The sin of judgment is rightfully considered one of the most soul-destructive and...
Chapter Twelve
“WITHOUT US IN EUROPE NOT A GUNS WILL FIRED”
“Peace is necessary to this vast empire; we need population, not devastation; make our vast deserts teem with people,” Catherine wrote in special notes intended only for herself. - That's what concerns internal affairs. As for external things, peace is much more likely to give us balance than the accidents of war, which is always ruinous.”
Nevertheless, Catherine fought a lot and with great success. She scrupulously ensured that she never fired the “first shot,” which, however, did not save her from the title of “aggressor” either in French pamphlets or in Russian liberal literature of the subsequent century.
Foreign policy is considered one of Catherine's most brilliant areas of activity. It may seem that luck accompanied the empress in almost all international endeavors. Two won wars with Turkey and one with Sweden, the annexation of Crimea, and the divisions of Poland noticeably rounded the borders and created a situation in which, according to the empress, “without us, not a single cannon will fire in Europe.” However, familiarization with diplomatic and administrative documents reveals a picture of the hardest, downright hard labor that Catherine’s government had to expend to solve pressing foreign policy problems of that time. The surprise from a series of victories is replaced by the awareness of the colossal work that was provided for them.
The Empress did not like to change old, well-thought-out plans, to abandon previously prepared projects for the sake of accidents of military happiness. She was a supporter of diligent desk work rather than brilliant improvisations. But the rapidly changing foreign policy situation sometimes required changing course on the fly. More than once or twice, Catherine’s cabinet found itself over the abyss: one wrong step, and the campaign could be lost, territories lost, and the empress herself deprived of the crown.
Happiness was with her. Catherine was a cold-blooded and at the same time a passionate political player. She is characterized by the desire to use any opportunity that comes along and squeeze the maximum benefit out of it. She turned even random successes into steps towards achieving major goals.
From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine insisted on personally leading foreign policy. “I want to govern myself, and let Europe know this,” she wrote. According to her, Russia had to “follow its own system, consistent with its true interests, without being constantly dependent on the desires of a foreign court.” “Time will show everyone that we are not following anyone’s tail,” the empress noted. Catherine knew how to put an essentially rigid refusal to submit to the influence of any other court in soft forms. “Those who judge matters by personal methods will be very mistaken.”
The best in my opinion
“Don't give in. It's not yours. This is ours!, thought Andrei Gromyko during negotiations.
Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin (1605–1680)
Diplomat and politician during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz.
What do we care about foreign customs, their dress is not for us, and ours is not for them.
In matters of state, it is proper for the blameless and chosen people to direct their mental focus towards expanding the state on all sides, and this is the work of the Ambassadorial Order alone.
Christopher Minich (1683-1767)
First Minister Russian Empire on military, civil and diplomatic affairs.
The Russian state has the advantage over others that it is controlled directly by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to understand how it exists.
Alexander Bezborodko (1747–1799)
Statesman and diplomat. Secretary of Catherine II (1775–1792). Since 1784, he was the second member of the Collegium, but actually served as Minister of Foreign Affairs.
I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us, not a single cannon in Europe dared to fire without our permission.
Alexander Gorchakov (1798–1883)
The head of the Russian foreign policy department under Alexander II, the last chancellor of the Russian Empire.
Russia is reproached for being isolated and silent in the face of facts that are not in harmony with either law or justice. They say Russia is angry. Russia is not angry, Russia is concentrating.
Yes! I would like to become Imperial Chancellor only so that, without rolling out a single cannon from the arsenals and without touching even a penny from the treasury, without blood and shots, I can make sure that our fleet again swings on the roadsteads of Sevastopol.
I can't escape this land! And let someone someday stand over my grave, trampling on my ashes and the vanity of my life, let him think: here lies a man who served the Fatherland until the last sigh of his soul...
Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936)
People's Commissar for foreign affairs RSFSR, and then the USSR (1918–1930).
Our slogan was and remains the same: peaceful coexistence with other governments, whatever they may be.
Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951)
People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR (1930–1939), Deputy People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs (1941–1946).
The world is indivisible. There is no security only in own world and tranquility, if the peace of neighbors - near and far - is not ensured.
Wherever peace is broken, peace is threatened everywhere.
Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986)
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR in 1939–49, 1953–56 - deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the 1st–4th convocations.
Talleyrand taught: “Diplomacy exists for this purpose, to be able to speak, and be silent, and listen.” A diplomat cannot send to Yadrena's grandmother.
Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989)
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR in 1957–1985, held this post during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1985–88).
When I was conducting diplomatic negotiations, I always felt that someone was standing behind me and telling me: “Don’t give in, don’t give in. It's not yours. This is ours!
Ukrainians in the service of Russia
In Ukraine, the idea is cultivated that Little Russia, as part of the Russian Empire, was an oppressed colony. We have already mentioned that until the eighteenth century not a single penny came from Little Russia to the tsar’s treasury. Little Russians did not serve in the army. We could go on and on about the benefits that Little Rus' enjoyed, but it’s enough just to look at the fates of people from our region to understand the falsity of the statement about oppression by Moscow.
The first Little Russians to make a dizzying career in the Moscow state were the Glinsky princes, the owners of the modern Poltava region. Brothers Mikhail and Vasily occupied considerable positions at court, Princess Elena became the legal wife of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III, and her son entered the world under the name of Ivan the Terrible.
After reunification with Russia in 1654, and especially after the accession of Peter the Great to the throne, the path to the highest posts of the empire was opened for the Little Russians. The Kiev clergy were the first to master the road to Moscow, to high positions. Educated, well-read and skilled in discussions with Catholics and Uniates, priests and monks were highly valued by both the clergy and secular authorities.
Great power ideologist
Feofan Prokopovich
The boy Elizar was born on June 7, 1 6 7 7 in the family of a Kyiv merchant Tsereysky, was orphaned early and was taken into care by his maternal uncle, whose last name he took - Prokopovich. After studying at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, he traveled a lot around Europe, then in 1702 Prokopovich returned to Kyiv, where he took monastic vows under the name Feofan. The experience and theological erudition gained in Europe easily opened the doors of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy to monk Theophan, where he became a teacher. Seven years later, Prokopovich attracted the attention of Emperor Peter, after which the emperor never forgot the Kyiv monk. At the instigation of the tsar, Prokopovich became the rector of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, and then the bishop of Pskov. However, he never made it to Pskov, preferring to stay in St. Petersburg as the closest associate of Peter I in his state and church reforms. Feofan Prokopovich initiated a new church charter - the Spiritual Regulations. This was the last, formal step towards the abolition of the patriarchy in Russia and the final subordination of the church to royal power. This was opposed by another native of Little Russia - the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky. So the fate of the Russian Orthodox Church at the beginning of the eighteenth century it was in the hands of two Little Russians. After Yavorsky’s death, Prokopovich’s opponent was again the Little Russian Archbishop of Velikonovgorod and Velikoluksky, Theodosius Yanovsky. Already after the death of Peter the Great, Prokopovich became the head of the Holy Synod, and therefore the highest authority in the Russian church hierarchy. After his death, he was buried in one of the oldest cathedrals in Rus' - Sophia of Novgorod.
Feofan Prokopovich was one of the ideologists of building an empire and the greatness of royal power. He played an important role in the theoretical justification and practical implementation of church reform, in the abolition of the patriarchate and the establishment of a Synod controlled by the sovereign. It was he who developed the Spiritual Regulations - a kind of explanation and justification of the state policy towards the church. In the “Regulations” and in the treatise “The Truth of the Royal Will,” our fellow countryman substantiated the sacred, absolute nature of royal power.
From rags to riches
Alexey Razumovsky
Peter's daughter Elizabeth, as they would say today, was a music lover, so the best singers of the empire found her patronage. In 1734, Colonel Vishnevetsky, who was selecting performers to create a court choir, in some godforsaken village in the Kiev region, met a boy with a wonderful voice - Leshka Razumovsky. Having started his career in St. Petersburg as a court singer, by the end of his life Alexey was, in fact, an uncrowned tsar. The future empress liked him, then he helped Elizabeth Petrovna take power, and in the end he became the queen’s husband, although he was not crowned. Razumovsky became a count, lieutenant general and chief jägermeister, and received huge land holdings. Under the influence of her favorite, Elizabeth restored the Kyiv Metropolis," and then in 1747 she ordered the restoration of hetmanship in Little Russia. The new hetman was brother Alexei - Kirill, who later became the president of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
It is curious that Baturyn, according to the Svidomites, “destroyed to a brick by Peter” again became the center of the Hetmanate. The city became a bohemian center with all the appropriate paraphernalia - luxurious palaces, balls, theaters. European tutors appeared in noble houses, and compulsory education was introduced for the children of noble Cossacks in a French boarding school specially opened for them. The autonomy of Little Russia also expanded - it was removed from the department of the Senate and transferred to the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, the hetman began to lead the Sich. In addition, the hetman carried out an effective judicial reform, which secured the election of judges.
With Mother Queen
Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
The transfer of the throne to Catherine the Great put an end to any “autonomies” in the centralized empire she created. But the liquidation of the Hetmanate, as well as the Zaporozhye Sich, had little effect on the situation in Little Russia. Instead of the liquidated hetman's administration, beneficial only to part of the Cossack elite, the Little Russian Collegium was introduced, headed by Governor General Pyotr Rumyantsev. Half of the members of the Collegium were Little Russians. Under Rumyantsev, postal service first appeared in Little Russia. By the way, even at this time not a penny came from Little Russia to the central treasury; moreover, subsidies were allocated annually from St. Petersburg for the development of the region. So who fed whom in the empire?
And although Little Russia really lost self-government, the position of the Little Russians at court was still strong. An example of this can be the fate of Alexander Bszborodko, a native of the senior family of the Pereyaslav regiment. Alexander Andreevich began his service in the office of Governor General Rumyantsev. Possessing extraordinary diplomatic skills, Bezborodko took a direct part in concluding the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty with Turkey. Since 1775 he has already personal secretary Catherine I. Since 1780, a member of the College of Foreign Affairs, four years later he headed it. It was he who wrote the famous words of the imperial politician: “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us, not a single cannon in Europe dared to fire without our permission!”
Even after the death of the empress, he had enormous influence on Paul I, achieved the restoration of the General Military Court and some elements of the hetman's administration. His organizational skills made him indispensable at court. According to Gumilyov, Bezborodko formulated his political credo in the following words: “Whatever the Mother Empress wants, so be it.” Neither his accent nor his origin prevented him from being the first official of the state...
Weaving glory from victories
Dow, George - Portrait of Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich
Today, only history buffs in Ukraine have heard the name of Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich. Unlike Mazepa or Bandera, this native of Poltava is not erected monuments and is not awarded the title of Hero of Ukraine. But in vain! Field Marshal Paskevich, whom Emperor Nicholas I considered his teacher, won four military campaigns during his life (Persian, Turkish, Polish and Hungarian), without losing a single battle, and was awarded the highest awards of the empire. By the way, in the entire history of the Russian Empire, only four people became full holders of the Order of the Holy Great Martyr and Victorious George: M.I. Kutuzov-Smolensky, M.B. Barclay de Tolly, I.I. Dibich-Zabalkansky and our hero. For his military successes, Paskevich was awarded the titles of Count of Erivan and Prince of Warsaw.
Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich was born in 1782 in rich family landowner-serf. Graduated in 1800 Corps of Pages. He gained his first combat experience during the Russian-Turkish War of 1806-1812 on Bulgarian soil. In the fifth year of the war, 28-year-old Paskevich was appointed commander of the Vitebsk Musketeer Regiment. Genuine military glory came to Colonel Paskevich under the walls of the Varna fortress, where his regiment first captured the enemy with a bold attack artillery batteries, and then held them back, repelling one by one the attacks of the Ottoman army.
Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich gained his general fame during Patriotic War 1812, commanding the 26th Infantry Division. General Paskevich participated in all battles with Napoleon. The general's new career growth began with the coronation of Emperor Nicholas I. He becomes not just his confidant, but one of the most trusted and loyal people to the sovereign. Paskevich, already the commander of the army corps, was a member of the Supreme Court in the Decembrist case, in which he cast his vote only for the most severe punishments for the rebels. In 1826, he was appointed commander of Russian troops in Transcaucasia. And from March of next year he becomes the royal governor in the Caucasus, endowed with enormous powers. In the Caucasus, Paskevich led the active army during the second Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828. Under the command of Ivan Fedorovich, the Russian army several times defeated the superior forces of the Persians and stormed fortresses that were considered impregnable. For the victory in the Russian-Persian War, Adjutant General Paskevich was awarded the Order of St. George, 2nd degree. At the same time, he received the title of Count of Erivan. The war with Persia had barely ended when the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 began. Paskevich, at the head of the Separate Caucasian Corps, moved into the Ottoman Porte and stormed the hitherto impregnable fortress of Kare, the garrison of which outnumbered the attackers. Here, one and a half hundred guns and 33 banners of the Sultan’s army became Russian trophies. Then Paskevich headed to the Akhaltsykh fortress. 30 thousand Turkish and 17 thousand Russian soldiers met under its walls. And here the commander-in-chief Count Paskevich-Erivansky again won a complete victory. After a three-week siege, the Akhaltsykh fortress with a huge garrison fell.
This was followed by another, more significant victory. In a field battle, the Russians completely defeated the Sultan's army under the command of Hakki Pasha. The result of these two-day battles near the village of Kayinli was the death of the entire Asian army of Turkey. After this brilliant victory, the Russian army rushed deep into Anatolia - to the Erzurum fortress, whose strong garrison the warlike Sultan Mahmud I so hoped for. The fortress was the heart of the Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire, since several important roads converged there. In Istanbul they did not even think that the enemy could go so far fighting along mountain roads. But that’s exactly what happened - on June 27, 1829, the Russians entered Erzurum. The flag of Russia soared over the ancient citadel... For the capture of Erzurum, infantry general Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich was awarded highest award Russian Empire - Order of the Holy Great Martyr and Victorious George, 1st degree. For the victorious end of the war with Turkey in Transcaucasia, Paskevich also received the rank of Field Marshal.
Further military biography Paskevich's life turned out no less gloriously. From 1830 to 1850, Paskevich was the Tsar's governor in Poland. This appointment was associated with the outbreak of the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. Paskevich needed only four months to pacify Poland. Award to Count I.F. Paskevich-Erivansky was elevated to princely dignity for the victorious assault on Warsaw, where he received a shell shock.
Maybe Paskevich himself, during the assault on Akhaltsikhe
When an uprising against Austrian rule broke out in Hungary in 1848, Emperor Nicholas 1 sent a commander to “rescue” the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. The Russian army from Poland immediately set out on a campaign and operated in two directions - in Hungary and Transylvania. Skillfully maneuvering his troops, Field Marshal Paskevich achieved the surrender of the Hungarian revolutionary army near Vilagos. The Hungarians, who had fought so successfully against the Austrians, surrendered to the Russians.
The Crimean War became last campaign for an elderly commander. At its beginning, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops on the western state border, and in 1853-1854 on the Danube. During the siege of the Silistria fortress, the 74-year-old field marshal was wounded from which he never recovered.
One can list many more names of those Little Russians for whom the empire was a loving mother who generously rewarded them for their talents. This is the fate that awaited talented Little Russians, but the Svidomites, even if they have a stake on their heads, still continue to whine about the oppression of Ukrainians in the Russian Empire.
Main directions of foreign policy Main directions of foreign policy Foreign policy projects Foreign policy projects Western European politics. Western European politics. Eastern policy. Eastern policy. Far Eastern policy. Far Eastern policy.
Maintaining the status of a European power. Maintaining the status of a European power. “Return” of ancient Russian lands (Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus). “Return” of ancient Russian lands (Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus). The fight against revolutionary France. The fight against revolutionary France. Western European Western European
Literacy and clarity of speech. literacy and clarity of speech. logic of presentation. logic of presentation. fluency in the material. fluency in the material. speaking time – 5 minutes. speaking time – 5 minutes. Criteria for presenting a message in class:
Author of the project author of the project origin of the name origin of the name main ideas of the project main ideas of the project the fate of the project the fate of the project the meaning of the project the meaning of the project Plan for speaking with a message in the lesson: Plan for speaking with a message in the lesson:
Author of the project: N.I. Panin. Author of the project: N.I. Panin. It was planned to create an anti-French coalition (Denmark, Prussia, Poland, Sweden) with the participation of Great Britain. with the participation of Great Britain. Controversies prevented the project from being implemented. Controversies prevented the project from being implemented. "Northern chord"
"Greek Project" Author of the project: G.A. Potemkin. Author of the project: G.A.Potemkin. The project provided for the expulsion of the Turks from the Balkans The project provided for the expulsion of the Turks from the Balkans and the creation of new states: the Greek Empire and the creation of new states: the Greek Empire and Dacia (Moldova, Wallachia, Bessarabia). and Dacia (Moldova, Wallachia, Bessarabia). Austria was expected to participate in the project. Austria was expected to participate in the project. The project was not implemented. The project was not implemented.
Participation in the fight against revolutionary France. () Participation in the fight against revolutionary France. () Russian-Swedish war. (gg.) Russian-Swedish war. (years) Participation in the partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) Participation in the partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)
