Convergent morphology as a consequence of gene convergence. The emergence of similar traits in unrelated organisms as a result of gene convergence 11 the formation of similar traits in unrelated organisms

Pro-ana-li-zi-rui-te tab-li-tsu. For-half-none-those empty cells of the tables, using the words and terms given in the list. For each cell, designated by the letter-wah-mi, you-be-ri-te with-from-the-reply-stu-u-th term-min from app-lo-women-but th list.

Sleep-juice ter-mi-nov and po-nya-ty:

1) bio-lo-gi-che-sky progress

2) general de-ge-non-ra-tion

3) the appearance of a four-measure-but-th heart in a mammal

4) con-ver-gen-tion

5) obi-ta-nie in the ocean-and-not fish la-ti-me-rii

6) bio-lo-gi-che-sky re-gress

Write down the numbers in response, sort them out in a row, corresponding to the letter-to-you:

Clear-no-no.

Answer: 123.

Note.

Bio-lo-gi-che-progress (from lat. progressus - move forward) - on-right-le-evolution, ha-rak-te-ri-zu -yu-sche-e-sya in-you-she-ni-em with-spo-sob-len-no-sti or-ga-niz-mov defin-de-len-noy si-ste-ma-ti- che-sky group-py to the environment. The appearance of new devices-s-pos-le-niy provides-pe-chi-va-et or-ga-niz-mam success in the struggle for the existence, with -storage and diversification in re-zul-ta-those naturally from-bo-ra. This leads to an outbreak of numbers and, as a result, to the development of new places of habitation and the formation of many -number-len-nyh-po-la-tsy.

Bio-lo-gi-che-progress can achieve three basics-now-we-mi-way-mi - by means of aro-mor-phosis (aro-ge-ne -za), al-lo-ge-ne-za (including idio-adap-ta-tion) and general de-ge-ne-ra-tion (ka-ta-ge-ne-za). Each of the paths ha-rak-te-ri-zu-et-sya arises-nick-but-ve-ni-em at the or-ga-niz-movs of certain le-niy (adap-ta-tsy).

Simplification of or-ga-ni-za-tion in pa-ra-zi-ti-che-forms (de-ge-ne-ra-tion) co-leader-yes-et-sya with -vers-shen-stvo-va-ni-em re-pro-duk-tiv-noy si-ste-we. This leads to their pro-color-ta-ing, i.e., to bio-lo-gi-che-sky-progress.

Bio-lo-gi-che-re-gress (from lat. regressus - return, move back) - on-right-le-evolution, ha-rak -te-ri-zu-yu-shche-e-sya reduce-the-same-ni-eat with-s-pos-len-no-sti or-ga-niz-mov define-de-len-noy si-ste- ma-ti-che-sky group-py to the conditions of obi-ta-niya. If the or-ga-niz-movs have the rates of evolution (for-mi-ro-va-nie with-a-poss-le-ni) lag behind from the me-non-external her environment and related forms, then they cannot compete with other groups-pa-mi or-ga-niz-mov. This means that they will be removed naturally from-bo-rum. Pro-izoy-det reduce the number of-len-no-sti especially-bay. As a result, the area behind the ter-ri-to-rii is reduced and, as a result, the number of so-so- new In re-zul-ta-te, you-mi-ra-nie of this group can pro-ish.

In this way, a bio-lo-gi-che-re-gress is a step-by-step you-mi-ra-nie of a si-ste-ma-ti-che-group (of the kind , kind, family, etc.) due to a decrease in the ability of its individuals. The de-I-tel-ness of a person-lo-ve-ka can also lead to bio-lo-gi-che-sko-mu re-gres-su of some kind. The cause may be a direct demand (bison, co-pain, stele-le-ro-va ko-ro-va, etc.). But this can pro-izoy-ti and in re-zul-ta-te co-kra-sche-tion are-a-lov during the development of new ter-ri-to-riy (bustard, white crane , toad ka-we-sho-vaya, etc.). Species, on-ho-dya-shchi-e-sya in the so-sto-i-nii bio-lo-gi-che-sko-go-re-gres-sa, for-no-syat-sya in the Red Book and under protection.

On the example of comparing the genomic sequences of dolphins and bats- mammals capable of echolocation - European scientists have found out the genetic pathways of convergent evolution. Convergence, that is, the occurrence of similar traits in unrelated organisms, was considered the result of the evolution of different sets of genes: the probability of the appearance of similar mutations in similar genes seems too insignificant. But, as it turned out, echolocation - a complex adaptive trait - arose in dolphins and bats precisely due to similar mutations in similar genes. This changes our understanding of the genetic essence of convergence, and also shows that the results of applying molecular methods for phylogenetic reconstructions should be treated with caution.

Suppose we build different phylogenetic trees (see diagrams in Fig. 2 and 3), based on different hypotheses about the origin of echolocation. One tree will reflect the overall molecular similarity - this is the accepted approach. The other will force all echolocating bats to unite in one monophyletic clade, breeding them with brothers incapable of echolocation and, naturally, with dolphins. The third tree will unite all animal echolocators in general - both bats and dolphins, separating them from other non-sonar finders. As absurd as the last two trees may seem to us, we can analyze them in the same ways as those trees that seem acceptable to us. Moreover, in the course of calculating individual sequences of specific genes, it turns out that these ridiculous trees are very good. By identifying a set of such genes, it will be possible to conclude with certainty that convergent evolution has worked in these sites. This is exactly what geneticists reasoned when they started calculating the similarity of 2326 orthologous coding genes.

Each of the orthologous genes was compared with each, and for each, it was estimated which of the phylogenetic schemes is more suitable for it, that is, for which tree the genetic similarity will be about big. There were many loci in five echolocating species for which "absurd" phylogenetic trees are more suitable (824 loci for the second tree and 392 for the third). In other words, it was with these loci that convergent evolution worked.

These traits were most clearly manifested in genes associated with hearing or deafness. For example, the convergence has affected the genes responsible for the formation of the cochlea, as well as those that code for the development of hair cells in the inner ear. Also, a clear statistical signal of convergent evolution was also found in genes, one way or another related to vision. This should hardly be surprising: both dolphins and bats are adapted to low light. Therefore, both molecular and regulatory systems of visual perception were adjusted accordingly. At the same time, the functions of many genes with a clear convergent signal remain unknown.

An important part of the work was to check the action of selection in "convergent" genes: whether the convergence was neutral or formed as a result of driving selection. This question was solved in the classical way - by comparing the number of synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions (see Rate of nucleotide substitutions). It turned out that the number of non-synonymous substitutions exceeded the number of synonymous ones; therefore, in the case of echolocation, we are dealing not with neutral drift, but with driving selection that supports the formation of adaptive features.

This study is important for two reasons. First, reading complete genomes has become a routine and apparently inexpensive undertaking. The fact that the authors of this work read and deciphered the genomes of four species of bats using the equipment and the latest technology Illumina, reported casually in the methodological part of the work. The authors were well aware that the time of enthusiasm for the very possibility of reading genomic sequences and even the high accuracy of their decoding had passed. The time has come for the results that loomed in the future behind these delights.

The second reason relates more to biological methodology, namely to the methods of phylogeny. The age of domination of morphological systematics was replaced by the era of molecular phylogenetics. If earlier genealogical trees were reconstructed on the basis of morphological similarities and differences and/or on the basis of morphological homologies, now it is customary to focus on the amount of similarity between amino acid or nucleotide sequences. The choice in favor of molecular phylogenetics was made not least because of the difficulty of distinguishing between convergences and common ancestry.

In molecular phylogenetics, outward convergent similarity was not thought to have of great importance, since genetic changes to achieve the same morphological result are always different. Therefore, molecular phylogenetics could not worry much that instead of relationship, an ecological commonality would be revealed.

But, as it turns out now, this is not the case. If our geneticist were not too lucky and if he took the same 824 similar loci or, even worse, 390 similar loci for our third tree to build his family tree of echolocation, he would get absurd phylogenies. And I would have every right to defend them, referring to a good and reliable statistical signal! Approximately the same as if a morphologist defended the common origin of dolphins and bats, appealing to amazing echolocation. And this is exactly what molecular phylogenetics tried to get away from, but only worse, because not everyone will dare to argue with statistics. So this work shows once again that each method has its limitations and its own range of applicability. Molecular phylogenetics has yet to define it.

Using the example of comparing the genomic sequences of dolphins and bats - mammals capable of echolocation - European scientists have found out the genetic pathways of convergent evolution. Convergence, that is, the occurrence of similar traits in unrelated organisms, was considered the result of the evolution of different sets of genes: the probability of the appearance of similar mutations in similar genes seems too insignificant. But, as it turned out, echolocation - a complex adaptive trait - arose in dolphins and bats precisely due to similar mutations in similar genes. This changes our understanding of the genetic essence of convergence, and also shows that the results of applying molecular methods for phylogenetic reconstructions should be treated with caution.

Suppose we build different phylogenetic trees (see diagrams in Fig. 2 and 3), based on different hypotheses about the origin of echolocation. One tree will reflect the overall molecular similarity - this is the accepted approach. The other will force all echolocating bats to unite in one monophyletic clade, breeding them with brothers incapable of echolocation and, naturally, with dolphins. The third tree will unite all animal echolocators in general - both bats and dolphins, separating them from other non-sonar finders. As absurd as the last two trees may seem to us, we can analyze them in the same ways as those trees that seem acceptable to us. Moreover, in the course of calculating individual sequences of specific genes, it turns out that these ridiculous trees are very good. By identifying a set of such genes, it will be possible to conclude with certainty that convergent evolution has worked in these sites. This is exactly what geneticists reasoned when they started calculating the similarity of 2326 orthologous coding genes.

Each of the orthologous genes was compared with each, and for each, it was estimated which of the phylogenetic schemes is more suitable for it, that is, for which tree the genetic similarity will be about big. There were many loci in five echolocating species for which "absurd" phylogenetic trees are more suitable (824 loci for the second tree and 392 for the third). In other words, it was with these loci that convergent evolution worked.

These traits were most clearly manifested in genes associated with hearing or deafness. For example, the convergence has affected the genes responsible for the formation of the cochlea, as well as those that code for the development of hair cells in the inner ear. Also, a clear statistical signal of convergent evolution was also found in genes, one way or another related to vision. This should hardly be surprising: both dolphins and bats are adapted to low light. Therefore, both molecular and regulatory systems of visual perception were adjusted accordingly. At the same time, the functions of many genes with a clear convergent signal remain unknown.

An important part of the work was to check the action of selection in "convergent" genes: whether the convergence was neutral or formed as a result of driving selection. This question was solved in the classical way - by comparing the number of synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions (see Rate of nucleotide substitutions). It turned out that the number of non-synonymous substitutions exceeded the number of synonymous ones; therefore, in the case of echolocation, we are dealing not with neutral drift, but with driving selection that supports the formation of adaptive features.

This study is important for two reasons. First, reading complete genomes has become a routine and apparently inexpensive undertaking. The fact that the authors of this work read and deciphered the genomes of four species of bats using the equipment and the latest technologies from Illumina is reported in passing in the methodological part of the work. The authors were well aware that the time of enthusiasm for the very possibility of reading genomic sequences and even the high accuracy of their decoding had passed. The time has come for the results that loomed in the future behind these delights.

The second reason relates more to biological methodology, namely to the methods of phylogeny. The age of domination of morphological systematics was replaced by the era of molecular phylogenetics. If earlier genealogical trees were reconstructed on the basis of morphological similarities and differences and/or on the basis of morphological homologies, now it is customary to focus on the amount of similarity between amino acid or nucleotide sequences. The choice in favor of molecular phylogenetics was made not least because of the difficulty of distinguishing between convergences and common ancestry.

In molecular phylogenetics, superficial convergent similarity was not considered to be of great importance, since genetic changes to achieve the same morphological result are always different. Therefore, molecular phylogenetics could not worry much that instead of relationship, an ecological commonality would be revealed.

But, as it turns out now, this is not the case. If our geneticist were not too lucky and if he took the same 824 similar loci or, even worse, 390 similar loci for our third tree to build his family tree of echolocation, he would get absurd phylogenies. And I would have every right to defend them, referring to a good and reliable statistical signal! Approximately the same as if a morphologist defended the common origin of dolphins and bats, appealing to amazing echolocation. And this is exactly what molecular phylogenetics tried to get away from, but only worse, because not everyone will dare to argue with statistics. So this work shows once again that each method has its limitations and its own range of applicability. Molecular phylogenetics has yet to define it.

Source: Joe Parker, Georgia Tsagkogeorga, James A. Cotton, Yuan Liu, Paolo Provero, Elia Stupka, Stephen J. Rossiter. Genome-wide signatures of convergent evolution in echolocating mammals // Nature. 502. P. 228–231. Doi:10.1038/nature12511.

Elena Naimark
"Elements"

Elena Naimark

Biologists have deciphered the genetic base on which the electric organs of fish are built. An electric organ is a very complex device, but nevertheless, it appeared several times in parallel during evolution, turning muscles into bio-batteries. Surprisingly, the sets of genes that were involved in this evolutionary focus were found to be similar across all fish groups studied.

Elena Naimark

A new study on the development of eusociality in bees compares genes that work differently in two bee castes. It turned out that genes that are expressed more in the working caste underwent strong positive selection. The intensity of selection among the active genes of the working caste turned out to be higher than among the active genes of the queens. This means that both breeding individuals and those that do not reproduce themselves, but only contribute to the survival of sisters and brothers, are important for kin selection, and childless individuals are even more important for selection. The kin selection hypothesis thus received another powerful confirmation.

Alexander Markov, Elena Naimark

What is a benefit? How does a random mutation turn outsiders into thriving winners? What is more important for evolution - war or cooperation? The book tells about the latest research by molecular geneticists and the findings of paleontologists, which provide answers to these and many other questions about modifications in nature. Thousands of discoveries made since the time of Darwin confirm the guesses of the founders of the theory of evolution; new data does not destroy the foundations evolutionary theory On the contrary, they only strengthen them.

Morphological adaptations include:

a) the development of a dense fur coat in arctic foxes; b) strict regulation of the process of protein synthesis in human cells; c) development of stinging hairs in nettles; d) maintaining a constant body temperature in mammals; e) temporary association of bison in a herd.

1) a, c
2) a, e
3) b, c
4) d, e

Explanation.

Morphological adaptation - adaptation to factors environment, expressed in a change in external appearance (for example, a change in the color of the wings of butterflies, depending on the pollution of the environment).

Answer: 1

Compare the proposed pairs of organs (structures) with each other and correlate them with the ways in which the evolutionary process is carried out, which leads to the formation of these organs (structures):

Explanation.

Convergence - an evolutionary process consisting in the convergence and acquisition of similar features different organisms. In the course of convergence, similar organs are formed.

Divergence is the divergence of traits in related organisms. During divergence, homologous organs are formed.

The correct answer is A2B2V2G1D2

Answer: A2B2V2G1D2

The formation of similar signs and structural features in unrelated organisms, which are the result of adaptation to similar conditions of existence, is called:

1) symbiosis
2) convergence
3) arogenesis
4) divergence

Explanation.

Convergence is one of the types of adaptive variability of organisms, characterizing the development of distant organisms according to a similar scenario. (For example, the development of wings in birds, insects and bats)

Answer: 2

a - forelimbs of a lizard and flippers of a whale

b - burrowing limbs of a mole and burrowing limbs of a bear

c - hedgehog needles and dog hair

g - lung of a pond snail and lungs of birds

d - butterfly proboscis and elephant trunk

2) similar bodies; "extra" examples - a, c

4) homologous organs; "Extra" examples - c, d

Explanation.

Analogous organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin. Examples a and b are homologous organs.

The correct answer is number 2

Answer: 2

Explanation.

Points a), c) are examples of similar organs that develop as a result of convergence. In this case, the organs are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Points b), d), e) are examples of homologous organs. They develop as a result of divergence, have common origins, but perform different functions.

The correct answer is A2B1V2G1D1

Answer: A2B1V2G1D1

A specific morphophysiological change that increases the overall level of organization of a particular group is called:

1) aromorphosis
2) allomorphosis
3) convergence
4) general degeneration

Explanation.

Aromorphosis is one of the types of evolutionary development, which consists in increasing the organization of a certain group of organisms.

Allomorphosis = idioadaptation.

The correct answer is number 1

Answer: 1

Explanation.

The correct answer is A1B1V2

Answer: A1B1V2

Of the four given pairs of organs (structures) of living organisms, three can serve as the same comparative anatomical proof of evolution. Specify an "extra" example, which is such a proof not is:

1) wheatgrass rhizome and onion bulb
2) pectoral fins of fish and bird wings
3) insect trachea and human trachea
4) dandelion leaf and trapping apparatus of the insectivorous sundew plant

Explanation.

The insect trachea and the human trachea are homologous organs, that is, similar in origin and different in their functions.

The rest are examples of similar organs that have different origins, but perform similar functions.

Answer: 3

Set match:

1) 1abg; 2vd
2) 1avd; 2bg
3) lag; 2bvd
4) 1vgd; 2ab

Explanation.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

Set match:

Explanation.

The correct answer is A1B3V1G2D3

Answer: A1B3V1G2D3

Set match:

1) 1ab; 2vgd
2) 1abg; 2vd
3) lag; 2bvd
4) 1bvd; 2ag

Explanation.

Analogous organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Homologous organs have the same origin but perform different functions.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

Set match:

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of the letters in the left column. For example: A3B3B2G1D1.

Explanation.

Aromormosis - changes leading to an increase in the level of organization.

Catamorphosis is a simplification of the organization of the body.

Allomorphosis - changes in the structure and functions of maintaining the general level of organization.

The correct answer is A1B3V1G2D3

Answer: A2B1V3G1D3

Set match:

1) 1abg; 2vd
2) 1abd; 2vg
3) 1bc; 2agd
4) 1vg; 2abd

Explanation.

Analogous organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Homologous organs have the same origin but perform different functions.

Answer: 4

Set match:

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of the letters in the left column. For example: A3B3B2G1D1.

Explanation.

Aromormosis - changes leading to an increase in the level of organization.

Catamorphosis is a simplification of the organization of the body.

Allomorphosis - changes in the structure and functions of maintaining the general level of organization.

The correct answer is A1B1V3G3D2

Answer: A1B1V3G3D2

Set match:

1) 1abg; 2vd
2) 1avd; 2bg
3) lag; 2bvd
4) 1vgd; 2ab

Explanation.

Analogous organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Homologous organs have the same origin but perform different functions.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

Set match:

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of the letters in the left column. For example: A3B3B2G1D1.

Explanation.

Aromormosis - changes leading to an increase in the level of organization.

Catamorphosis is a simplification of the organization of the body.

Allomorphosis - changes in the structure and functions while maintaining the general level of organization.

The correct answer is A1B3V1G2D3

Answer: A1B3V2G1D3

Set match:

1) 1ab; 2vgd
2) 1ab; 2vd
3) 1bc; 2agd
4) 1vd; 2abg

Explanation.

Similar organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Homologous organs have the same origin but perform different functions.

The correct answer is number 2

Answer: 2

Set match:

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of the letters in the left column. For example: A3B3B2G1D1.

Explanation.

Aromormosis - changes leading to an increase in the level of organization.

Catamorphosis is a simplification of the organization of the body.

Allomorphosis - changes in the structure and functions of maintaining the general level of organization.

The correct answer is A1B3V1G2D3

Answer: A1B1V2G3D3

The path of evolution associated with a decrease in the morphophysiological organization, the reduction of a number of organs and their systems as a result of the adaptation of organisms to more simple conditions existence is called:

1) catagenesis
2) arogenesis
3) symbiosis
4) allogenesis

Explanation.

Catagenesis - the path of evolutionary development, accompanied by a simplification of the organization of the body.

The correct answer is number 1

Answer: 1

a - mammary glands of a goat and human sweat glands

b - bacterial spore and ciliate cyst

c - seal flippers and mole limbs

g - wings of earflaps and wings of the cockchafer

e - bud scales of poplar and cactus spines

What are the names of these three pairs of organs (structures) and which two examples do not belong to them (“extra”):

1) similar bodies; "extra" examples - a, b
2) similar bodies; "extra" examples - c, d
3) homologous organs; "Extra" examples - b, d

Explanation.

Homologous organs are organs that have a similar origin but perform different functions. Examples b and d are similar bodies.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

1) genetic
2) ethological
3) environmental
4) morphophysiological

Explanation.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Explanation.

The correct answer is A1B1V2G1D1

Answer: A1B1V2G1D1

Within the general range, one part of the finches nests in dense coniferous forests, and the other - in low and rare deciduous plantations with a large number of clearings. This is an example of isolation:

1) genetic
2) ethological
3) environmental
4) morphophysiological

Explanation.

Ecological isolation - isolation due to ecological separation. Populations live in a common area, but in different habitats and therefore do not meet each other.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Explanation.

Divergence - a divergence of signs and properties of initially close groups of organisms in the course of evolution, the result of living in different conditions and unequally directed natural selection. During divergence, homogenous organs are formed. Options A, C, D, D.

Convergence - the convergence of features in the process of evolution of non-closely related groups of organisms, the acquisition of their original structure as a result of existence in similar conditions and equally directed natural selection. In the course of convergence, similar organs are formed. Option B.

The correct answer is A1B2V1G1D1

Answer: A1B2V1G1D1

Within the common range, one race of cuckoos lays blue eggs in the nests of the redstart and chasin, the other - light-speckled eggs in the nests of warblers. This is an example of isolation:

1) genetic
2) environmental
3) ethological
4) geographical

Explanation.

Ecological isolation - isolation due to ecological separation. Populations live in a common area, but in different habitats and therefore do not meet each other.

The correct answer is number 2

Answer: 2

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Explanation.

Divergence is a divergence of signs and properties in initially close groups of organisms in the course of evolution, the result of living in different conditions and unequally directed natural selection. During divergence, homogenous organs are formed. Options A, B, D, D.

Convergence - the convergence of features in the process of evolution of non-closely related groups of organisms, the acquisition of their original structure as a result of existence in similar conditions and equally directed natural selection. In the course of convergence, similar organs are formed. Option B.

The correct answer is A1B1V2G1D1

Answer: A1B1V2G1D1

In closely related species of North American fireflies, to attract individuals of the opposite sex, a different nature of light flashes is observed: in duration, frequency, intensity. This is an example of isolation:

1) genetic;
2) ethological;
3) ecological;
4) geographical.

Explanation.

With the ethological nature of reproductive isolation for individuals different populations the probability of fertilization is reduced due to differences in lifestyle and behavior.

The correct answer is number 2

Answer: 2

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Explanation.

Divergence is a divergence of signs and properties in initially close groups of organisms in the course of evolution, the result of living in different conditions and unequally directed natural selection. During divergence, homogenous organs are formed. Options A, B, D, D.

Convergence - the convergence of features in the process of evolution of non-closely related groups of organisms, the acquisition of their original structure as a result of existence in similar conditions and equally directed natural selection. In the course of convergence, similar organs are formed. Option B.

The correct answer is A1B2V1G1D1

Answer: A1B1V2G1D1

The direction of evolution, characterized by a decrease in the number of individuals, the predominance of mortality over fertility, and the narrowing of the range, is called:

1) arogenesis
2) morphophysiological progress
3) convergence
4) biological regression

Explanation.

Biological regression is the direction of evolutionary development, accompanied by a simplification of the organization of organisms.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 4

Five pairs of examples of organs (structures) of living organisms are given, three of which can serve as the same comparative anatomical evidence of evolution:

a - cactus spines and pea tendrils

b - pine seeds and fern spores

c - the forelimb of the crane and the forelimb of the rhinoceros

g - hedgehog needles and dog hair

e - eyes of a fox and eyes of a grasshopper

What are the names of these three pairs of organs (structures) and which two examples do not belong to them (“extra”):

1) similar bodies; "extra" examples - a, c

3) homologous organs; "Extra" examples - b, e
4) homologous organs; "extra" examples - a, d

Explanation.

Homologous organs are organs that have a similar origin but perform different functions. Examples b and e are similar organs.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

The divergence of characters in related organisms or their groups, which is the result of adaptation to different conditions existence is called:

1) arogenesis
2) catagenesis
3) divergence
4) convergence

Explanation.

Divergence is one of the types of adaptive variability of organisms, characterized by a divergence of characteristics in similar organisms.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

Five pairs of examples of animal organs (structures) are given, three of which can serve as the same comparative anatomical evidence of evolution:

a - kidney scales of poplar and spruce needles

b - hawthorn spines and blackberry spines

c - bat wings and cockchafer wings

d - seal flippers and mole limbs

e - photosensitive eye of euglena and eye of squid

What are the names of these three pairs of organs (structures) and which two examples do not belong to them (“extra”):

1) similar bodies; "Extra" examples - d, d
2) similar bodies; "Extra" examples - a, d
3) homologous organs; "extra" examples - a, b
4) homologous organs; "extra" examples - c, d

Explanation.

Analogous organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin. Examples a and d are homologous organs.

The correct answer is number 2

Answer: 2

Speciation that occurs within the range of the original species, when populations cannot interbreed due to biological isolation, is called:

1) sympatric
2) allopatric
3) allogenesis
4) convergence

Explanation.

Sympatric speciation - the occurrence of reproductive isolation due to changes in the chromosomal set of individuals.

Allopatric speciation is one of the methods of speciation, in which the reproductive barrier between species is formed on the basis of spatial isolation.

Allogenesis is the direction of evolution of a group of organisms, in which closely related species change some particular adaptations with others, and the general level of organization remains the same.

Convergence - the convergence of features in the process of evolution of non-closely related groups of organisms, the acquisition of a similar structure by them as a result of existence in similar conditions and equally directed natural selection.

The correct answer is number 1

Answer: 1

Five pairs of examples of animal organs (structures) are given, three of which can serve as the same comparative anatomical evidence of evolution:

a - dandelion leaf and sundew trapping apparatus

b - insect trachea and human trachea

c - crayfish limbs and lizard limbs

d - forelimbs of a frog and flippers of a whale

e - snake venom glands and human salivary glands

What are the names of these three pairs of organs (structures) and which two examples do not belong to them (“extra”):

1) similar bodies; "extra" examples - a, d
2) similar bodies; "Extra" examples - b, d
3) homologous organs; "extra" examples - c, d
4) homologous organs; "extra" examples - b, c

Explanation.

Analogous organs are organs that are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin. Examples b and c are similar bodies.

The correct answer is number 4

Answer: 4

At the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of intensive hunting of sable, its range was torn into many small parts, distant from each other at considerable distances. This is an example of isolation:

1) genetic
2) ethological
3) environmental
4) geographical

Explanation.

Geographical isolation - the isolation of a certain population from other populations of the same species by some insurmountable geographical obstacle.

The correct answer is number 4

Answer: 4

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of letters. Keep in mind that some data in the right column (figure) may be used multiple times or not used at all. For example: A1B2B1... .

Explanation.

Points a), b) are examples of similar organs that develop as a result of convergence. In this case, the organs are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Points c), d), e) are examples of homologous organs. They develop as a result of divergence, have common origins, but perform different functions.

The correct answer is A2B2V1G1D1

Answer: A2B2V1G1D1

Within the general range, one part of blackbirds lives in dense forests, the other - in settlements. This is an example of isolation:

1) genetic
2) ethological
3) environmental
4) morphophysiological

Explanation.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of letters. Keep in mind that some data in the right column (figure) may be used multiple times or not used at all. For example: A1B2B1... .

Explanation.

Items a), b), d), e) are examples of similar organs that develop as a result of convergence. In this case, the organs are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Point c) are examples of homologous organs. They develop as a result of divergence, have common origins, but perform different functions.

The correct answer is A1B1V2G1D1

Answer: A1B1V2G1D1

Within the general range, one part of the finches nests in dense coniferous forests, and the other part nests in low and sparse deciduous plantations with a large number of clearings. This is an example of isolation:

1) genetic
2) ethological
3) environmental
4) morphophysiological

Explanation.

Ecological isolation is a form of isolation caused by a mismatch between environmental conditions and breeding times.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of letters. Keep in mind that some data in the right column (figure) may be used multiple times or not used at all. For example: A1B2B1... .

Explanation.

Point B is an example of similar organs that develop as a result of convergence. In this case, the organs are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Items A, C, D, E are examples of homologous organs. They develop as a result of divergence, have common origins, but perform different functions.

The correct answer is A1B2V1G1D1

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of letters. Keep in mind that some data in the right column (figure) may be used multiple times or not used at all. For example: A1B2B1... .

Answer: A1B2V1G1D1

Within the common range, one race of cuckoos lays blue eggs in the nests of the redstart and the coinage. the other - light speckled eggs in the nests of warblers. This is an example of isolation.

1) genetic
2) ethological
3) environmental
4) geographical

Explanation.

Ecological isolation is a form of isolation caused by a mismatch between environmental conditions and breeding times.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

For each pair of organs (structures), select a scheme that reflects the way the evolutionary process was carried out, which led to the formation of these organs (structures):

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of letters. Keep in mind that some data in the right column (figure) may be used multiple times or not used at all. For example: A1B2B1... .

Explanation.

Item B are examples of similar organs that develop as a result of convergence. In this case, the organs are similar in morphology and functions, but differ in structure and origin.

Items A, B, D, E are examples of homologous organs. They develop as a result of divergence, have common origins, but perform different functions.

The correct answer is A1B1V2G1D1

Answer: A1B1V2G1D1

In the process of evolution, the content of unsaturated fats in the composition of fats in Arctic fish increased. fatty acids which lowers the freezing point. This is an example of adaptation:

1) ethological
2) behavioral
3) physiological
4) morphological

Explanation.

Adaptations in the process of evolution can be behavioral, biochemical, physiological (hibernation, diapause), morphological (appearance of a membrane between the fingers in waterfowl).

AT this case there is a decrease in freezing and hypothermia temperatures as a result of the accumulation of cryoprotectants, which is an example of physiological adaptation or acclimation.

Acclimation - physiological changes in the life of the organism associated with adaptation to new environmental conditions and a change in tolerance and the position of the optimum.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

Determine which mode of speciation each example describes:

Write your answer as a combination of letters and numbers, following the alphabetical sequence of letters in the left column (figure). Be aware that some data in the right column may be used multiple times or not at all. For example A2B1V1... .

Explanation.

Sympatric speciation occurs due to the formation of reproductive isolation in the original population due to rearrangements in the karyotype.

Allopatric speciation - the emergence of new populations and species due to spatial isolation.

The correct answer is A1B2V1

Answer: A1B2V1

The divergence of characteristics in related organisms or their groups in the process of evolution is called:

1) arogenesis
2) catagenesis
3) divergence
4) convergence

Explanation.

Divergence - the direction of evolutionary development, accompanied by a divergence of characteristics in related organisms.

The correct answer is number 3

Answer: 3

In the process of evolution, stilted roots have formed in mangrove plants distributed on periodically flooded areas of the coasts of Southeast Asia, Oceania and others. This is an example of adaptation:

1) behavioral
2) biochemical
3) physiological
4) morphological

Explanation.

Adaptations in the profession of evolution can be behavioral, biochemical, physiological (falling into hibernation), morphological (the appearance of a webbing between the fingers in waterfowl).

Class: 9

Presentation for the lesson

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Lesson Objectives:

• Educational: based on knowledge of the evolutionary dependence of aromorphoses and idioadaptations, deepen the understanding of the results of evolution, consider the general patterns of biological evolution, identify patterns of the evolutionary process, analyze the phenomenon of divergence and convergence at the microevolutionary level.
• Educational: to continue the development of intellectual and information skills through the development of biological tasks that require logical thinking, to continue the formation of skills to analyze, summarize, work with various sources of information, the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, draw conclusions, think logically, draw up the results of mental operations in oral and written form. Development of communicative and reflective skills.
• educators: fostering a responsible attitude towards learning activities, culture of work and communication, the formation of a dialectical-materialistic worldview, the development of cognitive interest in the subject, the recognition of the value of knowledge for self-development.

Tasks:

• Review the material covered in the previous lesson;
• Create conditions for posing a problem situation;
• To promote the formation of students' skills of independent search for answers to the problem;
• Consolidate the knowledge of students received in the lesson;
• Contribute to the creation of a creative atmosphere in the classroom;
• To promote the development of communication skills (the ability to interact in small groups), the ability to evaluate actions (introspection).

Planned results: students get an idea about the patterns of biological evolution, they are able to operate with concepts: phylogenesis, divergence, convergence; can explain and give examples of the main forms of phylogenesis.

Lesson type: combined.

Type of lesson: learning lesson.

Lead method: dialogue communication based on work with textbook materials, tables, slides.

Assimilation level: partially search.

Forms of organization of educational activities: oral answers from the floor, independent work with information material, filling in the table, solving biological problems, performing test work independently, exercising self-control and reflection.

Teacher activities: creating conditions for posing a problem, helping students in finding answers and resolving contentious issues, creating a situation of success, summing up the work.

Development of student skills: interact in groups, apply knowledge in a new situation, solve non-standard tasks, establish cause-and-effect relationships, develop the ability to introspection.

Basic concepts of the lesson: phylogeny, divergence, convergence

Sources of information: Biology. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Grade 9: textbook for educational institutions / S.G. Mamontov, V.B. Zakharov, N.I. Sonin - M .: Bustard, 2011. - 287 pages; electronic presentation.

Grading a lesson: at the discretion of the teacher, student self-assessment.

Lesson plan:

1. Organizing time.
2. Knowledge update.
3. Statement of the educational problem.
4. Finding a solution to a problem.
5. Primary consolidation of knowledge.
6. Secondary consolidation of knowledge. Test execution.
7. Summing up the lesson. Reflection.
8. Homework.

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

Greeting students

Checking the external readiness of students for the lesson. Creating positive motivation.

Good afternoon guys.

I'm glad to see you. I see smart, kind faces in front of me. In order to understand how we will work today, I want to know what mood you are in. If you're in a good mood, smile at me. Look at each other, smile!

I am sure that today's lesson will bring us satisfaction and be fruitful, and your mood will not worsen by the end of the lesson.

2. Actualization of knowledge.

Work in pairs: (slide 2)

Tell your classmate the following concepts:

• Aromorphosis
• Idioadaptation
• General degeneration

2) Work on cards with subsequent mutual verification (slide 3).

Which of the following refers to aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration?

1. cellular lungs in reptiles;
2. primary cerebral cortex in reptiles;
3. bare tail of a beaver;
4. lack of limbs in snakes;
5. lack of roots in dodder;
6. the appearance of a septum in the ventricle of the heart in reptiles;
7. mammary glands in mammals;
8. formation of flippers in walruses;
9. absence circulatory system at chains;
10. absence of sweat glands in dogs.

Key: (slide 4)

3. Statement of the educational problem (slide 5)

Compare earthworm and the larva of the cockchafer.

(The earthworm belongs to the type Annelids of the class Low-bristle worms. It has an elongated cylindrical body, at the front end of the body there is a small movable head lobe, devoid of eyes, antennae and tentacles. The body is segmented, equipped with small bristles.

The leech belongs to the type Annelids, class Leeches. It has an elongated, flattened body in the dorsal-abdominal direction, suction cups are located at the anterior and posterior ends, bristles are absent.

The face of the Maybug belongs to the phylum Arthropoda, the class Insects. Outwardly, it looks like a worm, moves well in the soil, Due to the fact that they live underground, they do not have eyes. well developed oral apparatus gnawing type, thanks to him the larva of the May beetle digs the ground and feeds on plant debris and plant roots).

1. How can one explain that the earthworm and leech have differences in structure, although they belong to the same type?
2. How can one explain that the earthworm and the larva of the Maybug have some similarities, but belong to different types animals?

(Students' statement)

Goal setting.

What do you think that we will study today in the lesson?

State the purpose of the lesson (write on the board).

Additionally, we will learn about the rules of evolution.

We will continue to learn how to work with educational literature, extract the necessary information from it; compose short messages, state their content and formulate questions; think and clearly answer the questions posed, solve biological problems and tasks of a test nature, evaluate their work.

4. Search for a solution to the problem

Remember the definition of evolution

Evolution is the process of the historical development of living nature based on variability, heredity and natural selection.

Among the forms of evolution are:

• Divergence
• convergence

Let us consider these forms in more detail and find out their evolutionary significance.

Group work with the text of the textbook.

Task for group 1: read the text of the textbook p.66-67 “Divergence”. Expand the content of the concept of divergence. How can one explain the difference in characteristics in organisms of related groups.

Task for group 2: read the text of the textbook p.67-70 “Convergence”.

Dialogue communication based on work with textbook materials:

What is divergence

Divergence of signs of an organism within one systematic group, which arises under the influence of variability, is fixed hereditarily, as a result, different subspecies and species are formed from one common ancestor.

Give examples of divergence.

(take as an example the divergence of mammals and modified plant leaves) (slides 6-7).

At what level can divergence be observed.

Species, families, orders can diverge.

What is the role of divergence in the process of evolution?

Divergence leads to the emergence of organisms that are diverse in structure and functions, which ensures a more complete use of environmental conditions.

Formulation of the conclusion: (slide 8) after the emergence of large systematic groups on the path of aromorphosis, a large divergent evolution of this group begins through the acquisition of adaptations.

• Aromorphosis
• Idioadaptation
• Convergence

What is convergence?

The appearance of similar signs in different unrelated groups living in the same environmental conditions (slide 9)

How could a similar external resemblance arise in animals of different systematic groups? What about the internal?

Convergence - the convergence of features in the process of evolution of non-closely related groups of organisms, the acquisition of a similar structure by them as a result of existence in similar conditions and equally directed natural selection. Convergent similarity is not deep. (give examples characterizing the internal structure of a dolphin and a shark, a different systematic position determines the differences) (slide 10)

At what level can convergence occur?

Under the same conditions of existence, animals belonging to different systematic groups can acquire a similar external structure (convergent similarity) (slide 11)

Can the evolutionary process reverse and life return to its origins?

What do you think, if the former conditions of existence are restored on Earth, will dinosaurs reappear? (slide 12)

Statement of arguments "for" and "against".

To draw the conclusion: in the history of the Earth, physical conditions have often arisen that repeat those that already existed before. For example, the territory of Western Siberia has repeatedly risen from the bottom of the sea and sank again.

Species differ from each other not in individual characters, but in complex complexes of characters. And the repetition of the whole complex of signs is statistically unbelievable, on the basis of which: evolution is an irreversible process.

Notebook entry:

Evolution Rules:

1. Rule of irreversibility of evolution
2. The rule of alternation of the main directions of evolution.

5. Primary consolidation of knowledge.

Comparative characteristics of objective indicators of the main forms of organic evolution (slide 13)

6. Secondary consolidation of knowledge.

Compare organisms and explain to which phenomenon their similarity or difference relates. Enter your answers in the table

1. Medvedka and mole (similarity in the shape of the front legs) (slide 14)
2. Scotch pine and cedar pine (differences in structure) (slide 15)
3. White hare and brown hare (slide 16)
4. Camel and fat-tailed sheep (fat reserve) (slide 17)
5. One-humped camel and two-humped camel (slide 18)
6. Crayfish and scorpion (have claws) (slide 19)
7. Crayfish and crab (have claws) (slide 20)
8. Grape snail and large pond (slide 21)
9. Fringed swimmer and black-tinnik swimmer (slide 22)
10. Jerboa and kangaroo (long hind legs) (slide 23)
11. Frog and toad (slide 24)
12. Frog and housefly (anabiosis) (slide 25)
13. Hawk hawk and hummingbird (do not sit on a flower in the process of feeding, but hover over it in the air, quickly and quickly turning over with narrow wings) (slide 26)
14. Hedgehog and echidna (similarity of cover) (slide 27)

Key (slide 28)

7. Summing up the lesson.

Guys, what goal did we set at the beginning of the lesson, did we achieve this goal? (students' statements)

In the lesson, we learned to set a goal and achieve its solution; you have shown your ability to think logically, select and evaluate information. To be successful today, you need to be information literate. Today you guys have taken another step towards mastering this art.

Reflection

Are you satisfied with your results?

A small questionnaire is proposed that allows you to carry out self-analysis, give a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the lesson (slide 29)

8. Homework (slide 30)

P. 13, questions to the text.

For those interested: find examples of convergence and divergence using the Internet or additional literature.

You have worked very hard today! Thank you for the lesson!