A citizen with a terrible face was convicted in accordance with Article 2 of April 19, 1943....
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The peculiarities of the social and state system in the period under review manifested themselves between the northeastern, in the center of which was the Suzdal land, the southwestern, in the center of which was the Galician land, and the northern - with the center in Novgorod regions.
The lands that were previously included in North-Eastern Rus' constituted the far periphery of the Kyiv state, a fairly autonomous periphery, the center of which was the city of Rostov. In this land, in 1147, Moscow appeared on the historical arena, and here from the middle of the 12th century. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was formed, which then, in the 14th century, became the core of the future unified state.
The bearer of supreme power was the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He was considered as the supreme owner of the land, the supreme overlord of the state territory. He possessed legislative, executive, judicial, military and even ecclesiastical power, for it was his proteges who occupied episcopal positions.
All other institutions of state power have been preserved here: the council under the prince, the veche, feudal congresses. True, the veche, given the strong positions occupied by the princes, quickly lost its role and ceased to be convened after the Mongol-Tatar conquest. The feudal congresses were active; they met on the initiative of the princes to resolve emergency issues and played a certain role in their struggle against the noble Rostov-Suzdal boyars.
The management system of the Vladimir land duplicated the old palace-patrimonial system, which was further developed. On the ground there are governors and volostels - representatives of the grand ducal power and their tiuns. The main source of income is “feed” – fees from the local population. The princely squad and the feudal militia of vassal princes, boyars and other servants constitute the military organization of the land.
Of the features that distinguished the socio-economic and political development of North-Eastern Rus', the following can be distinguished.
Firstly, here, on the periphery, feudal relations developed more slowly than in the Kyiv land, and by the time of the collapse of the ancient Russian state, a strong local boyars had not had time to develop (with the exception of the city of Rostov). The feudal class consisted mainly of princely warriors and servants and generally supported the princes in their organizational activities. The princes, in turn, having created a large domain from the conquered and colonized lands, shared part of these lands with them, turning them into service boyars . In addition to the boyars, the feudal elite, sources call free servants, who made up the bulk of landowners-vassals who carried out military service, children of boyars – descendants of impoverished boyar families. A category of nobles also appears, which is formed from former princely tiuns and servants of the “court”, as a rule, slaves who received land for their blameless service to the prince. This lower category of feudal lords did not have the right to move from one prince to another, like boyars or “free servants.”
In the Vladimir land, the highest clergy in the person of metropolitans and bishops had similar vassals, who played an important role in the political and economic life of the state in the conditions of the formation of large church and monastic land ownership.
Another feature of the life of North-Eastern Rus' was the fairly rapid growth of new cities (Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Moscow, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, etc.), which successfully competed with the old ones (Rostov and Suzdal) and became the support of princely power. It is no coincidence that the unifying tendencies in the 14th century. It was the Vladimir princes who began to implement it.
The second large formation on the territory of Kievan Rus is the Principality of Galicia-Volyn (Chervonnaya Rus). The main feature of the social structure of Southwestern Rus' was the numerous and strong boyars, which grew out of the local tribal nobility and, by the time of the collapse of Kievan Rus, had in their hands large land holdings populated by peasants dependent on them. With a small number of cities (except for Galich and Vladimir, one can name Lviv, Przemysl, Berestye) and a free urban population that could form the support of the Grand Duke, the latter experienced serious difficulties in the fight against the separatism of the Galician-Volyn boyars.
The Galician boyars had their own independent authority - the boyar council, contrasting it with princely power. The council played an important role both in domestic political life and in the external arena, inviting and expelling princes it disliked. The power of the Grand Duke could not be strong and lasting here. Due to the small size of the urban population, the veche did not play a noticeable political role.
In the Galicia-Volyn land, earlier than in other principalities, a palace-patrimonial system of government developed. The local chronicles know the nobles and printers (chancellors), clerks and thousand, governor (the term “voivode” itself obviously came from here, since the Galicia-Volyn land has long been divided into voivodeships). The squad here was not large, constituting only the prince’s personal guard; the main army was formed from militias - smerds and townspeople.
The support of the Galician princes in single combat with the large feudal nobility were the service feudal lords, the sources of land holdings were princely grants. The princes, having won victories over the boyars, resorted to confiscation and redistribution of lands, forming a service army. It was the serving feudal lords who supplied the prince with infantry, consisting of smerd foot soldiers. As for the rest, with regard to the prerogatives of the grand ducal power, the system of law, etc., the orders and rules common to all Russian lands, and then Polish-Lithuanian law, were in force here.
The state and legal structure of Novgorod and Pskov had much more differences and innovations.
Velikiy Novgorod played a prominent role already in the Kiev period of the history of Rus'. The princes eagerly relied on him when fighting for the Kiev throne. But Novgorod itself did not attract the princes; they viewed it as a kind of springboard for subsequent advance to Kyiv. Linking their fate with Kiev, the princes did not strive to form their own domain in the Novgorod land. Since ancient times, the land here was owned not by princes and princely warriors, but by local tribal and communal nobility. The church grew into a large landowner in Novgorod: the Sofia Archbishop's House, churches and monasteries. When the role of Kyiv faded away and the princes turned their attention to Veliky Novgorod, it was already too late. By this time it had turned into a city - Mister Great Novgorod, with a powerful, rich and united boyars, with a developed system of democratic government. After the expulsion from Novgorod of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, accused of treason, the Novgorod aristocracy returned to the ancient tradition of inviting princes to reign. The prince turned from a hereditary ruler into an elected official whose powers were determined by agreement.
In the XIII–XIV centuries. Novgorod land became one of the largest and richest states in Europe.
Younger brother Novgorod - Pskov - remained a Novgorod suburb for a long time (not in the direct sense, but in the sense of subordination). However, as economic influence grew, so did the desire for political independence. First, Pskov obtained from Novgorod the right to accept governors it liked, including from its own boyars, and from 1348 it acquired political independence and independence from it.
So, researchers note such important features of the social structure of Veliky Novgorod. The first is the absence of a princely domain and strong local secular and ecclesiastical land ownership. The second is the transformation of the local boyars into large merchants and bankers, the concentration of all threads of the economy in one hand - the hands of large landowners. Third, a higher level of crafts and trade, due to natural, climatic and geographical conditions: a zone of risky agriculture, the proximity of the West, etc.
The dominant position in Novgorod was occupied by the boyars – owners of large estates and trade and craft enterprises. They were part of the Council of the Lord, who actually ruled the state. From their number all the highest officials were elected: mayor, archbishop (lord), thousand, sotskie etc. The second layer of the ruling class is the living people - middle feudal lords, who were also actively involved in trade and usury and held middle administrative positions, judicial and diplomatic positions. The third layer consisted of natives – a special category intermediate between feudal lords and peasants. They had land, owned it by right of ownership, independently ran their own small farm, leasing part of their land to peasants (kortom). In Pskov these were Zemstvo people, who had land holdings under the conditions of military service.
The Novgorod merchants also had their own land holdings, which conducted large-scale transit trade. It was organized into hundreds by specialization: tanners, cloth workers, butchers, etc. There was also an organization of overseas merchants, a large trading court with a church (German or Gothic), which enjoyed the right of extraterritoriality.
The rest of the urban population was divided into old and young or black small artisans and retailers. The rural population, as in other lands, was represented by smerds, both free and feudal-dependent.
The function of the prince was reduced to armed defense and organization of the defense of the republic. An agreement was concluded with the prince, defining his rights and obligations. The candidacy of the invited prince was finally approved by the veche. The rights of the prince are not clearly defined in the agreements; one might think that the prince participated in administration together with the mayor, archbishop, etc.
Responsibilities are regulated in more detail and what the prince should not do: conduct justice alone, but only together with the mayor, distribute Novgorod lands to his vassals and servants, establish settlements, distribute state charters, “without guilt” deprive the Novgorod “volost”, impose taxes on the population. The prince could even hunt and fish only in designated areas. He was not allowed to trade with foreigners without Novgorod intermediaries. The agreements even determined the amount of duties for the maintenance of the princely court and squad.
The prince in Pskov had the same status, although the proximity of the city to the border and the constant border conflicts and skirmishes of the Pskov residents forced them to be friends with the grand ducal authorities.
Main legislative body Republican Novgorod had a veche. Only adult free men participated in veche meetings.
Supreme executive bodies of Veliky Novgorod is the mayor, archbishop and thousand The Archbishop headed the Council of Nobles “to the Lord” and determined the ideology of city life. Posadnik and Tysyatsky – assistant mayor - elected by the veche. In their hands were all management functions both in the field of finance, court, and in the field of trade and diplomacy. The election of officials of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov is the clearest evidence of democracy and the legal nature of statehood in these republics.
By the middle of the 12th century, 15 small and large principalities were formed in Kievan Rus. By the beginning of the 13th century their number had increased to 50. The collapse of the state had not only a negative result (weakening before the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.
Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation
In individual principalities and fiefdoms, rapid growth of cities began, and trade relations with the Baltic states and the Germans began to form and develop. Changes in local culture were also noticeable: chronicles were created, new buildings were erected, etc.
Large regions of the country
The state had several large principalities. These, in particular, can be considered Chernigovskoe, Kyiv, Severskoe. However, the largest were considered to be three in the southwest, and the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state at that time. It is worth noting that they all had their own distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what were the features of the Novgorod principality.
General information
The origins from which the development of the Novgorod principality began are still not entirely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region dates back to the year 859. However, it is assumed that at that time the chroniclers did not use weather records (they appeared by the 10-11th century), but collected those legends that were most popular among the people. After Rus' adopted the Byzantine tradition of composing tales, authors had to compose stories, independently estimating dates, before weather records began. Of course, such dating is far from accurate, so it should not be completely trusted.
Principality of Novgorod Land
What this region was like means “new called fortified settlements surrounded by walls. Archaeologists found three settlements located on the territory occupied by the Novgorod principality. The geographical location of these areas is indicated in one of the chronicles. According to information, the region was located on the left bank of the Volkhov ( where the Kremlin is now located).
Over time, the settlements merged into one. The inhabitants built a common fortress. It was named Novgorod. Researcher Nosov developed the already existing point of view that the historical predecessor of the new city was Gorodishche. It was located slightly higher, not far from the sources of the Volkhov. Judging by the chronicles, Gorodishche was a fortified settlement. The princes of the Novgorod principality and their governors stayed there. Local historians even made a rather bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Taking all this into account, it can be argued that the Principality of Novgorod originated from this settlement. The geographical location of the Settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic-Volga route and was considered at that time a fairly large trade, craft and military-administrative point.
Characteristics of the Novgorod Principality
In the first centuries of its existence, the settlement was small (by modern standards). Novgorod was completely made of wood. It was located on two sides of the river, which was quite a unique phenomenon, since settlements were usually located on a hill and on one bank. The first inhabitants built their houses near the water, but not close to it, due to fairly frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to Volkhov. A little later they were connected by “breakout” lanes that ran parallel to the river. The walls of the Kremlin rose from the left bank. At that time it was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other bank, in the Slovenian village, there were estates and a princely court.
Russian chronicles
The Principality of Novgorod is mentioned quite little in the records. However, this little information is of particular value. The chronicle, dated 882, talks about something from Novgorod. As a result, two large East Slavic tribes united: the Polyans and the Ilmen Slavs. It was from that time that the history of the Old Russian state began. Records from 912 indicate that the Principality of Novgorod paid the Scandinavians 300 hryvnia a year to maintain peace.
Records of other peoples
The Novgorod principality is also mentioned in Byzantine chronicles. For example, Emperor Constantine VII wrote about the Russians in the 10th century. The Principality of Novgorod also appears in the Scandinavian sagas. The earliest legends appeared from the reign of the sons of Svyatoslav. After his death, a power struggle broke out between his two sons Oleg and Yaropolk. In 977, a battle took place. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg’s troops and became the Grand Duke, installing his mayors in Novgorod. There was also a third brother. But fearing being killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short-lived. In 980, he returned to the Principality of Novgorod with hired Varangians. Then he defeated the mayors and moved towards Kyiv. There Vladimir overthrew Yaropolk from the throne and became the Prince of Kyiv.
Religion
A description of the Novgorod principality will be incomplete without talking about the importance of faith in the life of the people. In 989 baptism took place. First it was in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod. Power increased due to the Christian religion and its monotheism. The church organization was built on a hierarchical principle. It became a powerful tool for the formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism, Joachim Korsunian (Byzantine priest) was sent to Novgorod. But, it must be said that Christianity did not immediately take root. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rituals survived until the 11th-13th centuries. And, for example, Maslenitsa is still celebrated today. Although this holiday is given a somewhat Christian overtone.
Yaroslav's activities
After Vladimir became the prince of Kyiv, he sent his son Vysheslav to Novgorod, and after his death - Yaroslav. The name of the latter is associated with an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kyiv. So, in 1014, Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about this, began to gather a squad, but during the preparation he suddenly died. Svyatopolk the Accursed ascended the throne. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and Gleb and Boris, who were later canonized. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not against seizing power in Kyiv. But on the other hand, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to address the Novgorodians with a speech. Yaroslav called on the people to capture Kyiv, thus returning to themselves everything that had been taken away in the form of tribute. The residents agreed, and after some time, in the battle of Lyubech, Svyatopolk was completely defeated and fled to Poland.
Further developments
In 1018, together with the squad of Boleslav (his father-in-law and the King of Poland), Svyatopolk returned to Rus'. In the battle, they thoroughly defeated Yaroslav (he fled with four warriors from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod, and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the residents did not let him do this. They chopped up all the boats, collected money and a new army, giving the prince the opportunity to continue fighting. At this time, confident that he was firmly seated on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with the Polish king. Deprived of support, he lost the battle on Alta. After the battle, Yaroslav sent the Novgorodians home, giving them special letters - “Truth” and “Charter”. They had to live by them. Over the next decades, the Principality of Novgorod also depended on Kyiv. First, Yaroslav sent his son Ilya as governor. Then he sent Vladimir, who founded the fortress in 1044. The following year, at his behest, construction began on a new stone cathedral instead of the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral (which burned down). Since that time, this temple has symbolized Novgorod spirituality.
Political system
It took shape gradually. There are two periods in history. In the first there was a feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second, control belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period, all the main bodies of state power existed in the Novgorod principality. The Boyar Council and the Veche were considered the highest institutions. Executive power was vested in the thousand and princely courts, mayor, elders, volostels and volostel managers. The evening had special significance. It was considered the supreme power and had greater power here than in other principalities. The veche decided on issues of domestic and foreign policy, expelled or elected the ruler, townsman and other officials. It was also the highest court. Another body was the Council of Boyars. The entire city government system was concentrated in this body. The Council included: eminent boyars, elders, thousand, mayors, archbishop and prince. The power of the ruler himself was significantly limited in functions and scope, but at the same time, of course, occupied a leading place in the governing bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed at the Council of Boyars. After this, he was invited to sign the contract document. It regulated the legal and state status and responsibilities of the authorities in relation to the ruler. The prince lived with his court on the outskirts of Novgorod. The ruler did not have the right to make laws or proclaim war or peace. Together with the mayor, the prince commanded the army. The existing restrictions did not allow the rulers to gain a foothold in the city and put them in a controlled position.
Administrative division.
Novgorod was divided by Volkhov into two parts, or sides, the Trade and Sofia. These sides were connected by the Great Bridge. The trading side received its name from the trading place located there, that is, the market. At the auction there was Yaroslav's courtyard, where the veche gathered, the stage was the platform from which speeches were made at the veche. Near the degree there was a tower with a veche bell, and the veche office was also located there. The Sofia side received its name from the St. Sophia Cathedral located there.
Novgorod was also divided into 5 ends or districts: Slavensky and Plotnitsky made up the Trade side, and Nerevsky, Zagorodsky and Goncharsky made up the Sofia side. The division into ends was historical. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or villages, which at first were independent settlements, and then united to form a city (1). Slavenskoe end used to be a separate city - Slovenskoe. In the middle of the 9th century, the Rurik settlement became the residence of the princes, and the Novaya fortress was built opposite Slovensk, which soon became Novgorod. The Zagorodsky End, judging by its name, was the last to be formed; initially it was located outside the city, and only after the construction of the fortress could it become part of it. The ends of Plotnitsky and Goncharsky probably used to be working-class suburbs of Slovensk, in which carpenters and potters lived, respectively. The name of the fifth end, Nerevsky, can be explained by the fact that “on the ditch” means “on the outskirts”. That is, the name of the end indicated that it was located on the very outskirts of the city.
Each end was assigned a specific land. There were five pyatinas in total - according to the number of ends: Votskaya, which extended to the north-west of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers towards the Gulf of Finland, which received its name from the Vod tribe that lived here; Obonezhskaya - in the northeast, to the right of Volkhov towards the White Sea; Derevskaya to the southeast, between the rivers Mstoya and Lovat; Shelonskaya to the southwest, between Lovat and Luga, on both sides of the Sheloni River; Bezhetskaya - far to the east and southeast, behind the Pyatina Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya.
Most likely, the Novgorod land was divided into pyatins between the ends in order to collect taxes from the population living there in a more systematic way. Perhaps Novgorod regularly redistributed pyatinas between different ends to reduce the likelihood of corruption.
In addition to Pyatina, in the Novgorod Republic there was a division into volosts. Volosts are possessions that are more distant and acquired later (2). The volosts included cities that were jointly owned with other principalities, such as Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi, Torzhok, Rzhev, Velikiye Luki with their districts. Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi and Torzhok were in joint possession with the Grand Dukes of Vladimir, and then of Moscow; and Rzhev and Velikiye Luki - with the princes of Smolensk. The volosts included a vast part of the Novgorod Republic, located in the northeast of Pyatina Bezhetskaya and Obonezhskaya - Dvinskaya land or Zavolochye. On the Vychegda River and its tributaries there was the Perm volost. Further to the northeast was the volost of Pechora on both sides of the river of the same name, and beyond the Ural Mountains was Yugra. On the northern shore of the White Sea there was the volost of Tre, or the Tersky coast.
All administrative-territorial units of the Novgorod Republic enjoyed broad rights. It is known, for example, that ends and pyatins were ruled by elected officials, and Pskov and other cities had their own prince (3).
Social system.
First of all, the Novgorod population was divided into better and lesser people. Moreover, the smaller ones were not smaller in terms of political rights, but only in terms of economic status and actual importance. Actual inequality with complete legal equality became the cause of numerous Novgorod riots.
In addition to the general division into better and lesser, Novgorod society was divided into three classes: the upper class - the boyars, the middle - the living people, natives and merchants, the lower - black people.
The Novgorod boyars, unlike the boyars of other principalities, were not the prince’s squad, but large landowners and capitalists. The boyars stood at the head of the entire Novgorod society. It was formed from the military foreman who ruled Novgorod before the appearance of Rurik. Due to various circumstances, this nobility did not lose its privileged position even under the princes. Already in the 11th century. The princes who ruled Novgorod appointed people from the local society to local government positions. Thus, the Novgorod administration became native in its personnel even before it became elected (4). The boyars were the main political force in Novgorod. Receiving colossal income from their lands, the boyars had the opportunity to bribe “screamers” at the assembly and carry out the decisions they needed. In addition, possessing large capital, the boyars lent them to merchants and thus stood at the head of trade turnover.
The middle class of Novgorod society was mainly represented by living people. Living people are the population of average income. They were a kind of shareholders investing in the development of international trade. Receiving income from their lands, living people invested them in merchant enterprises, from which they made a profit. In the political life of the city, this class carried out judicial and diplomatic assignments from the Council of Gentlemen, and represented the ends in which they lived.
Unlike other Russian principalities, Novgorod retained a class of small landowners - homeowners. But the land ownership of their own landowners was somewhat different from the usual boyar land ownership - their own landowners very rarely owned lands alone. Usually, fellow residents cultivated and acquired land together - some semblance of a peasant community. The natives either cultivated their land themselves or rented it out to peasants. The natives differed from the peasants in that they had full rights to the land. They were mostly city dwellers who bought plots of land, like today's summer residents, only the lands of their own people were larger and were mostly rented out. The natives formed together into agricultural partnerships, called syabrs or storekeepers.
The merchant class was a trading class that profited from Novgorod's favorable geographical location. Merchants mainly worked with the help of the capital of the boyars and living people. The Novgorod merchants conducted large transit trade and had their own land holdings. Gradually, the merchant class began to divide into “hundreds.” Each hundred had its own charter, its own privileges. The most privileged merchant society was called the “Ivanovo hundred” and met at the Church of John the Baptist. According to its charter, in order to become a full and hereditary member of this society, it was necessary to contribute 50 hryvnia of silver. The council of the society, consisting of two merchant elders chaired by a thousand, was in charge of all trade affairs and the commercial court in Novgorod (5).
The population that did not belong to the first two classes was called “black people.” Of course, black people made up the majority of the population of the Novgorod Republic. These included artisans and small traders who lived in cities, as well as the rural population: smerdas and zemstvos. They were responsible for the construction and repair of bridges and roads, the construction of churches and city fortifications, and in wartime they were drafted into the militia. Black people, like the entire free population of Novgorod, had the right to take part in the meetings.
The bulk of the rural population were stinkers. Initially, they had their own farm and paid tribute to the state. With the development of boyar land ownership, they increasingly turned into an economically dependent population.
Gradually, the smerds fell into two categories - community members, who paid taxes to Novgorod, and smerds, who were divided into mortgage holders and ladles. The mortgagees were peasants who left the community and became dependent on the boyars. Ladles were peasants who lived on the lands of private owners. They got their name from the type of land rent - half the harvest. But in Novgorod land there were also more preferential rental conditions - a third or a quarter of the harvest all depended on the value of the land in a given place. Ladles performed duties only in favor of their own master. According to the type of work, ladles were divided into izorniks (plowmen), gardeners and kochetniks (fishermen). The ladle had the right to leave his master once a year within the period established by law - Philip's plot. Before leaving, the ladle had to fully repay his debt to the master.
The most powerless group of the population in Novgorod were the zemstvos (slaves). Zemtsy gradually lost their rights with the development of boyar land ownership. Initially, a zemstvo could not be judged without his master. The agreement between the Novgorodians and Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich in 1270 decided not to believe the denunciations of slaves against their masters.
Veche and Council of Gentlemen.
The highest bodies of state power in Novgorod were the veche and the Council of Gentlemen.
In its origin, the Novgorod veche was a city meeting, similar to the others that existed in other cities of Rus' in the 12th century (6). The Veche was not a permanent body. It was not convened periodically, but only when there was a real need for it. Most often this happened during wars, uprisings and the conscription of princes. The veche was convened by the prince, mayor or thousand on the Trade side of the city, at the Yaroslav's courtyard, or the veche was convened by the will of the people, on the Sofia or Trade side. It consisted of residents of both Novgorod and its suburbs; There were no restrictions among Novgorod citizens: every free and independent person could go to the assembly. The veche met by the ringing of the veche bell.
In fact, the veche consisted of those who could come to it, that is, mainly residents of Novgorod, since the convening of the veche was not announced in advance. But sometimes delegates from large suburbs of Novgorod, such as Pskov, Ladoga and others, were present at the meeting. For example, Ladoga and Pskov residents attended the meeting in 1136. More often, however, residents of the suburbs came to the meeting to complain about one or another decision of the Novgorodians. So, in 1384, the residents of Orekhov and Korela sent their delegates to Novgorod with a complaint against the Lithuanian prince Patricius, who had been imprisoned by the Novgorodians. Issues to be discussed at the veche were proposed to him by the prince, mayor or thousand. The Veche had legislative initiative, decided on issues of foreign policy and internal structure, and also judged the most important crimes. The veche had the right to pass laws, invite and expel the prince, elect, judge and remove the mayor and mayor from office, resolve their disputes with the princes, resolve issues of war and peace, distribute volosts for feeding to the princes.
The decisions of the meeting were made unanimously; In case of disagreement, the veche was divided into parties, and the strongest forced the weakest to agree. Sometimes, as a result of strife, two meetings were convened; one on Torgovaya, the other on the Sofia side. The conflict ended with both parties meeting on the Great Bridge and fighting if the intervention of the clergy did not prevent bloodshed.
At the veche there was no concept of a quorum, and hence one time the entire population of the city could be at the veche and not pass the law, and another time - a hundredth part of the population and pass a law that was beneficial only to this part. The result of the vote was determined not by the number of votes, but by the strength of the throats of those shouting: for which they shouted louder, it was considered accepted.
Since the veche did not meet constantly, but only when it was convened, a permanent body of power was needed that would administer the Novgorod Republic. The Council of Gentlemen became such a body of power. It consisted of old and sedate posadniks, thousanders, sotskies and an archbishop. The council had an aristocratic character, the number of its members in the 15th century. reached 50. This body developed from the ancient institution of power - the boyar duma of the prince with the participation of city elders. In the 12th century. The prince invited city councilors and elders to his council with his boyars. As the prince lost organic ties with local Novgorod society, he and the boyars were gradually forced out of the council. He was replaced by the local ruler - the Archbishop, who became the permanent chairman of the Council.
Frequent changes of senior officials in Novgorod became the reason for the rapid growth of the composition of the Council of Gentlemen. All members of the Council, except the chairman, were called boyars.
The Council of Gentlemen prepared and introduced legislative issues at the meeting, presented ready-made bills, but it did not have its own voice in the adoption of laws. The Council also carried out general supervision over the work of the state apparatus and officials of the republic, and controlled the activities of the executive branch. He, together with the prince, the mayor and the thousand, decided on the convening of the veche and subsequently directed all its activities.
The Council of Gentlemen was of great importance in the political life of Novgorod. It consisted of representatives of the highest Novgorod class, which had a powerful economic influence on the entire city; this preparatory council often predetermined the questions raised by it at the veche, conducting among the citizens the answers it had prepared. Thus, the veche very often became a weapon to give the decisions of the Council legitimacy in the eyes of citizens.
The political development of the Novgorod land in the second XIII-XIV centuries is characterized by the strengthening of republican forms of government. When, during the period of the great reign of Alexander Nevsky, Novgorod began to recognize the suzerainty of the Grand Duke of Vladimir over itself (princes of other branches, except for the Suzdal Yuryevichs, no longer appeared in Novgorod in the era after Batu’s invasion), the princes in Novgorod still had real executive power: the prince’s competence included approval of judicial acts, land and property transactions, documents regulating trade conflicts. But at the end of the 13th century, these issues were removed from the prince’s jurisdiction in favor of republican legal proceedings171. From that time on, the suzerainty of the great princes over Novgorod was largely nominal.
In the 14th century, relations with Lithuania began to play an important role in the politics of Novgorod. I.B. Grekov believed that the rulers of Veliky Novgorod in this century constantly maneuvered between the great Principality of Vladimir and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, inviting either the Lithuanian princes or the “Moscow-Vladimir” princes172. However, it is unlawful to equate the relations of Novgorod with North-Eastern Rus' and Lithuania. The Lithuanian princes who came to Novgorod in the 14th century did not occupy the Novgorod princely table: they were given certain territories by the Novgorod boyar government to “feed” so that they would defend these lands from the Order and Sweden173. When Prince Narimant Gediminovich came to Novgorod in 1333, “I gave him Ladoga, and Or-khovy, and Kor-Llsky and Norilsk lands, and half of Koporya (all these lands bordering the Swedish and order possessions - A.G.) in his father’s name.” both in dkdnu and its dtemta”174. Soon Narimant left Novgorod175. In 1379, his son Yuri176 arrived there and received, apparently, the same volosts. In 1383, Prince Patricy Narimantovich appeared in Novgorod, “and gave him feeding: Or"khov city, Korkla city, and half of Koporye city and Luskoye village”177, i.e. lands of the same region; next year the Novgorod government gave Patrikiy Rus and Ladoga instead of Orekhovoy and Korelsky.178 In 1386, Patricy participated in the defense of Novgorod from the troops of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich.179 In 1389-1392, Prince Semyon (Lugven) Olgerdovich stayed in Novgorod.180 When he appears here again in 1407, “the Novgorodians gave him the suburbs, which were already behind him”181, i.e. Semyon sat not in Novgorod itself, but in the “suburbs” - cities under Novgorodian rule.
Relations with the princes of North-Eastern Rus' were different. The Grand Duke of Vladimir, as the overlord of the Novgorod Republic, had the right to keep his governors in its capital itself. The grand ducal “vicars” in Novgorod are mentioned in the Novgorod chronicle of the 14th century. under 1304, 1312, 1314, 1315, 1316 (deputies of Mikhail Tver), 1327, 1333, 1339. (deputies of Ivan Kalita), 1342 (deputy of Semyon Ivanovich Boris), 1348
(deputies of Semyon Ivanovich), 1360 (deputies of Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal, who was at that time the Grand Duke of Vladimir), 1367 (deputy of Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow), 1375 (deputy of Dmitry Ivanovich Ivan IIrokshinich), 1386 (deputies of Dmitry Ivanovich , sent to Novgorod after the conclusion of peace)182. The Grand Duke's governors also appear in the treaty documents between Novgorod and the Germans in 1338, 1342, 1370/71, 1371 and 1372. (moreover, the viceroy is placed in the texts of the treaties before the mayor and the thousand - the highest officials of the Novgorod Republic; only the archbishop is mentioned before the “viceroy of the Grand Duke”)183.
Of course, the ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania considered the Novgorod land as an object of their possible expansion, and the Novgorod elite could see in Lithuania a counterweight to the Grand Dukes of Vladimir during conflicts with them (it was not for nothing that the appearance of serving Lithuanian princes in Novgorod coincided with conflicts with the Vladimir Grand Dukes) 184. But these conflicts did not call into question the close political connection of Novgorod with North-Eastern Russia. The Novgorod government could clash with the Grand Duke on specific political issues185, it could even prefer some contenders for the Grand Duke’s table over others18®, but the suzerainty of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir over Novgorod was questioned was not installed. The list of Novgorod princes in the 14th century names (and therefore considers Novgorod princes) only the princes who occupied (consistently) the grand-ducal Vladimir table: Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky, Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky, Dmitry Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Ivan Danilovich Kalita, Semyon Ivanovich, Ivan Ivanovich, Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdalsky, Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy, Vasily Dmitrievich187.
In the 14th century, only once, around 1398, in conditions of a particularly acute conflict with Moscow over the Dvina land188, the Novgorod government apparently decided to recognize the suzerainty over Novgorod of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas, but quickly abandoned such a step, as can be seen from the letter , sent by Vitovt to Novgorod in 1399. “Prince Vitovt Litovsky and Kestutyevich arrived in Novgorod with a significant letter, saying: “promised
“It was natural for me that you would fight for me, and I would be a great prince for you, and I would fight for you, and you did not give in for me; and the Novgorodians! Prince Vitovt received a letter of honor from himself! And , t.s. did not recognize his claims.
The different attitude of Novgorod towards the great principalities of Vladimir and Lithuania is also visible in the title of their rulers, used in the Novgorod chronicles. The Vladimir princes XIV were restored again: from the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. direct news appears about the receipt of prince-vicars by the Pskovites from Grand Duke Vasily Dmitrievich of Moscow199.
Novgorod's possessions were located in the north-west of Russian lands (from the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipsi in the west to the foothills of the Urals in the east; from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the source of the Volga in the south).
The Novgorod land was characterized by unfavorable climatic conditions, infertile soils, swamps, and huge forests.
The specifics of the geographical location largely determined the characteristics of the Novgorod economy. Here were the most important trade routes of Eastern Europe: the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”; another way is through the river network to Volga Bulgaria, Khazaria and other countries of the East. All this contributed to the active development of foreign trade.
The special position of Novgorod within Kievan Rus was determined by the fact that it was from here that the Rurik dynasty came. From the 9th century A tradition developed according to which the Grand Duke of Kiev, as the Novgorod governor, planted his eldest son in Novgorod, which ensured Kyiv’s control over the functioning of the most important trade artery.
During the time of Vladimir the Saint? from the tribute that came annually from the Novgorod territories went to Kyiv. Yaroslav Vladimirovich was the first to refuse to comply with this demand. From then on, the tribute collected from the subject territories began to remain in Novgorod and was used to support the prince and his administration.
In the 11th century The children of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich alternately visited the Novgorod table. But none of them created their own dynasty here. Longest at the turn of the 11th–12th centuries. Representatives of the princely house of Vsevolod Yaroslavich were in Novgorod. Thus, from 1097 to 1117 Mstislav the Great ruled in Novgorod.
After twenty years of his stay in the north-west, Mstislav Vladimirovich left for Southern Rus' in 1117, leaving his eldest son in Novgorod Vsevolod Mstislavich(1117–1136).
However, the princely dynasty in the Novgorod land never developed. This was facilitated events of the late XI - first half of the XII centuries.
After the death of his father in 1132, Vsevolod Mstislavich, at the request of his uncle, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Yaropolk Vladimirovich, went to the Pereyaslavl table. Pereyaslavl was then considered as the last step in the ascension to the Grand Duke's table. Therefore, Mstislav Vladimirovich’s younger brothers Yuri (Dolgoruky) and Andrei became worried, thinking that the childless Prince Yaropolk Vladimirovich intended his eldest nephew Vsevolod Mstislavich to take his place. A conflict occurred, as a result of which their father’s brothers, Yuri and Andrey, expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich, who had to return to the abandoned Novgorod table.
After the prince left, a veche was convened in Novgorod. The Novgorodians decided to expel the prince from the city for breaking his oath, but then nevertheless returned him to the Novgorod table. After this conflict, Vsevolod Mstislavich spent about 4 years in Novgorod. And in 1136 the situation repeated itself. Again, the Novgorodians, Pskovians and Ladoga residents gathered at a meeting in Novgorod and decided to expel the prince from the city. He was reminded of his past guilt, and also added new claims: he did not care about the population subject to tribute; was not distinguished by courage and bravery during two military campaigns against Suzdal (1134-1135).
In Novgorod, the principle of “liberty in princes” prevailed, acting according to which the Novgorodians invited at their own discretion candidates for the princely throne. Thus, conditions arose for the development of a unique political structure of the Novgorod land, which in the scientific literature received the name “Novgorod Republic”.
A major role in shaping the characteristics of the Novgorod land was played by the local boyars, who were financially independent.
The highest authority in Novgorod became veche, at which representatives of the executive branch were elected, the candidacy of the prince was considered, and the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy were resolved. Until now, there is no consensus among researchers about the composition of its participants: whether they were all free male residents of the city or only the owners of estates. Some believe that the veche was nominally a meeting of the owners of these urban boyar estates (no more than 500 people), who ruled the city and the entire land. Other researchers believe that Novgorod was a territorial community with the features of a pre-feudal democracy. At that time, all free members of this community were participants in veche meetings, regardless of their social affiliation.
The main official in the Novgorod administration was mayor;since the 80s XI century The position of Novgorod mayor was separated from the princely power and began to exist parallel to it. At first, posadniks were representatives of the Kyiv boyar aristocracy, appointed by the Kyiv Grand Duke. And from the second quarter of the 12th century. Novgorod boyars began to be elected to this position at the assembly. The mayor stood at the head of the Novgorod government, presided over the assembly, and was in charge of the citywide court and administration. In fact, representatives of several boyar families were elected mayors.
The second important person in city government was thousand. He headed the city militia, was in charge of tax collection and the commercial court. Since 1156, the post of Novgorod governor also belonged to the elective institutions bishop(since 1165 - archbishop). The Novgorod ruler managed the treasury, controlled foreign policy relations and the disposal of the land fund, and was the keeper of the standards of measures and weights.
Chosen at the meeting and invited to the city prince led the Novgorod army. His squad maintained public order in the city. He performed representative functions in other principalities and was a symbol of the unity of the Novgorod lands. But the position of the Novgorod prince was unstable, since his fate very often depended on the decision of the veche assembly. From 1095 to 1304 On the Novgorod table, the princes changed at least 58 times.
Thus, in the Novgorod form of government one can notice three main elements: monarchical, republican and aristocratic. At the same time, it was the latter that prevailed.
