The company's capital is active and passive. Concept, essence, types of capital of an economic entity

Question. Define capital.

Answer. Any organization operating separately from others, conducting production or other commercial activities, must have a certain capital, representing a set of material assets and funds, financial investments and costs for the acquisition of rights and privileges necessary for the implementation of its economic activities.

In accounting, capital is conventionally divided into active capital, i.e. acting (functioning) in the form of property and liabilities, and passive capital, reflecting the sources of formation and payment of operating capital. Despite the different accounting procedures for active and passive capital, they represent a unity and are different characteristics of the total capital that ensures the economic activity of the organization.

Question. What is the circulation of capital?

Answer. In the process of economic activity, there is a constant turnover of capital: capital changes its monetary form to a material one, which again turns into cash. The circulation of capital is reflected in accounting. An example of such a circuit is reflected in table. 1.

Rice. 1. Circulation of capital

Table 1
CIRCULATION OF CAPITAL

* Previous income shown

The circulation of capital is carried out as if separately - separately for debit accounts and separately for credit accounts. This is clearly represented in the diagram, where debit connections are shown in bold and credit connections are shown in thin lines. The same thing happens in reality.

Question. What is active capital?

Answer. Active capital consists of the property and liabilities of the organization, i.e. it includes what the given organization owns as a separate economic entity. Active capital is the value of all assets of the organization.

In relation to the turnover rate, they distinguish durable property, which has been in the organization’s circulation for more than a year, and property, intended for current (one-time) use in the process of economic activity or organizations in circulation for no more than one year. A one-year period as a boundary separating the second type of property from immobilized property, i.e. intended for longer use, is consistent with the reporting period, which is taken to be a full calendar year from January 1 to December 31 inclusive. However, these dates may not coincide calendar-wise. The cost of bonds purchased in September with a maturity date of May 25 of the following year should be attributed to property in current circulation. If the maturity date was September 25 of the following year, we would have to classify them as non-current property. Thus, the active capital of an enterprise is divided into fixed (long-term) capital and working (current) capital.

In turn, in main capital includes fixed assets, intangible assets, long-term financial investments.

Fixed assets – This is the value of the totality of movable and immovable property located in a given organization for a long time. Fixed assets leased with the right of subsequent purchase or at the end of the lease under the terms of the agreement become the property of the lessee, are accounted for in the same way as own fixed assets.

Fixed capital includes costs for unfinished capital investments in fixed assets and for the purchase of equipment not installed in the reporting period. These costs represent that part of the costs for the acquisition and construction of fixed assets that have not yet become fixed assets, cannot participate in the process of economic activity, and therefore should not be subject to depreciation. They are accounted for separately from fixed assets on separate accounting accounts: “Capital investments”, “Equipment for installation”. But these costs have already been withdrawn from working capital, the amount of working capital has decreased by their amount, therefore, they are classified as fixed capital.

Intangible assets – these are the long-term costs of an organization for the acquisition of the right to use land plots, natural resources, intellectual property, copyrights, the acquisition of various licenses and other privileged rights. This takes into account the costs of brands, trademarks, "firm price" and other similar costs.

Rice. 2. Components of fixed and working capital

The cost of some types of intangible assets is also repaid through monthly depreciation charges, included in production and distribution costs. Thus, part of the value immobilized in intangible assets is returned to working capital in cash, ready for further use in the organization’s new capital turnover cycle.

Long-term financial investments include costs for equity participation in the authorized capital of other organizations, for the acquisition of shares and bonds on a long-term basis. Financial investments also include long-term loans issued to other organizations against debt obligations.

The costs of long-term financial investments are repaid in different ways, depending on their nature and type. For example, long-term loans are repaid within the terms established by the agreement. Shares and bonds can be sold at any time at the exchange rate to other organizations and the money spent will be fully returned to circulation.

Working capital has several components: tangible working capital, funds in current accounts, short-term financial investments, cash. Note that the elements of working capital are arranged in the diagram in order of increasing liquidity, or their ability to be converted into cash. The most difficult thing is to convert material resources into money; to do this, they need to be sold. Next come the funds in settlements that need to be collected from debtors, to return their money or valuables adequate to them. Financial investments turn into cash faster than other components of working capital.

TO material negotiable means include production inventories (purchased or extracted material resources intended for further processing in a given organization); finished products; goods. Intangible working capital also includes the organization's costs for creating backlogs of work in progress as a necessary condition for the technological cycle to continue production in future reporting periods. Work in progress is the most difficult part of working capital to sell.

Finished goods represent the actual costs of products ready for sale located in warehouses and other storage areas. Goods accumulate the costs of purchasing goods from other organizations for further resale or for completing products of their own production. Finished products and goods are the easiest to sell (liquid) part of material current assets, i.e. convertible into money or funds in settlements.

Funds in current settlements – these are the obligations of individuals and legal entities of the organization. With the exception of so-called bad debts, these are highly liquid funds. At the very least, they are converted into cash according to a predetermined payment schedule.

Financial investments – expenses of an organization for the acquisition of shares and bonds for a period of up to one year, short-term loans, including against bills of exchange, cash in time deposit accounts of banks, other financial investments invested to generate income in the form of interest, dividends or differences in the cost of securities upon their resale. Typically, short-term financial investments quickly turn into cash. They are even called “almost money”.

Cash – the amount of money on hand, in settlement, current and other bank accounts, money transfers, other cash ready for further circulation.

Question. What is passive capital?

Answer. Passive capital characterizes the sources of property (active capital) of a separate organization and includes equity and borrowed capital.

Equity organization, as a legal entity, is generally determined by the value of property owned by this organization.

The components of equity and debt capital are called the net assets of the organization. They are defined as the difference between the value of the property (active capital) and borrowed capital. Of course, equity capital has a complex structure; its composition depends on the legal form of the organization.

The organization's own capital consists of authorized, additional and reserve capital, retained earnings and target (special) funds.

Borrowed capital represents part of the value of the organization’s property acquired as part of the obligation to return money or valuables equivalent to the value of such property to the supplier or bank, or other lender. As part of borrowed capital, a distinction is made between short-term and long-term borrowed funds.

Long-term borrowed funds are loans and borrowings received by an organization for a period of more than a year, the repayment period of which occurs no earlier than in a year.

Short-term borrowed funds are obligations whose repayment period does not exceed one year. Among these funds, one should highlight current accounts payable, which arises as a result of commercial and other current settlement operations. This includes: arrears of wages to staff; debt to the budget and extra-budgetary funds for mandatory payments; advances received; advance payment of orders and products; debt to suppliers, etc.

Question. How is the authorized capital formed?

Answer. Authorized capital of a joint stock company is made up of the par value of the company's shares acquired by shareholders.

Promotion is a security that certifies the fact of contribution of a certain amount to the authorized capital of a joint-stock company, giving the right to participate in meetings of shareholders and receive a certain share in the form of dividends (income of the shareholder).

Shares are divided into ordinary (simple) And privileged. The latter can be issued no more than (by value) 10% of the established amount of the authorized capital. Preferred shares give the right to guaranteed income; dividends on them are paid no less than the established amount, usually as a percentage of their nominal value.

Owners of common (non-preferred) shares receive income from them depending on the results of economic activities and the decision of the meeting of shareholders on the amount of net profit allocated for the payment of dividends based on the results of a given reporting year.

The authorized capital of a joint stock company is formed during the time specified by the charter. Cash, intangible assets, including confidential intellectual property (know-how), fixed assets, and other tangible assets are accepted as payment. On account of your contribution to the authorized capital, you can transfer property for use to a joint-stock company (i.e. without transferring ownership). Property and other valuables accepted as deposits are valued by agreement of the parties.

The authorized capital is assessed at the par value of the acquired shares. The excess of the value of shares over their par value, the so-called constituent or issue income, is accounted for separately and is used to compensate for the difference resulting from the sale of shares at a cost below their par value. These funds are included in the additional capital created by the enterprise along with the authorized capital.

A joint stock company has the right to increase the size of its authorized capital by increasing the par value of shares or issuing additional shares.

The size of the authorized capital can be reduced by reducing the par value of the shares or by purchasing part of the shares in order to reduce their total number.

Rice. 3. Components of your own and
working capital

Question. How is the authorized capital accounted for?

Answer. The authorized capital of a joint stock company consists of funds contributed by shareholders (participants). It is the collective property of shareholders (participants) and at the same time the property of the joint-stock company as a legal entity. From this point of view, it acts as the equity fund of the joint-stock company. On the other hand, it is the property of each shareholder. Each person's share is determined by the value of the shares he owns.

The authorized capital of a newly created joint-stock company is formed from monetary and material resources provided by shareholders in payment for their block of shares in the amount of the registered authorized capital.

Fixed assets transferred by shareholders into the ownership of the joint-stock company are credited to the authorized capital (as payment for shares) at the initial (market) or residual value agreed with the board, but in the “Fixed Assets” account these items are stated at historical cost.

This operation is formalized by posting:

Debit account 01 “Fixed assets”,

Credit account 75 “Settlements with founders.”

This posting takes into account the cost of fixed assets.

Debit account 75 “Settlements with founders”,

Credit account 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets.”

table 2
SALE OF SHARES

This posting takes into account the amount of depreciation of transferred fixed assets.

This can be illustrated with an example.

Example: The joint stock company received 13,800 thousand rubles from the sale of its shares. with their declared nominal value of 12,500 thousand rubles. All shares were sold for non-cash funds. In accounting, this operation will be recorded, as shown in table. 2.

Question. How should reserve capital be accounted for?

Answer. The amount of reserve capital and the amount of mandatory contributions to it from net profit are determined by the charter of the joint-stock company. Contributions to the reserve capital cease after it reaches the value provided for by the registered charter.

The formation of other funds in joint-stock companies (list of funds, amounts of deductions, procedure for use) may be provided for in the charter or in the accounting policies of the joint-stock company. If this is not stipulated in the charter or accounting policies, then the creation of such funds is not necessary.

Reserve capital is reduced when funds from it are used to cover balance sheet losses of the reporting year and other legitimate purposes.

Reserve capital is created by business entities as a guarantee of increased liability for their obligations. In joint-stock companies and limited liability companies, the amount of actual profit received is reduced by the amount of reserve capital created.

Question. How is retained earnings accounted for?

Answer. retained earnings– net profit (or part thereof) not distributed in the form of dividends among shareholders (founders) and not used for other purposes. Typically, this part of the profit is used to accumulate the property of a business entity or replenish its working capital in the form of free cash, i.e. ready for a new turn at any moment. Retained earnings can increase from year to year, representing an increase in equity capital based on internal accumulation. Precisely internal, i.e. not brought in from outside, as in cases with authorized or additional capital. In this context, retained earnings are a close cousin of reserve capital. Retained earnings are the result of a deliberate decision of the owners, their voluntary refusal to distribute part of their net profit. In growing, developing joint stock companies, retained earnings over the years take a leading place among the components of equity capital. Its amount is often several times the size of the authorized capital.

Retained earnings of the reporting year are determined as the difference between the credit balance on the “Profit and Loss” account and the debit balance on the “Use of Profit” account. At the end of each reporting year, these accounts are closed by the final accounting entries, and the credit balance on the “Profit and Loss” account is transferred to subaccount No. 1 of the “Retained Earnings (Uncovered Loss)” account. In this case, make the following entries:

Credit account 99 “Profits and losses” (and account No. 99 is closed),

Debit account 99 "Profits and losses",

Credit account 84 “Retained earnings”, subaccount No. 84/2 (and account No. 99 is closed and has no balance).

Question. How are target (special) funds accounted for?

Answer. Target (special) funds are created at the expense of the net profit of a business entity and must serve for certain purposes in accordance with the charter or decision of shareholders and owners. All these funds are part of the net profit that belongs to them, and, in principle, are a type of retained earnings. In other words, this is retained earnings that have a strictly designated purpose. To account for all created special funds at the expense of profits, subaccounts No. 1, 3, 4, 5 of account No. 84 “Retained earnings” (uncovered loss) are used. Links

The use of the concepts of “movement” and “use” in relation to retained earnings should not be misleading. Retained earnings are not spent irrevocably. They constantly contact organizations, changing their form - from monetary to commodity and vice versa. At the same time, the total amount of assets does not change. As a rule, the balance in account 84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss)” can only increase, indicating the process of self-financing of the organization, the increase in its property compared to the amount of initial investments.

Typology of capital

trading capital Financial capital

Composition of the enterprise's fixed assets.

The means of labor and objects of labor on the balance sheet of the enterprise represent means of production. Fixed assets are the property of the enterprise.

Sources of property formation - monetary and material contributions from participants, income received from the implementation of construction and installation works, income from securities, bank loans, capital investments and subsidies from the budget.

Fixed production assets (FPF) are either directly involved in the process of creating construction products or create the conditions for implementation. OPF includes: machinery and equipment, power machines, vehicles, industrial buildings, construction machinery and mechanisms, generators, compressors, automobile and railway transport. OPF are divided into:

Active – working and power machines, vehicles, tools, equipment.

Passive – structures and buildings.

Active ones prevail over passive ones.

Own – on the balance sheet of the construction organization.

Attracted – taken for temporary use from another organization on a lease or provision of services basis.

Based on their use, OPFs are divided into:

Active - means of labor, they function during the construction process.

OPF can also include intangible assets: trademarks, patents, reputation, know-how.

Working capital: composition and sources of replenishment.

Composition of material working capital.

In production, objects of labor, which include raw materials, fuel, materials, act as working capital. Working capital participates in only one turnover, during which they are completely consumed and transfer their value completely to finished products. Working capital includes circulating production assets and circulation funds. TO working production assets include: production inventories (labor items to be launched into the production process), work in progress (unfinished construction products subject to further execution), deferred expenses (expenses that were incurred in a given period, but will be repaid in a future period).

Audit classification

§ Independent

§ State

§ Internal

By law:

§ Required- confirmation of the reliability of the reporting of an organization or individual entrepreneur, in cases established by the Federal Law “On Auditing Activities.

§ Initiative- audit conducted at the initiative of an economic entity

An audit may be mandatory or proactive. A mandatory audit is carried out in cases directly established by the legislation of the Russian Federation, an initiative audit is carried out by decision of an economic entity.

By frequency:

§ Initial - conducting an audit in an organization for the first time.

§ Repetitive

By purpose:

§ Financial

§ Operational

§ Compliance with legislation

§ Special (certification work)

§ Financial (accounting) reporting

§ Tax

§ Managerial

By direction:

§ Banking

§ Insurance organizations

§ Investment institutions, extra-budgetary funds

The company's capital: active and passive.

Typology of capital

Capital exists in both natural and value forms. Natural: investment goods, means of production that do not directly satisfy human needs. Distinguish trading capital – trade services for construction, industrial and agricultural production. The source of self-expansion is profit. Financial capital - money becomes a commodity. Self-expansion is carried out by banks appropriating the difference between the purchase and sale prices of money.

Capital formation is carried out at the expense of own funds and forms the basis of the enterprise's own capital. Also, construction enterprises can exist at the expense of borrowed funds, based on bank loans or loans from other organizations.

Enterprise capital is called the cost (monetary) valuation of all property owned by him. This means that in addition to the cost of machinery, equipment, structures, etc., the amount of the company’s capital include: the cost of other factors of production owned by the enterprise (land, patents, trademark, etc.). The amount of capital of a company is supplemented by the funds it has and their financial assets, which can be used at any time to replenish any factor of production.
Different elements of capital behave differently in the process of producing goods and services. If we take, for example, such a part of capital as raw materials, then their participation in the creation of new goods is fleeting, that is, if they enter the processing process, they immediately change their form: from material they turn into a finished product. At the same time, the machine that participated in the transformation of raw materials into finished products remains the same and in the subsequent repeating production cycle remains the same machine, and so on for a long time.

In this regard, the capital of a company or enterprise is divided into:

Working capital is the first part of capital, which includes raw materials, materials and similar other elements of capital;

And the main one is the second part of the capital, which includes machinery, equipment, buildings, and structures.

To working capital include all current assets of the enterprise, namely: raw materials, materials, fuel, electricity, semi-finished products, and funds of the enterprise used for wages. The cost of working capital involved in the creation of a product forms the future price of the product and, after its sale, is returned to the enterprise to be used again.
Main capital, being the main component of the property of any company, always appears in such a material form as buildings, structures, structures, machines, machines, equipment, vehicles, everything with the help of which numerous production cycles are carried out. In our country, fixed capital is also commonly called fixed assets. When it comes to working and fixed capital, the criterion of time comes to the fore in characterizing the characteristics of these parts of the company’s capital.

Fixed capital, unlike working capital, not only functions for a longer time, but also has a high cost. This creates corresponding financial problems within the enterprise related to the renewal and acquisition of fixed assets. Since the cost of fixed assets is transferred to the newly created product in parts and for a long time in quantities equal to the wear and tear of the corresponding equipment in the form of depreciation charges, the problem of investment in new equipment is a special and complex issue in the development of production. This complexity is expressed in the fact that various kinds of new capital investments can be made either through internal savings (cost savings) or through external borrowings.

An important feature of working capital is that its elements are easily transformed into cash, quickly and without much difficulty changing their commodity form to cash - and vice versa. The money is used to purchase raw materials, materials and other components of working capital for subsequent processing and production of finished products, after the sale of which money is returned to the enterprise.

The cash equivalent of working capital is called working capital companies. The constant availability of a sufficient amount of working capital is one of the most important indicators of successful running of an ongoing business. Without working capital, further purchases of raw materials, supplies, electricity and other elements of working capital are impossible. The financial stability of the enterprise is also associated with the availability of a sufficient amount of working capital. Stably operating enterprises constantly keep a significant portion of their funds in the bank. This allows them to carry out current purchases and payments (own working capital). If there are not enough of them, then they, having open lines of credit in banks, acquire the necessary funds by obtaining a loan (borrowed working capital).

Equity is part of the value of an enterprise's assets that goes to its owners after satisfying the claims of third parties. The assessment of equity capital can be carried out formally (and in one of two ways: according to balance sheet estimates, i.e., according to current accounting and reporting data, or market estimates) or actually, i.e., in the event of liquidation of the enterprise.

In a certain sense, equity capital can be interpreted as an analogue of the long-term debt of an enterprise to its owners (this statement should not be taken literally, since the enterprise itself has no obligation to return funds to the owners; the latter can receive a certain equivalent of the funds they invested either through market mechanisms or after the liquidation of the enterprise ).

Formally equity presented in the liability side of the balance sheet in one gradation or another; its main components are authorized, additional and reserve capital , and retained earnings .

Borrowed capital there is a monetary valuation of funds provided to an enterprise on a long-term basis by third parties.

Unlike equity, borrowed capital: a) is subject to return, and the terms of return are agreed upon at the time of its mobilization; b) constant in the sense that, from the perspective of capital providers, the nominal value of the principal amount of the debt does not change (if a bank provided a long-term loan in the amount of $10 million, then this is the amount that will be returned; on the contrary, investing a similar amount in shares may, over time, time accompanied by both income and losses).

Formally borrowed capital presented in the liabilities side of the balance sheet as a set of long-term liabilities of the enterprise to third parties, and its main components are long-term loans and borrowings , including bonds.

In accordance with the accounting and analytical approach amount of capital is calculated as the sum of the results of Section III “Capital and Reserves” and IV “Long-Term Liabilities” of the balance sheet.

From the perspective of material representation, capital, like all other types of sources, is impersonal, that is, it is dispersed among various assets of the enterprise.

In this sense, the presence of own and borrowed capital in no case can be represented, for example, in such a way that part of the funds in the current account is own, and part is borrowed. All funds shown in the balance sheet assets, with the exception of financial leases, are the enterprise’s own funds, but they are financed from various sources.

65. Static and dynamic financial condition. Internal and external analysis of financial condition. Static and dynamic financial condition. The static financial condition of a commercial organization reflects the state of its assets, liabilities and equity capital at a certain point in time, and the dynamic financial condition (financial dynamics) reflects their movement over a certain time interval. Financial dynamics should be considered as a kind of connecting link between its static financial states at the beginning and end of the period, which is characterized by the financial flows of a commercial organization. Turning to the content and functions of managing the financial condition of a commercial organization, the authors showed that it is a component of its financial management and has a specific, dual system of functions inherent to it: from the position of finance - provisioning, distribution and control; from a management perspective - planning, organization, regulation, motivation, control, as well as accounting and financial analysis. At the same time, in the long term, effective management of the financial condition of a commercial organization . Internal and external analysis of financial condition. In addition, the analysis of financial condition is divided into internal and external. Internal analysis of financial condition is aimed at studying the state and movement of financial resources of a commercial organization, determining the internal rating of financial condition, identifying financial reserves and, ultimately, ensuring effective liquidity management of a commercial organization. Its information base is financial statements and financial accounting data of a commercial organization. The users of information from internal analysis of financial condition are the administration of a commercial organization and the owners. External analysis of financial condition is aimed at determining an external rating of the financial condition of a commercial organization, assessing its financial stability, solvency and reliability, thereby reducing the degree of risk of interaction between this commercial organization and its counterparties. Its information base is the financial statements of a commercial organization. Users of information from external analysis of financial condition are divided into two groups: users with direct financial interest, explained by the desire to make a profit on the financial resources invested or expected to be invested in a commercial organization, which include existing and possible creditors and investors; users with indirect financial interest, i.e. those who do not have such close monetary relations with a commercial organization: tax authorities, financial authorities, statistical authorities, employees of the organization, trade unions, buyers, local authorities, etc.

66. Financial risks and their classification. Factors influencing financial risks, ways to reduce financial risk. Lending and insurance of financial risks. Financial risks and their classification. Financial risk arises in the process of relations between companies and financial institutions (banks, financial, investment, insurance companies, stock exchanges, etc.). The reasons for financial risk are inflation factors, an increase in bank discount rates, a decrease in the value of securities, etc. Financial risks are divided into two types: 1) risks associated with the purchasing power of money; 2) risks associated with the investment of capital (investment risks). The risks associated with the purchasing power of money include the following. types of risks: inflation and deflation risks, currency risks, liquidity risk. Inflation means the depreciation of money and, accordingly, an increase in prices. Deflation is the reverse process of inflation, it is expressed in a decrease in prices and, accordingly, in an increase in the purchasing power of money. Inflation risk is the risk that when inflation rises, the received monetary income depreciates in terms of real purchasing power faster than it grows. In such conditions, the entrepreneur suffers real losses. Deflationary risk is the risk that with an increase in deflation there is a fall in the price level, a deterioration in the economic conditions of the business and a decrease in income. Currency risks are the danger of foreign exchange losses associated with changes in the exchange rate of one foreign currency currency in relation to another when conducting foreign economic, credit and other currency transactions. Liquidity risks are risks associated with the possibility of losses when selling securities or other goods due to changes in the assessment of their quality and use value. Factors influencing financial risks, ways to reduce financial risk. After identifying possible financial risks, cat. may face a company in the process of carrying out financial activities, after determining the factors that influence the level of risk and risk assessment, as well as identifying the potential losses associated with them, the business firm is faced with the task of developing a minimization of financial risks. Thus, the risk specialist must decide on the choice of the most acceptable ways to neutralize financial risks, and then choose the most acceptable method of reducing risk. Risk reduction is a reduction in the likelihood and volume of losses. Various techniques are used to reduce the risk. The most common phenomena: - Risk avoidance; This is the simplest and most radical direction of neutralizing financial risks. It allows you to completely avoid potential losses associated with financial risks, but, on the other hand, does not allow you to make a profit associated with a risky activity. In addition, avoiding financial risk may simply be impossible; moreover, avoiding one type of risk may lead to the emergence of others. Therefore, as a rule, this method is applicable only in relation to very large risks. - Taking on the risk; The main task of the company is to find sources of necessary resources to cover possible losses. In this case, losses are covered from any resources remaining after the onset of financial risk and, as a consequence, loss. If the remaining resources of the firm are insufficient, this may lead to a reduction in business volumes.- Risk transfer; In modern practice, financial risk management is carried out as follows. main directions. 1. Transfer of risks by concluding a factoring agreement. The subject of the transfer in this case is: credit risk of a company, cat. its predominant share is transferred to a bank or a specialized factoring company, which allows the company to significantly neutralize the negative financial consequences of credit risk. 2. Transfer of risk by concluding a surety agreement. Russian law provides for the possibility of concluding a surety agreement, cat. defined by Art. 361 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. By virtue of the contract, the guarantor undertakes to be responsible to the third party creditor for the latter’s fulfillment of his obligation in whole or in part. In case of non-fulfillment or improper fulfillment by the debtor of the obligation secured by the guarantee, the guarantor and the debtor are jointly and severally liable to the creditor. 3. Transfer of risks to suppliers of raw materials and supplies. The subject of transfer in this case is primarily financial risks associated with damage or loss of property during transportation and loading and unloading operations. 4. Transfer of risks by concluding exchange transactions. This method of risk transfer is carried out by hedging and will be discussed further as an independent method of neutralizing financial risks. - Risk insurance; This is insurance that provides for the insurer's obligations for insurance payments in the amount of full or partial compensation for losses of income of a person in favor of the company. an insurance contract was concluded, caused by the trace. events: - stop or reduction in the volume of production as a result of events specified in the contract; - bankruptcy; - Unexpected expenses; - non-fulfillment (improper fulfillment) of contractual obligations by the counterparty of the insured person who is with the creditor in the transaction; - legal expenses incurred by the insured person; other events. Thus, the list of events that can lead to financial damage, against the risk of which you can insure, is quite wide. Financial risk insurance refers to property insurance. In some cases, financial risk insurance is included in the property insurance contract; in this case, the insurance company compensates the policyholder not only for the damage caused to the insured property, but also for the profit not received due to the interruption of production (as a result of the insured event). - Risk pooling; This is another way to minimize or neutralize financial risks. The company has the opportunity to reduce the level of its own risk by involving others in the decision. problems as partners of other enterprises and even individuals interested in the success of the common business. For this purpose, joint-stock companies, financial and industrial groups can be created; enterprises can acquire or exchange shares of each other, join various consortiums, associations, and concerns. - Diversification; is the process of distributing capital between various investment objects, cat. are not directly related to each other. Diversification allows you to avoid some of the risk when distributing capital among various types of activities. For example, an investor purchasing shares of five different joint-stock companies instead of shares of one company increases the probability of receiving an average income by five times and, accordingly, reduces the degree of risk by five times. Diversification is the most reasonable and relatively less costly way to reduce the degree of financial risk. - Hedging; a system for concluding futures contracts and transactions that takes into account probable future changes in exchange rates and pursues the goal of avoiding the adverse consequences of these changes.” - Use of internal financial standards; A company can also minimize financial risks by establishing and using internal financial standards in the process of developing a program for carrying out certain financial transactions or the financial activities of the company as a whole. The system of internal financial standards may include: - the maximum amount of borrowed funds used in the production and economic activities of the company; - the maximum size of a commercial or consumer loan provided to one buyer; - the minimum amount of assets in highly liquid form; - the maximum size of a deposit placed in one bank; - the maximum amount of funds, spent on the purchase of securities of one issuer, etc. Since these standards are internal, they should be developed by the financial service of the company itself, which knows the features of financial and production activities better than anyone else. - Other methods. Lending and insurance of financial risks. In the simplest view of credit risk, it represents the risk of failure by a debtor or counterparty to a transaction to fulfill its obligations to the organization, i.e. the risk of default by a debtor or counterparty. Within the framework of this definition, the carriers of credit risk are, first of all, transactions of direct and indirect lending (direct risk) and transactions of purchase/sale of assets without prepayment from the counterparty and guarantees of settlements from third parties (settlement risk). A broader idea of ​​credit risk defines it as the risk of losses associated with the deterioration of the condition of the debtor, counterparty to the transaction, or issuer of securities. The deterioration of the condition (rating) is understood as a deterioration in the financial condition of the debtor, as well as a deterioration in business reputation, position among competitors in the region, industry, a decrease in the ability to successfully complete a specific project, etc., i.e. all factors that can affect the debtor's solvency. Losses in this case can also be direct - non-repayment of a loan, non-delivery of funds, or indirect - a decrease in the value of the issuer's securities (for example, bills), the need to increase the volume of loan reserves, etc. Accordingly, with a broader interpretation of credit risk, the carriers of credit risk are not only loans, but also corporate securities (stocks, bonds, bills) and other financial instruments, the payer for which cannot be considered as absolutely reliable. It should be noted that although the source of credit risk Whether it is a debtor, counterparty or issuer, this risk is associated primarily with the specific operations carried out by the organization. Thus, the same debtor, for internal reasons, may refuse to repay the loan on time, but regularly make payments on bills of exchange. Financial risk insurance is insurance that provides for the insurer’s obligations for insurance payments in the amount of full or partial compensation for loss of income (additional expenses) of the person in whose favor an insurance contract is concluded, caused by the following events: - stop or reduction in the volume of production as a result of events specified in the contract; - bankruptcy; - unforeseen expenses; - non-fulfillment (improper performance) of contractual obligations by the counterparty of the insured person who is the creditor in the transaction;- legal expenses incurred by the insured person; other events. Thus, the list of events that can lead to financial damage, against the risk of which you can insure, is quite wide. Financial risk insurance refers to property insurance. In some cases, financial risk insurance is included in the property insurance contract; in this case, the insurance company compensates the policyholder not only for the damage caused to the insured property, but also for the profit not received due to the interruption of production (as a result of the insured event).

67. Structure and elements of the international financial and credit system. International financial and credit organizations, their functions and main areas of activity. Structure and elements of the international financial and credit system. Elements of the international monetary system can be divided into three groups: 1. Currency elements: national currencies and international units of account; conditions for mutual convertibility and circulation of national currencies; currency parity; exchange rate; national and international mechanisms for regulating exchange rates. 2. Financial elements: international monetary and financial markets; instruments of international monetary and financial markets and mechanisms for trading these instruments.3. International payments servicing the movement of goods, factors of production and financial instruments. This is a relatively independent group, which, however, is of great importance in the system of monetary relations. The main element of the international monetary system is the national currency. International financial and credit organizations, their functions and main areas of activity. IFCOs were created on the basis of interstate agreements. They are designed to regulate international economic relations. These include: IMF, Bank for International Settlements (BIS), World Bank, regional development banks, European Bank for Reconstruction, European Central Bank. The IMF is the main interstate body regulating global monetary and credit relations. The IMF has the status of a specialized agency of the UN. It was established at the UN Brettenwoods Conference in 1944. In 1946 it began to function. IMF members are 184 countries. Russia - since 1992. The goals of creating the IMF: Regulation of monetary and credit relations of member countries. Providing them with financial assistance. Promoting balanced growth of international trade. Abolition of foreign exchange restrictions. Interstate currency regulation by monitoring compliance with the principles of the global monetary system. Main activities: regulates international monetary relations, creating international liquid assets in the form of SDRs, regulating the exchange rate regime and obtaining from member countries the removal of currency restrictions. regulates international credit relations by: providing loans to IMF members, through providing intermediary services to lenders and borrowers , acting as a guarantor of the debtor country's solvency. constant supervision over: macroeconomic and monetary policies of members, the state of the world economy.

68. The concepts of “personnel”, “personnel”, “human resources”. Personnel as an object of research and diagnostics, its specificity. Personnel classification. The concepts of “personnel”, “personnel”, “human resources”. Personnel is a socio-economic category that characterizes the human resources of an enterprise, region, and country. In contrast to labor resources, which unite the entire working population of the country (both employed and potential workers), the concept of “personnel” includes the permanent (regular) composition of workers, i.e. able-bodied citizens who are in labor relations with various bodies. Personnel is the entire personnel of an institution, its members, organs, or part of this composition, representing a group based on professional or other characteristics (for example, service personnel). In other words, the main characterizing components of the concept of “personnel”—constancy and qualifications of workers—are not included in the concept of “personnel.” mandatory. Personnel are permanent and temporary workers, representatives of skilled and unskilled labor. Human resources are a set of various qualities of people that determine their ability to work to produce material and spiritual goods, and so on. a general indicator of the human factor in the development of social production. Personnel as an object of research and diagnostics, its specificity. 3. Personnel as an object of study. Personnel - personnel of an agency, employed and possessing certain characteristics: - qualifications - competence - abilities - attitudes . The main one is the cat. yavl. existence of an employment relationship with the employer. The most important management resource. Personnel can be classified in several areas: A) Primary workers (directly implement production technologies) and auxiliary workers (assist the main production). B) Managerial workers (professionals, specialists, chief specialists, 1st manager...). C) Technical performers ( sometimes there is no higher education).D) Service personnel.E) By gender (men and women).E) By experienceE) By qualification. The personnel management service is the office work of hiring and firing, the personnel department, planning and forecasting, selection, adaptation, career formation, organization of everyday life and recreation, labor regulation, technical training. Specifics of personnel as an object of management The basis of the enterprise as a socio-technical system of phenomena. material and personnel components, the common thing between them is that both of them are resources for enterprises. However, unlike other types of resources, human resources have specifics that determine their special place and role in the enterprise management system -m. These features include, first of all, orientation and self-organization. Enterprise personnel as an object of management are characterized by cognitive, tactical and evaluative orientations. Cognitive (cognitive) orientation is the ability of personnel (both teams and individuals) to isolate individual objects from the environment, distinguishing and classifying them by location, properties, etc.; Cathectic orientation is the ability to distinguish objects that have a positive or positive effect for personnel negative value in terms of satisfying his needs. Evaluative orientation is the ability of personnel to make further selection and comparative assessment among cognitively and cathetically assessed objects in terms of the priority of satisfying certain of their needs. Personnel classification. Personnel – personnel of an organization who work for hire and have certain characteristics: - qualifications - competence - abilities - attitudes The main one is cat. I mean the existence of an employment relationship with the employer. The most important management resource. Personnel can be classified in several areas: A) Primary (directly implementing production technologies) and auxiliary workers (assisting the main production). B) Managerial employees (professionals, specialists, chief specialists, first manager...). C) Technical performers (sometimes there is no higher education). D) Service personnel. E) By gender (men and women). E) By experience E) By qualification. The personnel management service is the office work of hiring and firing, the personnel department, planning and forecasting, selection, adaptation, career formation, organization of everyday life and recreation, labor regulation, technical training.

69. The purpose and objectives of the personnel management system at the enterprise. Principles and methods of constructing a personnel management system . The purpose and objectives of the personnel management system at the enterprise. Goals and objectives of the personnel management system. The entire set of enterprise goals can be divided into four types or blocks: economic, scientific and technical, industrial and commercial and social. The economic goal is to obtain an estimated amount of profit from the sale of products or services; scientific and technical goal - ensuring the given scientific and technical level of products and developments, as well as increasing labor productivity by improving technology; production-commercial goal - production and sale of products and services in a given volume and with a given rhythm. social goal - achieving a given degree of satisfaction of the social needs of work. The following main tasks of production personnel management can be identified: creation of a viable personnel management system for the organization; development of a long-term plan for working with personnel; development of a short-term (operational) plan for working with personnel; determining the organization's personnel needs quantitatively and qualitatively. Principles and methods of constructing a personnel management system. There are two groups of principles for constructing a personnel management system in: organ-and: principles that characterize the requirements for the formation of a personnel management system, and principles that determine the direction of development of the personnel management system. Let us reveal the essence of some of the methods. System analysis serves as a methodological tool for a systematic approach to: solving problems of improving the personnel management system. The systems approach orients the researcher to the study of the personnel management system as a whole and its components: goals, functions, organ structure, personnel. The decomposition method allows you to break down complex phenomena into simpler ones. The simpler the elements, the more complete the penetration into the depths of phenomena. and defining its essence. For example, a personnel management system can be divided into subsystems, subsystems into functions, functions into procedures, procedures into operations. The method of sequential substitution allows us to study the influence on the formation of the personnel management system of each factor separately, under the influence of cats. her condition developed, eliminating the actions of other factors. The factors are ranked and the most significant ones are selected. The comparison method allows you to compare the existing personnel management system with a similar system of an advanced body, with the standard state or the state in the past period. The dynamic method involves the arrangement of data in a dynamic series and the exclusion of random deviations from it. Then the series reflects stable trends. This method is used in the study of quantitative indicators characterizing the personnel management system. The method of structuring goals provides for quantitative and qualitative justification of the goals of the body in general and the goals of the personnel management system in terms of their compliance with the goals of the body. The expert-analytical method of improving personnel management is based on the involvement of highly qualified personnel management specialists and management personnel in preparation for this process. When using the method, it is very important to develop forms of systematization, recording and clear presentation of expert opinions and conclusions. The principal component method allows you to reflect the properties of dozens of indicators in one indicator (component). This makes it possible to compare not many indicators of one personnel management system with many indicators of another similar system, but only one. The balance sheet method allows for balance sheet comparisons and linkages.

70. Analysis of staffing. Basic methods of analyzing human resources, principles of its implementation. Indicators of quantitative Analysis of staffing levels. Analysis of staffing levels begins with a study of the structure and composition of personnel. Employees of an industrial enterprise are divided into two groups: industrial-production personnel and non-industrial personnel. The first group includes workers directly involved in the production process or serving it (workers, specialists, administrative and managerial personnel). The second group includes workers who are not directly related to the main activity of the economic entity and create normal conditions for the reproduction of the labor force of industrial production personnel (workers of housing and communal services, children's institutions, cultural and public service enterprises). The structure of the personnel depends on the characteristics of production. -va; product ranges; production specializations; scale of production. The share of each category of workers changes with the development of equipment, technology, organs and production. An increase in the organizational and technical level of production leads to a relative reduction in the number of employees and an increase in the share of workers in the total number of employees. By comparing the actual number of personnel with the need for labor (planned number) and the number of personnel in the previous period as a whole for the economic entity, by personnel groups (industrial, non-industrial), by categories of workers, the security of workers is determined, as well as the change in their number compared to labor demand and the previous period. By category of service personnel, the absolute deviation is determined and the reasons for the change in service personnel are identified. The lack of labor gives rise to deviations from established technology and unproductive payments. Excess labor leads to underutilization of workers, misuse of labor, and a decrease in labor productivity. Administrative and managerial personnel are analyzed for compliance with the actual level of education of each employee for the position held. The relevance of this analysis increases significantly in market conditions due to the fact that administrative personnel make decisions that determine the level of financial stability of an economic entity. Basic methods of analyzing human resources, principles of its implementation When studying human resources, the method of system analysis is widely used (decomposition method and sequential formulation method, comparison method and goal structuring method), expert-analytical method and principal components method, experimental method and collective notebook method. Closely related to the decomposition method is the method of sequential substitution, which allows, in particular, to study the influence of each factor separately on the functioning of personnel, excluding the influence of other factors. As a result, the factors are ranked and the most significant ones are selected. System analysis does not exclude the method of comparisons, cat. makes it possible, for example, to analyze personnel management taking into account the time factor, comparing the desired state of this subsystem in the future with the standard state or with that state in the past period. As a result, incomparability is eliminated and the possibilities for comparison are expanded. A necessary condition for system analysis is a method for structuring goals, which provides for quantitative and qualitative justification of the goals of the personnel management subsystem in terms of their compliance with the goals of the organization. This method covers the analysis of goals, their ranking and deployment into the system (building a “tree of goals”). Indicators of quantitative personnel requirements. Quantitative need for personnel is the need for the number of personnel determined by planned calculations for the entire organization and its individual divisions, according to individual criteria of qualitative needs (for example, the number of workers in a certain profession). Selection of personnel, its methods and methods, is entirely based on assessment quantitative needs of the body and personnel. There are several main methods for calculating quantitative personnel requirements. The main one is: a method based on the use of data on the time of the labor process. Data on the process time make it possible to calculate the number of piece workers or time workers, the number of which is determined by the labor intensity of the process. Calculation method based on service standards (“unit-method”), showing the dependence of the calculated number on the number of machines, units and other objects being serviced. The calculation method based on jobs and headcount standards should be considered as a special case of using the service standards method, because and the required number of workers according to the number of jobs, and the number standards are established based on service standards. A specific case of applying the service norms method should be considered determining the number of managers through controllability norms. Indicators of quality staffing needs. Qualitative need for personnel - the need for categories, professions, specialties, level of qualification requirements for personnel. When calculating the qualitative need for personnel, one should proceed from: 1) the professional and qualification division of work recorded in the production and technological documentation, a non-working process; 2) requirements for positions and jobs set out in job descriptions or job descriptions; 3) the staffing table of the body and its divisions, where the composition of positions is recorded; 4) documentation regulating various organizational and management processes, highlighting the requirements for the professional and qualification composition of performers.

71. Indicators of the effectiveness of personnel management. Economical and social efficiency of personnel management. Factors that determine the effectiveness of personnel management . Indicators of effect and personnel management. In order for the company not to be like a car that breaks down at the most inopportune moment, it is necessary to take into account three types of indicators, according to the cat. you can evaluate her work. The first type of display, monitoring, promptly signals a threat, warns of a potential or real danger. Pok-whether belonging to the second type, analytical, make it possible to accurately determine what the essence of the problem is. Taking into account indicators of the third type, target ones, it is possible to identify ways to solve the problem, that is, set a specific task and determine who is responsible for its solution. Economic and social impact of personnel management. The task of assessing the effectiveness of enterprise personnel management is to determine: 1) economic efficiency (the ability to achieve the goals of the enterprise's activities through better use of labor potential); The criteria for assessing the economic efficiency of personnel management of enterprises should reflect the effectiveness of labor or work activities of employees. Indicators for assessing the economic efficiency of enterprise personnel management: 1. The ratio of the costs required to provide the enterprise with qualified personnel and the results obtained from their activities. 2. The ratio of the budget of a business unit to the number of personnel of this unit. 3. Valuation of differences in labor productivity (determined by the difference in assessments of the labor results of the best and average workers who perform the same work). The data guides workers towards the fulfillment of planned targets, rational use of working time, improvement of labor and performance discipline and, mainly, aimed at improving the organization of work. 2) social efficiency (expresses the fulfillment of expectations and satisfaction of the needs and interests of the enterprise’s employees); The social effectiveness of personnel management is largely determined by the organization and motivation of work, the state of the socio-psychological climate in the work team, i.e. depends more on the forms and methods of working with each employee. Possibilities for assessing the social efficiency of personnel management of an enterprise: 1. The state of the moral and psychological climate in the workforce. This is a very important social indicator, cat. allows you to judge the motivation, needs and conflict levels in the work team. 2. Indicators, cat. the nature of the influence of social programs on the performance of workers and businesses in general (increasing labor productivity, improving the quality of goods, saving resources). Factors that determine the effectiveness of personnel management. Factors Content of factors Physiological - gender; - age; -health status; -mental capacity; - physical abilities, etc. Technical and technological: - nature of the tasks being solved; - complexity of work; - technical equipment; - level of use of scientific and technical achievements, etc. Structural and organizational: - working conditions; - ratio of the number of personnel categories; - volume of the enterprise; - working hours; - length of service; - qualifications of employees; -level of personnel utilization, etc. Socio-economic: -material incentives; -insurance; -social benefits; - standard of living, etc. Social and psychological: - moral climate in the team; - psychophysiological state of the employee; -status and recognition; - organizational culture of the company; -Gratitude; - prospects for promotion, etc. Territorial and situational: - location of the company; - time spent traveling from home to work; - level of competition; -inflation; - unemployment; -income differentiation; -corporation of enterprises, etc.

72. Goals, objectives, functions and principles of marketing The concept of the 4 “Ps” of marketing. The marketing mix (marketing mix, marketing mix, 4P concept) is a set of tools used in marketing to influence consumer demand. It includes four main elements of marketing. Element I. The product includes the following components: The product itself is a set of properties of a product, service or idea that is offered for sale. And here it is not so important what quality characteristics the product has. It is much more important what needs the purchaser has and how effectively it can satisfy it. A trademark is a symbol of a company or product, positioned in the minds of consumers. In marketing, this is an artificially created stereotype of the perception of a product, but not a logo approved in the manner prescribed by law. Packaging is a means of stimulating purchasers and contractors. In a brand, packaging is considered not so much as a means of ensuring the safety of goods, but as an additional incentive for the consumer to make a purchasing decision, a carrier of targeted appeal. Services are benefits or amenities offered for sale or provided in connection with the sale of a product. Here we are talking either about services as such (transport, consulting, repairs, etc.), or about services provided in connection with the sale of a product, but not directly related to it. Warranty - the degree to which a product meets its intended purpose. When purchasing a product, the buyer relies on its consumer properties. If expectations are not met, the brand ceases to be popular. Service - warranty service that satisfies consumers. In marketing, this is primarily a means of maintaining the image of a trademark and fighting for consumer preferences, and not solving organizational issues of repair. Example: corporate goods Element II. The price includes the following components: Pricing is the activity associated with setting the price of a product. Pricing is not done at random. There are certain patterns here: expensive goods require large promotional costs, and the price of cheap goods itself is an incentive for purchase. Much in pricing depends on the degree of segment saturation of the market, the activities of competitors and on the subjective perception of goods by consumers. Discount is a reduction in the asking price of a product in order to stimulate sales. The general principle here is: the cape comes first, and then the discount. In any case, the seller focuses on the base price, below the cat. he is not ready to sell, and the buyer is not ready to sell at the perceived price that he sees on the price tag. The main disadvantage of discounts is that buyers quickly get used to discounts, taking them for granted. Element III. Sales has two components. Sales channels (product flow, distribution) - the way, cat. goods pass from the supplier to the final consumer. The length of channels is determined by the number of intermediaries on the path of goods from supplier to consumer. Distribution channels usually correspond to specific segments of the consumer market. The task of marketing is to select, organize and monitor the effectiveness (throughput) of sales channels. The sales process is the actual movement of goods from the place of production to the place of consumption. This includes the terms of the contract: duration (one-time deal or long-term contract), delivery, payment (prepayment, deferred payment, consignment), batch size, delivery method (container, mail car, van, air). The goal of marketing is to optimally coordinate the interests of all participants in distribution channels to achieve maximum economic effect. The sales process is usually classified as marketing logistics. Element IV. Communications The “communications” or “promotion” element includes the following components. Advertising is a non-personal promotion of a product or service paid by the seller. Marketing does not include all advertising activities as a whole, but only the process of advertising promotion of a product on the market. The main thing here is not the advertising technology, but how it affects the display of product sales. Marketing deals with market analysis when developing an advertising campaign, planning it and monitoring its effectiveness. Personal (direct) selling - selling goods through personal communication between the seller and buyers. At a minimum, this implies a level of customer service. At the most, this is what we not entirely correctly call network marketing (food supplements, cosmetics). The task of marketing is to provide information for the process of interaction with customers. Propaganda is an activity aimed at creating a favorable image of a company or brand. The main difference between propaganda and advertising in marketing is that propaganda is aimed at promoting the image of a company, and advertising is aimed at promoting the image of a product. Sales promotion is any other activity aimed at stimulating the work of staff and contractors. This includes measures of moral and material incentives that increase the interest of participants in the product distribution system in sales results. The main goal of marketing is to ensure predictability of the results of the enterprise’s market activities, minimizing the uncertainty and risk associated with the acquisition, production or sale of goods. To achieve the main marketing goal, a strategic approach is used, within the framework of the cat. the following are being resolved. tasks. Linking current profitability with solving long-term problems. Forecasting future market changes. Alternative distribution of resources in priority areas. Formulation of the goals and objectives of marketing activities, fulfillment of the conditions for its implementation allow us to begin marketing planning. Marketing planning. Marketing planning implies the presence of two types of complementary documents: a marketing plan and a marketing program. A marketing plan is a document that defines marketing goals, objectives and main strategies for promoting products in the consumer market. It is advisory in nature and is included in the general work plan of the enterprise along with financial, production and other plans. The marketing program specifies the marketing plan and is a document that defines who, what, when, where and how does it and for what it bears personal responsibility to management. A marketing plan involves choosing a strategy and tactics for marketing activities. Marketing strategy is a set of marketing goals and objectives to increase the competitiveness of sales through determining the main parameters of the market offer. For example, if a brand is tasked with introducing a new product to the market, then the strategy will be associated with ensuring the uniqueness of the product in the eyes of consumers in one or more elements of the marketing mix (properties, price, distribution and promotion). Accordingly, it will include product, pricing, sales and communication strategies for product promotion. Marketing tactics are a set of activities aimed at ensuring the competitiveness of sales in the conditions of current market demand. The development of marketing tactics implies temporary, quantitative or qualitative criteria for assessing its effectiveness. For example, the introduction of a new product to the market can be assessed by the timing of completion of activities, sales volumes and market share. Tactics involve solving current problems that stand in the way of implementing a marketing strategy (through discounts, advertising, assortment, etc.) Any marketing plan is focused on maximum adaptation to market conditions and is adjusted depending on changes in market conditions. The most “advanced” companies consider marketing plans as the prototype and basis of the overall plan. Marketing planning involves the implementation of a number of fundamental principles. The principle of rolling planning - provides for the adjustment of planned displays depending on changes in market conditions. For example, a plan can be drawn up for 2-3 years, but adjustments are made annually as necessary. Therefore, marketing plans include the so-called financial and resource cushions - reserve funds in case of unforeseen circumstances. The principle of multivariance is the development of several options for a marketing plan at once (usually two options - the worst and the optimal). The optimal plan provides for the timely achievement of planned indicators. The worst-case plan is drawn up in case the planned events “do not work” and you have to play back. If the indicators are much better than planned, then the entire work of the company will have to be radically restructured. The principle of differentiation implies the reorientation of the brand to serve certain categories of customers selected on some basis. The fact is that goods (works, services) cannot satisfy absolutely all consumers at once. The differences between potential buyers are always too great (habits, lifestyle, needs, interests, etc.) It should be understood that marketing is inextricably linked not only with the sale of products, but also with their production. Marketing tasks include determining the characteristics of the product and the scale of production, as well as analyzing possible prospects for selling the product. In other words, marketing decisions precede production and investment decisions. Thus, modern marketing includes activities aimed at producing in-demand products and bringing all the company’s resources into line with the characteristics of the market to obtain maximum profits.

73.Marketing research process. Main directions of market research. Organization of market research. Sources of obtaining marketing information. The market research process consists of six stages. Stage 1 Define the problem. The first stage of any market research is to clarify the problem. When defining it, the marketer must take into account the purpose of the research, the relevant background information, what information is needed and how it will be used when making a decision. Defining the problem involves discussing it with decision makers, interviews with experts in the business, analyzing secondary data, and possibly conducting some qualitative research such as focus groups. Once the problem is clearly identified, a market plan can be developed. th research and begin its implementation. Stage 2 Develop a plan to solve the problem. Developing a plan to solve a problem includes the formulation of a theoretical research framework, analytical models, search questions, hypotheses, and identification of factors, cat. can influence the plan before finalization. This stage is characterized by the following actions: discussion with the management of the travel company and experts in the field, case studies and modeling, analysis of secondary data, qualitative research and pragmatic considerations. Stage 3 Development of a research plan. A market research plan details the procedures necessary to obtain the necessary information. It is necessary in order to develop a plan for testing hypotheses, identify possible answers to search questions and find out what information is needed to make a decision. Conducting exploratory research, precise definition of variables and definition of appropriate scales for their measurement - all this is also included in the plan of market research. It is necessary to determine how data should be obtained from respondents (for example, conducting a questionnaire or experiment). At the same time, it is necessary to create a questionnaire and sample observation plan specifically, the development of a marketing research plan consists of the following stages: 1) analysis of secondary information; 2) qualitative research; 3) collection of quantitative data (questionnaires, observations and experiments); 4) measurements and scaling methods; 5) development of a questionnaire; 6) determining the sample size and conducting sample observations; 7) data analysis plan. Stage 4 Field work or data collection. Data collection is carried out by field staff, working either in the field, as in the case of personal interviews (in the home, in places of shopping or by computer), or from the office by telephone (telephone or computer interviewing), either by mail (traditional mail and postal panel studies with pre-selected households), or by the power of electronic means (e-mail or the Internet). Proper selection, training, supervision and evaluation of field staff will minimize errors in data collection. Stage 5 Data preparation and analysis. Data preparation includes editing, coding, transcribing and checking data. Each questionnaire or observation form is checked or edited and, if necessary, corrected. Questionnaire data is transcribed or entered directly into the computer. Verification makes it possible to ensure that the data from the original questionnaires is transcribed accurately. Stage 6 Report preparation and presentation . The progress and results of market research must be presented in writing in the form of a report. specific research questions, the described research method and plan, procedures for data collection and analysis, results and conclusions are clearly identified. The findings should be presented in a form convenient for use when making management decisions In addition, the management The company should also make an oral presentation using tables, figures and charts to enhance the audience's understanding of the information. The main directions of market research are: 1) study of market capacity; 2) studied. potential and actual consumption; 3) studying the sales level of competitors; 4) conducting a comparative analysis of competitors’ products; 5) study of the distribution of market shares between firms; 6) product sales analysis; 7) analysis of advertising campaigns of competitors; 8) exploring the possibility of expanding the range of services offered; 9) studying the consumer’s reaction to the appearance of a new product; 10) analysis of pricing policy; 11) study of internal marketing; 12) long-term forecasting. When resorting to marketing research, company managers must be well acquainted with the technology and specifics of such research, so that in the future, when making decisions, they will not make mistakes based on unreliable information. Market research includes: 1) identifying problems and setting goals; 2) selection of sources of information (here the locations of the research are determined, research tools are selected, a plan is drawn up); 3) collection of information (using various market methods, the primary collection of information occurs); 4) conducting an analysis of the collected information (tables and graphs are compiled; information is processed using statistical methods; methods and methods for solving problems are formed); 5) presentation of the result of the work. The effectiveness of brand research is confirmed by the fact that new products appear on the market, in the sphere of production - new derivative processes, in the sphere of management - new organ systems. However, many companies still spend huge amounts of money on research and development. And the marketing service receives a ready-made new product with an order for its sale. The basic principles of market research are: next..1. Objectivity. 2. Accuracy. 3. Thoroughness. Thus, conducting market research is a complex set of activities aimed at studying an object in order to obtain information about it for further coordination of the activities of one’s company. Each company defines the functions of conducting market research differently: some allocate a special area for them; others have only one expert, cat. bears full responsibility; There are also those where the function of Mark’s research is not formally reproduced in the structure. The research mark area is formed on the basis of one of the traces. qualities: area of ​​use, marketing function and period of the learning process. Some organs serve the latter and intermediate consumers. In such companies, the market research area may contain two subdepartments: market research of initial consumers and market research of intermediate consumers. Other companies form marketing research sites based on product groups sold. Similar sections can be collected according to the stages of marketing research movement. The company may appoint one specialist who is responsible for market research. He conducts limited market research himself, but supporting management in exploring the need for such research is key. Conducted marketing research may not be formalized. Market research is carried out through constant communication with consumers and suppliers; information collected in this way is necessary to approve market decisions. Marking studies can be carried out independently by the authorities, or firms can use plans prepared in a consultative manner. The choice of method for conducting mark research is influenced by a number of circumstances: the cost of the study; availability of experts with the required qualifications and experience in conducting research; an absolute stock of knowledge of the technical qualities of food; objectivity; presence of special supplies. Conducting their own market research by employees of organs and yavl. the most optimal option for commercial enterprises. To conduct a market. research we need information acquired on the basis of primary and secondary data. Primary data come from field marketing research intentionally conducted to solve a specific marketing problem. They are collected through observations, surveys, and experimental studies, implemented in reality on the basis of the sample being studied. Under secondary data, used in conducting desk market research, accepts information previously compiled from internal and external sources for purposes other than those of market research. Secondary data is not discovered due to special market research. Secondary data, which the system of constant monitoring of the external marketing environment must cooperate with, is widely distributed in many sources, cat. in fact it is impossible to list. Many international and Russian centers and authorities systematically publish economic data, cat. may be useful in analysis and forecasting. Information about international bodies comes from external sources; laws, decrees, resolutions of government bodies, etc. Secondary data in Russia can be obtained from information sources: 1) publications of general economic orientation; 2) periodicals of a trade nature; 3) daily newspapers; 4) newspapers with free advertisements; 5) electronic media; 6) publications of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry; 7) information and analytical bulletins; 8) publications of foreign trade organizations; 9) special books and magazines; 10) dictionaries, encyclopedias; 11) publications of various public organizations; 12) publication of intended economic and marketing systems; 13) outdoor advertising. A couple of types of official publications according to the statistics of ostentatious sales of the Russian Federation are excluded: quarterly bulletins and annual collections, including: 1) general data on exports and imports of the Russian Federation in value terms, broken down by groups of countries and individual countries; 2) data on exports and imports of the Russian Federation in physical and value terms at the level of product groups, broken down by far and near abroad; 3) data in physical and value terms in the context of “product - country” at the level of 4, 6 and 9-digit codes of the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity; 4) data in the context of “country - product” at the level of product groups given for 69 countries - the main foreign trade partners of the Russian Federation.

74. Consumer behavior: principles and models for its study. Modeling consumer behavior. Purchase decision process. The behavior of a consumer (buyer) in a market economy is based on the theory of demand (theory of consumer behavior), co. based on how and in what way our needs are transformed into a certain amount of demand; how from a variety of goods we choose what satisfies us. Consumer behavior is the process of shaping the market demand of buyers who select goods taking into account existing prices. The choice of the consumer depends primarily on his needs and tastes, habits, traditions, i.e., on the preferences of the consumer, which are based on the recognition of the advantages of some goods over others. The consumer's choice is determined not only by his preferences, but also by the price of the selected products, as well as his limited income and capabilities. The usefulness of a good is the satisfaction that a person experiences in the process of consuming the good. The basic principles of consumer behavior in the market when making consumer choice are: when choosing goods, the consumer is primarily guided by his preferences for one or another product; consumer behavior rational because he is guided by self-interest; The consumer seeks to maximize total utility, as he tries to choose such a set of goods. brings him the greatest benefit; consumer choice is influenced by the basic provisions of the law of diminishing marginal utility; When choosing goods, the consumer's options are limited by the prices of goods and his income. Based on these principles of consumer behavior, it is possible to form the simplest model of consumer behavior in the market. All methods are divided into three main approaches: observation, interview and experiment. Methods of studying consumer behavior “observation” consist mainly of monitoring consumer behavior in various situations. Observation can be carried out using video cameras or other recording devices of various types of use. The “interview” method is carried out with the help of a personal interviewer, as well as through surveys and other methods. A “survey” is effective for collecting information from a large sample of consumers by asking respondents questions and recording their answers. Surveys can be conducted by telephone, mail, Internet, or in person. An “experiment” attempts to understand cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables to determine their impact on purchasing behavior. THE PROCESS OF MAKING A PURCHASE DECISION. On the path to a purchase decision, the consumer goes through five stages: awareness of the problem, search for information, evaluation of options, decision to purchase, reaction to the purchase. The purchasing process begins long before the act of purchase and sale is completed and its consequences appear long after its completion. The consumer goes through all five stages with any purchase. However, when making ordinary purchases, he seems to skip some stages, relying on stereotypes, or changes their sequence. Awareness of the problem. The future buyer feels the difference between his actual and desired state. Need can be aroused by internal stimuli. Ordinary human needs - hunger, thirst - increase to a threshold level and turn into impulses. For example, the sight of freshly baked bread makes you hungry. It is necessary to identify the circumstances, cat. pushing

A set of resources owned by an enterprise and used to make a profit.

From an accounting point of view, the structure of active capital is determined by the industry characteristics of the company, its size, and relationships with other market participants. For example, most of the active capital of construction companies consists of land plots (registered as property) and stocks of materials (concrete blocks, building mixtures).

Circulation of active capital in the enterprise

1. Cash and non-cash funds with the greatest liquidity. This form of capital goes to the organization’s current account or cash desk and covers the costs of conducting main and other activities. For example, a research laboratory receives a cash grant to conduct a project and invests the entire amount in the necessary equipment and consumables.
2. Material assets necessary for the main activities of the enterprise. A collection of tools, production materials, buildings, stocks of raw materials and semi-finished products that are used to produce finished products. For example, a sewing shop purchases cutting tables, stocks of fabrics and accessories for making clothes.
3. Productive form of active capital. The totality of production costs necessary to start the process of manufacturing goods (providing services). The category includes investments in the maintenance and repair of machines, costs for current (work in progress) production. For example, to start a steel rolling machine, the services of a foreman are required to prepare the equipment for the next cycle.
4. The commodity expression of active capital is the cost of finished products produced for subsequent shipment or resale. From an accounting point of view, this form of capital refers to current assets. For example, the total volume of furniture produced, which is stored in factory warehouses before shipment to distributors.

Formation of active capital of the enterprise

• Fixed assets of a company are assets with a useful life of one year. Vehicles, industrial buildings, machine tools, unfinished construction projects.
• Intangible assets are legal rights to use unique technologies, property, and land.
• Accounts receivable and company investments are future profits from investing capital in the production of products or the purchase of securities.
• Cash - cash and non-cash resources of the enterprise in bank accounts, at the cash desk, traveler's checks, bills of exchange.