the Uzmen tract.

It was here (5) on April 12, 1242 that the battle took place, which went down in history as the Battle of the Ice. The German army included 10-12 thousand people, Alexander Nevsky had an army of 15-17 thousand. At dawn, the knights lined up in a “wedge” and moved against the Russians along the flimsy spring ice of the lake.

By that time, Alexander had lined up the Novgorodians with a “heel”, the rear of which rested on the steep, steep eastern shore of the lake. Equestrian squads were located on the flanks of the Russians, infantry armed with spears lined up at the base of the "heel", and archers were in front. And the princely squad was hidden in ambush.

The German knights were met with a cloud of arrows, because the flanks of the "wedge" were forced to press closer to the center. Nevertheless, the Germans managed to break through the center of the battle order of the Novgorodians. Part of the Russian infantry even fled.

However, the knights stumbled upon the steep shore of the lake, their inactive formation was mixed up and could not build on their success. Meanwhile, the flank squads of the Novgorodians squeezed, like ticks, the German "pig" from the flanks. Wasting no time, Alexander with his retinue struck from the rear.

The Russian infantry pulled the knights off their horses with hooks and destroyed them. The Germans could not stand the tension of the battle and rushed to flee. For seven kilometers, Alexander's army pursued the fugitives. The ice broke under the knights, many of them drowned, many were taken prisoner.

As a result, the Livonian Order was faced with the need to make peace, according to which the crusaders renounced their claims to Russian lands, and also renounced part of Latgale.

Artist V.A.Serov, 1945 "Entry of Alexander Nevsky to Pskov"

In honor of this victory, Russia celebrates the Day of Military Glory of Russia - the day of the victory of the Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the German knights on Lake Peipus. The holiday is celebrated on April 18. This is the cost of converting dates from the old style to the new one. Apparently, when setting the date, the rule was not taken into account: when translating dates of the 12th-13th centuries, 7 days are added to the old style (and 13 days were added out of habit).

Prince of Novgorod (1236-1240, 1241-1252 and 1257-1259), and later the Grand Duke of Kyiv (1249-1263), and then Vladimir (1252-1263), Alexander Yaroslavich, known in our historical memory as Alexander Nevsky, - one of the most popular heroes of the history of Ancient Russia. Only Dmitry Donskoy and Ivan the Terrible can compete with him. A great role in this was played by Sergei Eisenstein's brilliant film "Alexander Nevsky", which turned out to be consonant with the events of the 40s of the last century, and in recent times also the competition "Name of Russia", in which the prince won a posthumous victory over other heroes of Russian history.

It is also important that the Russian Orthodox Church glorifies Alexander Yaroslavich as a noble prince. Meanwhile, the popular veneration of Alexander Nevsky as a hero began only after the Great Patriotic War. Prior to this, even professional historians paid much less attention to it. For example, in the pre-revolutionary general courses of the history of Russia, the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice are often not mentioned at all.

Now a critical and even neutral attitude towards the hero and the saint is perceived by many in society (both in professional circles and among history buffs) as very painful. However, active controversy continues among historians. The situation is complicated not only by the subjectivity of the view of each scientist, but also by the extreme complexity of working with medieval sources.

All information in them can be divided into repetitive (citations and paraphrases), unique and verifiable. Accordingly, these three types of information need to be trusted to varying degrees. Among other things, the period from about the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century is sometimes called “dark” by professionals precisely because of the scarcity of the source base.

In this article, we will try to consider how historians evaluate the events associated with Alexander Nevsky, and what, in their opinion, his role in history. Without delving too deeply into the arguments of the parties, nevertheless, we present the main conclusions. Here and there, for convenience, we will divide part of our text about each major event into two sections: “for” and “against”. In fact, of course, on each specific issue, the range of opinions is much greater.

Neva battle

The Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240 at the mouth of the Neva River between the Swedish landing (the Swedish detachment also included a small group of Norwegians and warriors of the Finnish tribe Em) and the Novgorod-Ladoga squad in alliance with the local Izhora tribe. Estimates of this clash, as well as the Battle on the Ice, depend on the interpretation of the data of the Novgorod First Chronicle and the Life of Alexander Nevsky. Many researchers treat the information in the life with great distrust. Scientists also disagree on the issue of dating this work, on which the reconstruction of events greatly depends.

Per
The Battle of the Neva is a rather large battle that had great importance. Some historians even spoke of an attempt to blockade Novgorod economically and close the exit to the Baltic. The Swedes were led by the son-in-law of the Swedish king, the future Jarl Birger and / or his cousin, Jarl Ulf Fasi. A sudden and quick attack by the Novgorod squad and the Izhora warriors on the Swedish detachment prevented the creation of a stronghold on the banks of the Neva, and, possibly, a subsequent attack on Ladoga and Novgorod. It was a turning point in the fight against the Swedes.

In the battle, 6 Novgorod warriors distinguished themselves, whose exploits are described in the Life of Alexander Nevsky (there are even attempts to connect these heroes with specific people known from other Russian sources). During the battle, the young prince Alexander "placed a seal on his face", that is, he wounded the commander of the Swedes in the face. For the victory in this battle, Alexander Yaroslavich subsequently received the nickname "Nevsky".

Against
The scale and significance of this battle is clearly exaggerated. There was no talk of a blockade. The skirmish was clearly small, since, according to the sources, 20 or less people died in it from the side of Russia. True, we can only talk about noble warriors, but this hypothetical assumption is unprovable. Swedish sources do not mention the Battle of Neva at all.

It is characteristic that the first large Swedish chronicle - "Eric's Chronicle", which was written much later than these events, mentioning many Swedish-Novgorod conflicts, in particular, the destruction of the Swedish capital Sigtuna in 1187 by the Karelians, incited by the Novgorodians, is silent about this event.

Naturally, there was no talk of an attack on Ladoga or Novgorod either. It is impossible to say exactly who led the Swedes, but Magnus Birger, apparently, was in a different place during this battle. It is difficult to call the actions of Russian soldiers fast. The exact place of the battle is unknown, but it was located on the territory of modern St. Petersburg, and from it to Novgorod 200 km in a straight line, and it takes longer to go over rough terrain. But it was still necessary to assemble the Novgorod squad and somewhere to connect with the Ladoga residents. This would take at least a month.

It is strange that the Swedish camp was poorly fortified. Most likely, the Swedes were not going to go deep into the territory, but to baptize the local population, for which they had priests with them. This is what determines great attention given to the description of this battle in the Life of Alexander Nevsky. The story about the Battle of the Neva in the life is twice as long as about the Battle on the Ice.

For the author of the life, whose task is not to describe the exploits of the prince, but to show his piety, we are talking, first of all, not about military, but about spiritual victory. It is hardly possible to speak of this clash as a turning point, if the struggle between Novgorod and Sweden continued for a very long time.

In 1256, the Swedes again tried to gain a foothold on the coast. In 1300, they managed to build the Landskronu fortress on the Neva, but a year later they left it because of the constant enemy raids and the difficult climate. The confrontation went on not only on the banks of the Neva, but also on the territory of Finland and Karelia. Suffice it to recall the Finnish winter campaign of Alexander Yaroslavich in 1256-1257. and campaigns against the Finns Jarl Birger. Thus, at best, we can talk about the stabilization of the situation for several years.

The description of the battle as a whole in the annals and in the "Life of Alexander Nevsky" should not be taken literally, as it is full of quotations from other texts: "Jewish War" by Josephus, "Eugene's Acts", "Trojan Tales", etc. As for the duel between Prince Alexander and the leader of the Swedes, there is practically the same episode with a wound in the face in The Life of Prince Dovmont, so this plot is most likely a passing one.

Some scientists believe that the life of the Pskov prince Dovmont was written earlier than the life of Alexander and, accordingly, the borrowing came from there. The role of Alexander is also unclear in the scene of the death of part of the Swedes on the other side of the river - where the prince's squad was "impassable".

Perhaps the enemy was destroyed by Izhora. The sources speak of the death of the Swedes from the angels of the Lord, which is very reminiscent of an episode from old testament(19th chapter of the Fourth Book of Kings) about the destruction of the Assyrian army of King Sennacherib by an angel.

The name "Nevsky" appears only in the 15th century. More importantly, there is a text in which the two sons of Prince Alexander are also called “Nevsky”. Perhaps these were the owner's nicknames, that is, the family owned land in the area. In sources close in time to the events, Prince Alexander is nicknamed "The Brave".

Russian-Livonian conflict 1240 - 1242 and Battle of the Ice

The famous battle, known to us as the "Battle on the Ice", took place in 1242. In it, troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky and German knights with Estonians subordinate to them (chud) converged on the ice of Lake Peipus. There are more sources for this battle than for the Battle of the Neva: several Russian chronicles, the Life of Alexander Nevsky and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, reflecting the position of the Teutonic Order.

Per
In the 40s of the XIII century, the papacy organized a crusade to the Baltic states, in which Sweden (the Battle of the Neva), Denmark and the Teutonic Order took part. During this campaign in 1240, the Germans captured the Izborsk fortress, and then on September 16, 1240, the Pskov army was defeated there. Killed, according to the chronicles, from 600 to 800 people. Then Pskov was besieged, which soon capitulated.

As a result, the Pskov political group headed by Tverdila Ivankovich is subordinate to the Order. The Germans rebuild the Koporye fortress, raid the Vodka land, controlled by Novgorod. The Novgorod boyars are asking the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to return to them the reign of the young Alexander Yaroslavich, who was expelled by "lesser people" for reasons unknown to us.

Prince Yaroslav first offers them his other son Andrei, but they prefer to return Alexander. In 1241, Alexander, apparently, with an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga, Izhors and Karelians, conquers the Novgorod territories and takes Koporye by storm. In March 1242, Alexander with a large army, including the Suzdal regiments brought by his brother Andrei, expels the Germans from Pskov. Then fighting are transferred to enemy territory in Livonia.

The Germans defeat the advance detachment of the Novgorodians under the command of Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet. Alexander's main troops retreat to the ice of Lake Peipus. There, on Uzmeni, at the Raven Stone (scientists do not know the exact place, there are discussions) on April 5, 1242, and the battle takes place.

The number of troops of Alexander Yaroslavich is at least 10,000 people (3 regiments - Novgorod, Pskov and Suzdal). The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle says that there were fewer Germans than Russians. True, the text uses rhetorical hyperbole that there were 60 times fewer Germans.

Apparently, the encirclement maneuver was carried out by the Russians, and the Order was defeated. German sources report that 20 knights died and 6 were taken prisoner, and Russian sources tell of German losses of 400-500 people and 50 prisoners. Chudi died "innumerable". The battle on the ice is a major battle that significantly influenced the political situation. In Soviet historiography, it was even customary to speak of "the largest battle of the early Middle Ages."

Against
General version crusade doubtful. The West at that time had neither sufficient forces nor a common strategy, as evidenced by the significant time difference between the actions of the Swedes and the Germans. In addition, the territory, which historians conventionally call the Livonian Confederation, was not united. Here were the lands of the archbishoprics of Riga and Dorpat, the possessions of the Danes and the Order of the Swordsmen (since 1237, the Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order). All these forces were in very complex, often conflicting relations with each other.

The knights of the order, by the way, received only a third of the lands they conquered, and the rest went to the church. There were difficult relations within the order between the former sword-bearers and the Teutonic knights who arrived to reinforce them. The policy of the Teutons and the former swordsmen in the Russian direction was different. So, having learned about the beginning of the war with the Russians, the head of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, Hanrik von Winda, dissatisfied with these actions, removed the Landmaster of Livonia Andreas von Wölven from power. The new landmaster of Livonia, Dietrich von Gröningen, after the Battle of the Ice, made peace with the Russians, freeing all the occupied lands and exchanging prisoners.

In such a situation, there could be no question of any united “Onslaught on the East”. Clash 1240-1242 - this is the usual struggle for spheres of influence, which either escalated or subsided. Among other things, the conflict between Novgorod and the Germans is directly related to the Pskov-Novgorod politics, first of all, with the history of the exile of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who found refuge with the Dorpat bishop German and tried to regain the throne with his help.

The scale of events seems to be somewhat exaggerated by some modern scientists. Alexander acted carefully so as not to completely spoil relations with Livonia. So, having taken Koporye, he executed only the Estonians and Vozhan, and let the Germans go. The capture of Pskov by Alexander is actually the expulsion of two knights of the Vogts (that is, judges) with a retinue (hardly more than 30 people), who were sitting there under an agreement with the Pskovites. By the way, some historians believe that this treaty was actually concluded against Novgorod.

In general, relations between Pskov and the Germans were less conflicting than those of Novgorod. For example, the people of Pskov participated in the battle of Siauliai against the Lithuanians in 1236 on the side of the Order of the Sword. In addition, Pskov often suffered from German-Novgorod border conflicts, since German troops sent against Novgorod often did not reach Novgorod lands and plundered the closer Pskov possessions.

The “Battle on the Ice” itself took place on the lands not of the Order, but of the Dorpat Archbishop, so most of the troops most likely consisted of his vassals. There is reason to believe that a significant part of the Order's troops were simultaneously preparing for war with the Semigallians and Curonians. In addition, it is usually not customary to mention that Alexander sent his troops to "disperse" and "heal" that is, by saying modern language, rob the local population. The main way of conducting a medieval war is to inflict maximum economic damage on the enemy and capture booty. It was in the "dispersal" that the Germans defeated the advance detachment of the Russians.

It is difficult to reconstruct the specific details of the battle. Many modern historians believe that the German army did not exceed 2000 people. Some historians speak of only 35 knights and 500 foot soldiers. The Russian army may have been somewhat larger, but hardly significantly. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle only reports that the Germans used the "pig", that is, the formation of a wedge, and that the "pig" broke through the formation of the Russians, who had many archers. The knights fought bravely, but they were defeated, and some of the Dorpatians fled to escape.

As for the losses, the only explanation why the data of the annals and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle differ is the assumption that the Germans counted only the losses among the full-fledged knights of the Order, while the Russians counted the total losses of all Germans. Most likely, here, as in other medieval texts, reports on the number of dead are very conditional.

Even the exact date of the "Battle on the Ice" is unknown. The Novgorod chronicle gives the date April 5, the Pskov chronicle - April 1, 1242. And whether it was "ice" is unclear. In the "Livonian Rhymed Chronicle" there are the words: "On both sides, the dead fell on the grass." Political and military value The "battle on the ice" is also exaggerated, especially in comparison with the larger battles of Siauliai (1236) and Rakovor (1268).

Alexander Nevsky and the Pope

One of the key episodes in the biography of Alexander Yaroslavich is his contacts with Pope Innocent IV. There is information about this in two bulls of Innocent IV and the Life of Alexander Nevsky. The first bull is dated January 22, 1248, the second - September 15, 1248.

Many believe that the fact of the prince's contacts with the Roman Curia greatly harms his image as an implacable defender of Orthodoxy. Therefore, some researchers even tried to find other addressees for the Pope's messages. They offered either Yaroslav Vladimirovich, an ally of the Germans in the war of 1240 against Novgorod, or the Lithuanian Tovtivil, who reigned in Polotsk. However, most researchers consider these versions unfounded.

What was written in these two documents? In the first message, the Pope asked Alexander to notify him through the brothers of the Teutonic Order in Livonia about the advance of the Tatars in order to prepare for a rebuff. In the second bull to Alexander "the Most Serene Prince of Novgorod", the Pope mentions that his addressee agreed to join the true faith and even allowed to build a cathedral in Pleskov, that is, in Pskov, and, possibly, even establish an episcopal chair.

No response letters have been preserved. But from the "Life of Alexander Nevsky" it is known that two cardinals came to the prince to persuade him to convert to Catholicism, but received a categorical refusal. However, apparently, for some time Alexander Yaroslavich maneuvered between the West and the Horde.

What influenced his final decision? It is impossible to give an exact answer, but the explanation of the historian A. A. Gorsky seems interesting. The fact is that, most likely, the second letter from the Pope did not catch Alexander; at that moment he was on his way to Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire. The prince spent two years on the trip (1247 - 1249) and saw the power of the Mongolian state.

When he returned, he learned that Daniel of Galicia, who received the royal crown from the Pope, did not wait for the promised help from the Catholics against the Mongols. In the same year, the Catholic Swedish ruler, Jarl Birger, began the conquest of Central Finland - the lands of the tribal union em, formerly part of the sphere of influence of Novgorod. And, finally, the mention of the Catholic Cathedral in Pskov should have evoked unpleasant memories of the conflict of 1240-1242.

Alexander Nevsky and the Horde

The most painful moment in the discussion of the life of Alexander Nevsky is his relationship with the Horde. Alexander did travel to Saray (1247, 1252, 1258 and 1262) and Karakorum (1247-1249). Some hotheads declare him almost a collaborator, a traitor to the fatherland and motherland. But, firstly, such a formulation of the question is an obvious anachronism, since such concepts did not even exist in Old Russian XIII century. Secondly, all the princes went to the Horde for shortcuts to reign or for other reasons, even Daniil of Galitsky, who had been directly resisting her for the longest time.

The Horde, as a rule, accepted them with honor, although the chronicle of Daniel of Galicia stipulates that "Tatar honor is worse than evil." The princes had to observe certain rituals, go through kindled fires, drink koumiss, worship the image of Genghis Khan - that is, do something that defiled a person according to the concepts of a Christian of that time. Most of the princes, and, apparently, Alexander, too, obeyed these requirements.

Only one exception is known: Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigovsky, who in 1246 refused to obey, and was killed for this (ranked among the saints by the order of martyrs at the cathedral of 1547). In general, the events in Russia, starting from the 40s of the XIII century, cannot be considered in isolation from political situation in the Horde.

One of the most dramatic episodes of Russian-Horde relations took place in 1252. The course of events was as follows. Alexander Yaroslavich goes to Sarai, after which Batu sends an army led by the commander Nevryuy (“Nevryuev’s army”) against Andrey Yaroslavich, Prince Vladimirsky, Alexander’s brother. Andrei flees from Vladimir to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where their younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich rules.

The princes manage to escape from the Tatars, but Yaroslav's wife dies, the children are captured, and "countless" ordinary people are killed. After the departure of Nevruy, Alexander returns to Russia and sits on the throne in Vladimir. There are still discussions whether Alexander was involved in the campaign of Nevruy.

Per
The English historian Fennel has the harshest assessment of these events: "Alexander betrayed his brothers." Many historians believe that Alexander specifically went to the Horde to complain to the khan about Andrei, especially since such cases are known from a later time. Complaints could be as follows: Andrei, the younger brother, unjustly received the great reign of Vladimir, taking his father's cities, which should belong to the eldest of the brothers; he pays no tribute.

The subtlety here was that Alexander Yaroslavich, being the great Prince of Kyiv, formally had more power than the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrey, but in fact Kyiv, devastated in the XII century by Andrei Bogolyubsky, and then by the Mongols, had lost its significance by that time , and so Alexander was sitting in Novgorod. This distribution of power corresponded to the Mongolian tradition, according to which the younger brother receives the father's possession, and the older brothers conquer the lands themselves. As a result, the conflict between the brothers was resolved in such a dramatic way.

Against
There are no direct indications of Alexander's complaint in the sources. The exception is Tatishchev's text. But recent research has shown that this historian did not use, as previously believed, unknown sources; he did not distinguish between the retelling of chronicles and his comments. The statement of complaint appears to be a commentary by the writer. Analogies with a later time are incomplete, since later the princes, who successfully complained to the Horde, themselves participated in punitive campaigns.

Historian A. A. Gorsky offers the following version of events. Apparently, Andrei Yaroslavich, relying on the label of the reign of Vladimir, received in 1249 in Karakorum from Khansha Ogul-Gamish, hostile to Sarai, tried to behave independently of Batu. But in 1251 the situation changed.

Khan Munke (Mengu) comes to power in Karakorum with the support of Batu. Apparently, Batu decides to redistribute power in Russia and summons the princes to his capital. Alexander is going, but Andrey is not. Then Batu sends the army of Nevruy against Andrei and at the same time the army of Kuremsa against his father-in-law, the recalcitrant Daniel of Galicia. However, in order to finally resolve this controversial issue, as usual, there are not enough sources.

In 1256-1257, a population census was held throughout the Great Mongol Empire in order to streamline taxation, but it was disrupted in Novgorod. By 1259, Alexander Nevsky suppressed the Novgorod uprising (for which some in this city still do not like him; for example, the outstanding historian and leader of the Novgorod archaeological expedition V. L. Yanin spoke very harshly about him). The prince ensured the conduct of the census and the payment of "exit" (as the sources call tribute to the Horde).

As you can see, Alexander Yaroslavich was very loyal to the Horde, but then it was the policy of almost all princes. AT difficult situation they had to compromise with the irresistible power of the Great Mongol Empire, about which the papal legate Plano Carpini, who visited Karakorum, noted that only God could defeat them.

Canonization of Alexander Nevsky

Prince Alexander was canonized at the Moscow Cathedral in 1547 in the guise of the faithful.
Why was he revered as a saint? There are different opinions on this matter. So F.B. Shenk, who wrote fundamental research about the change in the image of Alexander Nevsky over time, states: "Alexander became the father and founder of a special type of Orthodox holy princes who earned their position, first of all, by secular deeds for the benefit of the community ...".

Many researchers prioritize the military successes of the prince and believe that he was revered as a saint who defended the "Russian land". The interpretation of I.N. Danilevsky: “In the conditions of the terrible trials that befell the Orthodox lands, Alexander was almost the only secular ruler who did not doubt his spiritual rightness, did not waver in his faith, did not depart from his God. Refusing to take joint actions with the Catholics against the Horde, he unexpectedly becomes the last powerful bulwark of Orthodoxy, the last defender of the entire Orthodox world.

Could such a ruler Orthodox Church not be recognized as a saint? Apparently, therefore, he was canonized not as a righteous man, but as a noble (listen to this word!) Prince. The victories of his direct heirs in the political arena consolidated and developed this image. And the people understood and accepted this, forgiving the real Alexander all the cruelties and injustices.

And, finally, there is the opinion of A. E. Musin, a researcher with two educations - historical and theological. He denies the importance of the "anti-Latin" policy of the prince, loyalty to the Orthodox faith and social activities in his canonization, and tries to understand what qualities of Alexander's personality and features of life caused him to be revered by the people of medieval Russia; it began much earlier than official canonization.

It is known that by 1380 the veneration of the prince had already taken shape in Vladimir. The main thing that, according to the scientist, was appreciated by his contemporaries is “the combination of the courage of a Christian warrior and the sobriety of a Christian monk.” Another important factor was the very unusualness of his life and death. Alexander may have died of illness in 1230 or 1251, but he recovered. He was not supposed to become a Grand Duke, since he originally occupied the second place in the family hierarchy, but his older brother Fedor died at the age of thirteen. Nevsky strangely died, taking tonsure before his death (this custom spread to Russia in the 12th century).

In the Middle Ages, unusual people and martyrs were loved. The sources describe the miracles associated with Alexander Nevsky. The incorruptibility of his remains also played a role. Unfortunately, we do not even know for sure whether the real relics of the prince have been preserved. The fact is that in the lists of the Nikon and Resurrection chronicles of the 16th century it is said that the body burned down in a fire in 1491, and in the lists of the same chronicles for the 17th century it is written that it was miraculously preserved, which leads to sad suspicions.

Choice of Alexander Nevsky

Recently, the main merit of Alexander Nevsky is not the defense of the northwestern borders of Russia, but, so to speak, the conceptual choice between the West and the East in favor of the latter.

Per
Many historians think so. The famous statement of the Eurasian historian G.V. Vernadsky is often cited from his publicistic article “Two exploits of St. Alexander Nevsky": "... with a deep and ingenious hereditary historical instinct, Alexander realized that in his historical era the main danger to Orthodoxy and the originality of Russian culture threatens from the west, and not from the east, from Latinism, and not from Mongolianism."

Further, Vernadsky writes: “The subordination of Alexander to the Horde cannot otherwise be assessed as a feat of humility. When the times and dates were fulfilled, when Russia gained strength, and the Horde, on the contrary, shredded, weakened and weakened, and then it became already unnecessary Alexandrov the policy of subjugation to the Horde ... then the policy of Alexander Nevsky naturally had to turn into the policy of Dmitry Donskoy.

Against
Firstly, such an assessment of the motives of Nevsky's activities - an assessment of the consequences - suffers from the point of view of logic. He couldn't have foreseen what would happen next. In addition, as I. N. Danilevsky ironically noted, Alexander was not chosen, but he was chosen (Batiy chose), and the choice of the prince was “a choice for survival”.

In some places, Danilevsky speaks even more harshly, believing that Nevsky's policy influenced the duration of Russia's dependence on the Horde (he refers to the successful struggle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Horde) and, along with the earlier policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the formation of the type of statehood of the North-Eastern Russia as a "despotic monarchy". Here it is worth giving a more neutral opinion of the historian A. A. Gorsky:

“In general, it can be stated that in the actions of Alexander Yaroslavich there is no reason to look for some kind of conscious fateful choice. He was a man of his era, acted in accordance with the worldview of that time and personal experience. Alexander was, in modern terms, a "pragmatist": he chose the path that seemed to him more profitable for strengthening his land and for himself personally. When it was a decisive battle, he fought; when an agreement with one of the enemies of Russia seemed most useful, he went to an agreement.

"Favorite Childhood Hero"

So called one of the sections of a very critical article about Alexander Nevsky, historian I.N. Danilevsky. I confess that for the author of these lines, along with Richard I the Lionheart, he was a favorite hero. "Battle on the Ice" was "reconstructed" in detail with the help of soldiers. So the author knows exactly how it all happened in reality. But speaking coldly and seriously, then, as mentioned above, we do not have enough data for a holistic assessment of the personality of Alexander Nevsky.

As is often the case when studying early history, we are more or less aware that something happened, but often we do not know and will never know how. The author's personal opinion is that the argumentation of the position, which we conditionally designated as "against", looks more serious. Perhaps the exception is the episode with "Nevryuev's army" - nothing can be said for sure there. The final conclusion is left to the reader.

Soviet Order of Alexander Nevsky, established in 1942.

Bibliography
Texts
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7. Danilevsky I.N. Historical reconstruction: between text and reality (abstracts).
8. Danilevsky I.N. Ice battle: change of image // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2004. - No. 5.
9. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky and the Teutonic Order.
10. Danilevsky I.N. Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (XII-XIV centuries). M. 2001.
11. Danilevsky I.N. Modern Russian discussions about Prince Alexander Nevsky.
12. Egorov V.L. Alexander Nevsky and Genghisides // National history. 1997. № 2.
13. Prince Alexander Nevsky and his era: Research and materials. SPb. 1995.
14. Kuchkin A.V. Alexander Nevsky - statesman and commander of medieval Russia // Patriotic history. 1996. No. 5.
15. Matuzova E. I., Nazarova E. L. Crusaders and Russia. End of XII - 1270. Texts, translation, commentary. M. 2002.
16. Musin A.E. Alexander Nevskiy. The mystery of holiness.// Almanac "Chelo", Velikiy Novgorod. 2007. No. 1. pp.11-25.
17. Rudakov V.N. “I worked hard for Novgorod and for the whole Russian land” Review of the book: Alexander Nevsky. Sovereign. Diplomat. Warrior. M. 2010.
18. Uzhankov A.N. Between two evils. The historical choice of Alexander Nevsky.
19. Fennel. D. The Crisis of Medieval Russia. 1200-1304. M. 1989.
20. Florya B.N. At the origins of the confessional split of the Slavic world ( Ancient Russia and its western neighbors in the 13th century). In: From the history of Russian culture. T. 1. (Ancient Russia). - M. 2000.
21. Khrustalev D.G. Russia and the Mongol invasion (20-50s of the XIII century) St. Petersburg. 2013.
22. Khrustalev D.G. Northern crusaders. Russia in the struggle for spheres of influence in the Eastern Baltic in the 12th - 13th centuries. vol. 1, 2. St. Petersburg. 2009.
23. Shenk F. B. Alexander Nevsky in Russian cultural memory: Saint, ruler, national hero (1263-2000) / Authorized translation. with him. E. Zemskova and M. Lavrinovich. M. 2007.
24. Urban. W.L. The Baltic Crusade. 1994.

Video
1. Danilevsky I.G. Historical reconstruction between text and reality (lecture)
2. Hour of Truth - Golden Horde - Russian Choice (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov) 1st broadcast.
3. Hour of Truth - Horde yoke - Versions (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov)
4. Hour of Truth - Frontiers of Alexander Nevsky. (Pyotr Stefanovich and Yuri Artamonov)
5. Ice battle. Historian Igor Danilevsky about the events of 1242, about Eisenstein's film and the relationship between Pskov and Novgorod.

The place of the Battle on the Ice is a monument in honor of the 750th anniversary of the famous battle on Lake Peipsi, installed as close as possible to the alleged battle site, in the village of Kobylye Gorodishche, Gdovsky district, Pskov region.

Battle on the Ice - one of the largest military clashes of the XIII century. During the period when Russia was weakened from the east by the raids of the Mongols, from the west the threat came from the Livonian Order. The knights captured the fortresses and, as well, and got as close as possible to. In 1241, the Novgorodians turned to Prince Alexander Nevsky. From the prince went to Novgorod, and then set out with an army in Koporye, freeing the fortress and destroying the garrison. In March 1242, having united with the troops of his younger brother, Prince Andrei Yaroslavich of Vladimir and Suzdal, Alexander marched on Pskov and freed him. Then the knights retreated to Dorpat (modern Estonian city of Tartu). Alexander made an unsuccessful attempt to attack the possessions of the Order, after which the prince's troops retreated to the ice of Lake Peipus.

The decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The Livonian army numbered about 10-15 thousand soldiers, the forces of Novgorodians and allies outnumbered the German ones and numbered about 15-17 thousand soldiers. During the battle, the knights initially broke into the center of the Russian defenses, but were later surrounded and defeated. The remaining forces of the Livonians retreated, the Novgorodians pursued them for about 7 miles. The losses of the knights amounted to about 400 killed and 50 captured. Novgorodians lost from 600 to 800 killed (in various historical sources, the data on losses on both sides vary greatly).

The significance of the victory on Lake Peipsi has not yet been finally determined. Some historians (mostly Western) believe that its significance is greatly exaggerated, and the threat from the west was insignificant compared to the Mongol invasion from the east. Others believe that it is the expansion Catholic Church carried the main threat to Orthodox Russia, and Alexander Nevsky is traditionally called one of the main defenders of Russian Orthodoxy.

For a long time, historians could not accurately determine the location of the battle. Research was complicated by the variability of the hydrography of Lake Peipus. There is still no clear archaeological evidence (any finds related to the past major battle). However, it is believed that the most plausible place was Teploye Lake, the narrowest place between Lake Peipsi and Pskov, not far from Voronii Island (in legends, the island or "Crow's Stone" is mentioned as the place from which Alexander Nevsky watched the battle).

In 1992, in the village of Kobylye Gorodishche, which is the closest point from the alleged battle site, a monument to Alexander Nevsky and a wooden cross were opened near, which in 2006 was replaced by a bronze one cast in.

In 1993, not far from Pskov, dedicated to the victory in the Battle of the Ice, was opened. From a historical point of view, this position of the monument is not justified, since it is located 100 km. from the battlefield. But from a tourist point of view, the decision is quite successful, since the monument is located near Pskov, as a result of which it immediately became one of the main attractions.

History of naval art

After the defeat of the Swedes Alexander Nevskiy quarreled with the Novgorod boyars, who were afraid of the strengthening of princely power, and was forced to leave Novgorod for his inheritance - Pereyaslavl Zalessky . They took advantage of his departure. german knights . In the autumn of 1240 they invaded the Russian land and captured Fortress Izborsk and Koporye . opposed the Germans Pskov Governor Gavrila Borislavich with his squad and the Pskov militia. However, the Pskovites were defeated by superior enemy forces. The governor and many warriors fell in the battle. The Russians withdrew to Pskov. When attacking Pskov, the knights ruthlessly robbed and killed the Russian population, burned villages and churches. For a whole week the Germans unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. And only after a bunch of traitorous boyars led by Tverdila entered into an agreement with the Germans and opened the gates of the city to them, Pskov was taken.

In this difficult time for the entire Russian land, at the request of the people, the boyars were forced to again call Alexander Nevsky to Novgorod.

Alexander Yaroslavich returned to Novgorod. On his behalf, the combatants called: “Get all together, from small to large: whoever has a horse, he is on a horse, and whoever does not have a horse, let him go on a boat.” In a short time he created a strong army of Novgorodians, Ladoga, Izhors and Karelians.

Having gathered an army, Alexander Nevsky with a sudden blow knocked out the Germans from Koporye - an important strategic point, from where they sent their detachments into the depths of Novgorod possessions. Anticipating fierce resistance from the enemy, Alexander Nevsky turned to his father, the Grand Duke, for help, asking him to send Vladimir-Suzdal regiments. Help was provided to him: Nevsky's brother, Andrey Yaroslavich, brought him to Novgorod "lower" shelves . Having united with these regiments, Alexander Nevsky went to Pskov, surrounded and took it by storm. The capture of such a fortress as Pskov in such a short time testified to the high level of Russian military art and to the availability of improved siege and military equipment among our ancestors. The traitorous boyars were executed, the captured knights were sent to Novgorod.

Having strengthened the borders of the liberated Novgorod land, Alexander Nevskiy led his army into the land of the Estonians where the eye forces of the German knights were located. In the face of the threat of mortal danger, the knights increased their armed forces, led by master of the order .

In the second half of March 1242 advance detachment of Russians under the command of Domash Tverdislavovich reconnoitered the main forces of the Germans, but, forced to engage them in battle, was defeated by a numerically superior enemy and retreated to his main forces. Based on intelligence reports, Alexander Nevskiy decided to give battle to the enemy on the ice of Lake Peipus. To this end, he transferred his troops to the eastern shore of this lake and placed them in the Uzmeni region, near the Raven Stone.

Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky knew well the strengths and weaknesses of his opponent. He chose a comfortable position for the battle on the ice of Lake Peipus.

The spring ice was strong enough to withstand Russian soldiers armed with spears, swords, axes and axes, but the ice, as it soon became clear, could not withstand the knightly cavalry with armored riders.

The strength of the knights was not only in their excellent weapons, but also in their battle formation. The order of battle of the German knights was in the form of a wedge, or, as the Russian chronicle calls it, “pigs”.

According to historians, "pig" had the following appearance: three to five mounted knights lined up in front; behind them, in the second rank, were already five or seven knights; subsequent rows increased by two or three people. The total number of rows that made up the "pig" could reach up to ten, and the number of knights - up to 150. The rest of the knights were built in a column behind the "pig".

Such a system was repeatedly successfully used by the knights to break through the center of the enemy and encircle his flanks.

Along with the knights, the infantry also acted, which consisted of squires, servants, and partly from the population of the conquered countries. The infantry came into action when the "pig" broke the formation of the enemy's central regiment and went to his flanks. But the infantry was always followed by a formation of knights, for the crusaders did not place special hopes on it.

Contrary to the usual formation of the battle order of the Russian troops, when big regiment , and on the flanks are weaker right and left hand shelves , Alexander Nevskiy , taking into account the tactics of the enemy, deliberately weakened his center, concentrating the main forces of the Russian army on the flanks. Forward was pushed a long distance insignificant vanguard , which, retreating, was supposed to lure the Germans on the ice of Lake Peipsi . Alexander Nevsky placed the select part of his squad behind the Raven Stone. This detachment was supposed to hit the enemy in the rear.

On the morning of April 5, 1242, the bulk of the German troops moved against the Russians, who were standing in order of battle at the Raven Stone. As expected, the Germans this time also used their favorite battle formation - wedge action. The advance detachment of the Russians retreated, dragging the knights with them. The Germans, as usual, hit the Russian center, which they easily managed to break through. But at this time, the main forces of the Russians, concentrated on the flanks, suddenly fell upon them. Russian soldiers advanced swiftly and acted decisively. In a relatively short time, they managed to surround the German wedge and bring confusion to the ranks of the knights. The German cavalry, squeezed by the Russians in pincers, began to retreat, crushing their infantry. The ice could not bear the weight of the enemy knights, horses and infantry huddled together. Many knights fell through the ice and died, along with their horses. The blow of the combatants from behind the Raven Stone to the rear of the Germans completed their rout. “There was an evil slash,” writes the chronicler of the battle with the German knights, “and the Russian soldiers flogged them, pursuing them as if through the air, and they had nowhere to hide.” 500 knights were killed and 50 captured.

The Russian victory on Lake Peipus was of historical significance. She saved Russia from German slavery. Karl Marx highly appreciated this victory of Alexander Nevsky. "Alexander Nevsky opposes the German knights, breaks them on the ice of Lake Peipus, so that the scoundrels (die Lumpacii) were finally driven back from the Russian border ".

conclusions

Alexander Nevsky - the great Russian commander. His military activities are inextricably linked with the heroic struggle of the Russian people for their national independence.

In the fight against the Swedes and Germans, he showed high examples of strategic and tactical art. His strategy was active, it fully met the interests of the people, who sought to protect themselves from foreign invaders.

If, as a strategist, Alexander Nevsky accurately determined the main direction of the strike, then as a tactician, he was no less skillfully able to concentrate the main forces and means on the decisive sector of the battle. Alexander Nevsky fought according to a well-thought-out and carefully prepared plan. His tactics were active, offensive.

"Prince Alexander won everywhere, was invincible" , - wrote a contemporary of the prince in "The Life of Alexander Nevsky".

In the Battle of the Neva, the Russians delivered a surprise blow to the Swedish troops, who were utterly defeated, despite their numerical superiority.

At the first stage of the fight against the Germans, Alexander Nevsky showed high military skill, taking the fortress of Koporye and Pskov by storm.

Having liberated their cities, the Russians shifted their actions to enemy territory. Then, having lured his main forces to a pre-selected position on Lake Peipus, they delivered a decisive blow to the enemy in Battle on the Ice .

After the Battle of the Ice, the knights recognized that the Russian people could neither be conquered nor enslaved. On the ice of Lake Peipus, a limit was placed on the advance of the Germans to the east.

“Whoever comes to us with a sword,” said Alexander Nevsky, “will die by the sword. On that stands and will stand the Russian land.

Alexander Nevsky was not only a great commander, but also a major statesman. During the period of the Tatar invasion, he managed to subordinate the interests of the most important state centers of northwestern Russia to the common cause of saving the Russian people from German-Swedish aggression. At the same time, he upset the intrigues of the Pope, who provoked the Russian people into an open armed uprising against the Tatars. Alexander Nevsky understood that a premature action against the Tatars could break the strength of the resistance of the Russian people and would enable the Germans and Swedes to capture the northwestern part of the Russian land, not conquered by the Tatars.

***

After the defeat of the Swedes and Germans, Novgorod secured its possessions from invaders for a long time. The crushing blows of Alexander Nevsky were so strong that the enemies of Russia could not recover from them for a long time. Only 44 years after the Battle of Neva, the Swedes resumed their predatory campaigns against Novgorod. In 1248 they organized a campaign against the possessions of Novgorod with the aim of capturing Ladoga. But this campaign ended for them completeroutmom. The Novgorodians let the Swedes into the Neva without hindrance, blockaded them and then destroyed them.

In 1300, the Swedes, taking advantage of the difficult internal situation of Russia ( Tatar yoke) and the weakening of Novgorod itself due to the intensified struggle of boyar groups for power, they decided to cut off Novgorod from Baltic Sea. To this end, they sent their fleet of 111 ships to the Gulf of Finland and the Neva. Climbing up the Neva, the Swedes stopped at the mouth of the Okhta River, where, under the supervision of Italian engineers, they built the Landskrona fortress.

Novgorodians, having learned about the arrival of the enemy fleet in the Neva, decided to destroy it with the help of burning ships launched downstream. But the Swedes, warned by their intelligence, managed to avert this danger by driving piles above the parking lot of their fleet. Then the Novgorodians were forced to reinforce their land army, which took Landskrona by storm and destroyed it (1301).

In order to prevent the enemy from penetrating the Neva in the future, the Novgorodians built in 1323 at its source on the Orekhov Island, the Oreshek fortress (now Petrokrepost).

Due to the increased resistance of the Novgorodians, the Swedes suffered constant setbacks in their expensive campaigns against Russia, so in 1323 they sent their representatives to the Novgorodians in Oreshek with peace proposals. The latter accepted the offer of the Swedes, and peace was signed in the Oreshek fortress.

According to the Orekhov peace treaty, the border of Novgorod possessions on Karelian Isthmus became the Sestra River, and on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland - the Narova River.

The peace treaty of 1323 remained in force until 1348, when the Swedish king Magnus decided to cut off Russian access to the Baltic Sea, seize their land, and turn them into catholic faith and enslave. In 1348, a large Swedish fleet under the command of the king himself entered the Gulf of Finland and, having risen up the Neva, took the Oreshek fortress.

To liberate Oreshok, the Novgorodians gathered a large militia and moved by water and land against the Swedes. The Swedish king, having learned about the movement of a large Russian army, left a strong garrison in Oreshka, and he fled to Sweden with his squad. In 1349, the Novgorodians stormed the Oreshek fortress.

After the liberation of Oreshok, at the mouth of the Okhta River, on the site of the former Swedish fortress of Landskrona, the Novgorodians founded a new fortress of Kantsy.

The Battle on Lake Peipus, better known as the Battle of the Ice, is one of the most important battles in the history of Kievan Rus. The Russian troops were commanded by Alexander Nevsky, who received his nickname after the victory in.

Date of the Battle of the Ice.

The battle on the ice took place on April 5, 1242 on Lake Peipus. The Russian army accepted the battle with the Livonian Order, which invaded the Russian lands.

A few years earlier, in 1240, Alexander Nevsky had already fought with the army of the Livonian Order. Then the invaders of Russian lands were defeated, but a few years later they again decided to attack Kievan Rus. Pskov was captured, but in March 1241 Alexander Nevsky was able to recapture it with Vladimir's help.

The order army concentrated its forces in the Derpt bishopric, and Alexander Nevsky went to Izborsk, captured by the Livonian Order. The reconnaissance detachments of Nevsky were defeated by the German knights, which affected the self-confidence of the command of the Order Army - the Germans went on the attack in order to win an easy victory as quickly as possible.

The main forces of the Order Army moved to the junction between the Pskov and Peipsi lakes in order to get to Novgorod in a short way and cut off the Russian troops in the Pskov region. The Novgorod army turned to the lake and carried out an unusual maneuver to repel the attack of the German knights: it moved across the ice to the island of Voronii Kamen. Thus, Alexander Nevsky blocked the path of the Order's army to Novgorod and chose a place for the battle, which was of great importance.

The course of the battle.

The order army lined up in a “wedge” (in Russian chronicles this order was called a “pig”) and went on the attack. The Germans were going to break a strong central regiment, and then attack the flanks. But Alexander Nevsky unraveled this plan and deployed the army differently. Weak regiments were in the center, and strong ones along the flanks. There was also an ambush regiment to the side.

The archers, who came out first in the Russian army, did not cause serious damage to the armored knights and were forced to retreat to strong flank regiments. The Germans, putting out long spears, attacked the Russian central regiment and broke through its defensive lines, a fierce battle ensued. The rear ranks of the Germans pushed the front ones, literally pushing them deeper and deeper into the Russian central regiment.

Meanwhile, the left and right regiments forced the knights, who covered the knights from the rear, to retreat.

After waiting until the whole "pig" was drawn into the battle, Alexander Nevsky gave a signal to the regiments located on the left and right flanks. The Russian army clamped the German "pig" in pincers. Meanwhile, Nevsky, together with his squad, struck the Germans from the rear. Thus, the Order army was completely surrounded.

Some Russian warriors were equipped with special spears with hooks to pull the knights off their horses. Other warriors are equipped with cobbler knives, with which they incapacitate horses. Thus, the knights were left without horses and became easy prey, and the ice began to crack under their weight. An ambush regiment appeared from behind the shelter, and the German knights began a retreat, which almost immediately turned into a flight. Some knights managed to break through the cordon and fled. Some of them rushed onto the thin ice and drowned, another part of the German army was killed (the Novgorod cavalry drove the Germans to the opposite shore of the lake), the rest was taken prisoner.

Results.

The battle on the ice is considered the first battle in which the foot army defeated the heavy cavalry. Thanks to this victory, Novgorod retained trade ties with Europe, and the threat posed by the Order was eliminated.

Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice, Battle of Toropets - battles that had great value for the whole of Kievan Rus, because attacks from the west were held back, while the rest of Rus suffered from princely strife and the consequences of the Tatar conquest.