Biography of Joan of Arc. Why was Joan of Arc burned at the stake? Why was Joan of Arc burned?

Joan of Arc, The Maid of Orleans, the national heroine of France, is today known throughout the world. In just a few months, this young girl managed to unfold the history of her own country, which was on the brink of destruction.

Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans. S. Lenepvö. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

In 1428, English troops stood at the walls of Orleans, the fall of which would allow them to unite occupied northern France with their long-controlled Guienne and Aquitaine in the south. The outcome of the battle seemed a foregone conclusion when the French residence Dauphine Karla A 17-year-old girl appeared, announcing to him that she was “sent by Heaven to liberate the country from English rule” and asked for troops to lift the siege of Orleans. The girl, whose name was Joan of Arc, assured that she was acting at the behest of voices from above.

On the side of “Joan of the Virgin,” as she called herself, there was only an impeccable reputation and unconditional confidence in her mission. And also a legend that wandered around France that the country could be saved by the appearance of an immaculate girl sent by God.

She received from the Dauphin Charles the right to lead the army. On May 8, 1429, troops led by Jeanne lifted the siege of Orleans. After a series of victories, she led Charles to Reims, where French monarchs were traditionally crowned, and France found its rightful king.

Conscious betrayal

The maximalism of Jeanne, who demanded the further liberation of French lands, came into conflict with the intentions of Charles’s entourage, who preferred to act through negotiations and concessions. The Maid of Orleans, having done her job, began to interfere. In turn, the British and their allies in France sought to get even with the one who had ruined all their plans.

Joan of Arc was captured and burned at the stake. Many believe that she was executed as an enemy commander for military successes, but in fact this is not entirely true.

Joan of Arc at the coronation of Charles VII. Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1854. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The opponents of the Virgin of Orleans needed not so much her life as her destruction as a “messenger of God.” Therefore she was accused of heresy.

Jeanne was captured on May 23, 1430, when she and her detachment went to Compiègne, which was besieged by the Burgundians allied with the English. Here the Maid of Orleans was simply betrayed by raising a bridge into the city, which cut off her path to retreat.

King Charles did not help Jeanne, after which the Burgundians sold the girl to the British for 10,000 francs.

On December 23, 1430, Jeanne was brought to Rouen. English diploma King Henry VI dated January 3, 1431, transferred her to the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Beauvais, who was to conduct a trial over her.

Inquisitorial trial of Bishop Cauchon

For the British, it was fundamentally important that the Virgin of Orleans was found guilty of heresy by the French clergy, which was supposed to destroy the image of the “messenger of God” in the eyes of the French people.

The inquisition process in Rouen was headed by Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais, confidant of the Duke of Burgundy.

At the meetings in the royal chapel of Rouen Castle there were 15 doctors of sacred theology, 4 doctors of canon law, 1 doctor of both rights, 7 bachelors of theology, 11 licentiates of canon law, 4 licentiates of civil law.

Joan of Arc. Miniature of the second half of the 15th century. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The bishop set many traps for Jeanne that were supposed to convict her of heresy.

Cauchon asked her to publicly read the “Our Father” - despite the fact that, according to the Inquisition rules, any mistake or even an accidental hesitation during the reading of the prayer could be interpreted as a confession of “heresy”. Jeanne managed to get out of the situation with honor, inviting Cauchon to do this during confession - as a clergyman, the bishop could not refuse her, and at the same time, according to church laws, he would be forced to keep everything he heard secret.

At each of the court sessions, both open and closed, she was asked dozens of questions, and any careless answer could serve as an “exposure.” Despite the fact that she was opposed by educated and professionally trained people, they failed to confuse Zhanna, and she behaved surprisingly confidently.

12 points of “misconceptions”

At the meeting on March 28, 70 articles of accusation were read to her, based on the testimony of Zhanna herself. “She is a troublemaker, a rebel, disturbing and disturbing the peace, an instigator of wars, viciously hungry for human blood and forcing its shedding, who has completely and shamelessly abandoned the decency and restraint of her sex, who has without hesitation assumed the shameful attire and guise of a warrior. Therefore, and for many other reasons, disgusting to God and people, she is a violator of divine and natural laws and church decorum, a temptress of sovereigns and the common people; she allowed and allowed, in insult and rejection of God, to be revered and worshiped, letting her hands and clothes be kissed, taking advantage of other people's devotion and human piety; she is a heretic, or at least strongly suspected of heresy,” said the preamble to the accusation.

Interrogation of Joan by the Cardinal of Winchester (Paul Delaroche, 1824). Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The court required a confession of heresy from Joan herself, and at first it seemed that experienced theologians would force her to admit that the “voices” that guided her were not of divine, but of diabolical origin. But the Maid of Orleans steadfastly rejected such accusations.

As a result, the judges decided to focus on articles where a confession was not required. First of all, it was about disdain for the authority of the church and wearing men's clothing.

Here are 12 main points of Jeanne’s “misconceptions”, approved by the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris:

1) Jeanne's words about the appearances of angels and saints to her are either fiction or come from devilish spirits.

2) The appearance of the angel who brought the crown to King Charles is a fiction and an encroachment on the angelic rank.

3) Jeanne is gullible if she believes that with good advice one can recognize the saints.

4) Zhanna is superstitious and arrogant, believing that she can predict the future and recognize people she has not seen before.

5) Jeanne breaks divine law by wearing men's clothing.

6) She encourages to kill enemies, and claims that she is doing this by the will of God.

7) By leaving her home, she broke her covenant to honor her parents.

8) Her attempt to escape by jumping from Beaurevoir Tower was an act of desperation leading to suicide.

10) The statement that the saints speak French, because they are not on the side of the English, is blasphemous towards the saints and violates the commandment of love for one's neighbor.

11) She is an idolater who summons demons.

12) She is unwilling to rely on the judgment of the Church, especially in matters of revelation.

Monument at the site of Jeanne's execution (1928). Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

"Repeated Heresy"

On May 24, 1431, Joan of Arc signed a paper renouncing heresies. This was done by direct deception - Pierre Cauchon showed her the already prepared fire, after which he promised not only not to execute her, but to transfer her to a prison with better conditions. For this, Jeanne had to sign a paper in which she promised to submit to the church and not wear men's clothes anymore. The girl could not read, so the text was read out by the priest. As a result, the Virgin of Orleans heard one thing, and signed (or rather, put a cross) on the paper, which spoke of “complete renunciation of heresy.”

The nuance is that Jeanne's abdication allowed her to avoid a death sentence. It was officially announced that she was sentenced to repentance in eternal imprisonment “on the bread of suffering and the water of tribulation.” Zhanna changed into a woman's dress and was returned to prison.

No one was going to leave her alive. To send her to death, they performed a simple trick - the guards took away her women's clothes, leaving her men's clothes. On May 28, 1430, the priests who came to her cell recorded a “repeated heresy.” Such guilt was inevitably punishable by death.

“Execute the sentence without shedding blood”

The legal proceedings of that time were structured in a unique way. The church court, having found that Jeanne had “fallen into her previous errors,” handed the criminal over to the secular authorities, accompanying this procedure with a request to “execute the sentence without shedding blood.” It sounds humane, but in reality it meant auto-da-fé - burning alive.

Burning of Joan of Arc. Postcard from the 19th century. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

On May 30, 1431, the verdict to excommunicate Joan of Arc as an apostate and heretic and to commit her to secular justice was announced on the Old Market Square in Rouen.

On the same day, Jeanne was executed. The execution procedure is described as follows: they put a paper miter on Jeanne’s head with the inscription “Heretic, apostate, idolater” and led her to the stake. “Bishop, I am dying because of you. I challenge you to God’s judgment!” Zhanna shouted and asked to give her a cross. The executioner handed her two crossed twigs. When the fire reached her, she shouted “Jesus!” several times.

The execution made a depressing impression on the residents of Rouen. Most commoners sympathized with the girl.

Rehabilitated posthumously

In the early 1450s, when King Charles VII, enthroned by Joan, regained control over most of the country, the problem of the Maid of Orleans again came to the fore. It turned out that the monarch received his crown from an inveterate heretic. This did not contribute to the strength of power, and Karl gave the order to collect documents for a repeat trial.

Participants in the first trial were also brought in as witnesses. One of them, Guillaume Col, clerk and notary of the Inquisition, stated that the people who tried Jeanne “died an evil death.” Indeed, a number of participants in the process either disappeared or died under strange circumstances. For example, Jean Estivet, close associate of Cauchon, who did not hide his hatred of Jeanne, soon drowned in a swamp.

Tombstone of Pierre Cauchon. Chapel of St. Mary, Lisieux. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The investigation, conducted by order of Karl, came to the conclusion that the process was carried out with gross violations of the law. In 1455, a new trial of the case was ordered Pope Calixtus III, sending three of its representatives to observe the process.

The proceedings were large-scale: the court sat in Paris, Rouen and Orleans, and more than 100 witnesses were questioned.

On July 7, 1456, a verdict was announced, which stated that every point of accusation against Joan was refuted by the testimony of witnesses. The Maid of Orleans was completely acquitted, as a sign of which one copy of the indictment was publicly torn up.

Saint and "pig"

Almost 500 years later, the church decided that the national heroine of France deserved more. In 1909 Pope Pius X declared Joan blessed, and on May 16, 1920, Pope Benedict XV canonized her. Today, there is a statue of Saint Joan in most Catholic churches in France.

As for her judge, Bishop Pierre Cauchon, every Frenchman who begins a story about the history of the trial of Jeanne will not fail to clarify that this man fully lived up to his surname. Cauchon means "pig" in French.

(1938, Basel) based on the poem by P. Claudel.

Cast: reader, Joan of Arc (without singing), Brother Dominic, monk (without singing), Virgin Mary (soprano), Saint Margaret (soprano), Saint Catherine (contralto), Hog, chief justice (tenor), Donkey, scribe ( tenor), Grain (without singing), Mother of Wine Barrels (without singing), 3 heralds (tenor, bass, without singing), monks, priests, crowd, children (choir, children's choir), orchestra.

History of creation

In Honegger's work, oratorios belong to one of the leading genres. Most of them were created in the 1930s: “Cries of the World”, “Dance of the Dead”, “Nicolas of Fleux”, “Joan of Arc at the stake”. The latter turned out to be especially in tune with the mood of the era - the eve of World War II and the French Resistance. It was conceived, according to Honegger, as a “grandiose popular fresco” and was perceived by contemporaries as a mass performance in the spirit of the newly popular festivities of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794 at that time, unfolding in the squares of Paris with the participation and presence of thousands of people. tried in this work to be accessible to the masses and at the same time interesting for the musician," the composer asserted. On the other hand, the first thought about the oratorio came to the mind of the famous art lover, dancer and dramatic actress Ida Rubinstein, when she was present at the Sorbonne for a student performance in the style of medieval folk mysteries.The oratorio is dedicated to her.

Honegger turned to Paul Claudel with a proposal to develop a story about Joan of Arc (1410 or 1412-1431), the 500th anniversary of whose first feat - the liberation of Orleans, for which she received the name of the Virgin of Orleans - was celebrated in 1929. Paul Claudel ( 1868-1955), the largest French writer and poet, devoted almost half a century, until the mid-30s, to the diplomatic service and visited many countries. Conversion to Catholicism in 1886 left a deep mark on his work, as evidenced by the play “The Annunciation Mary", translations of psalms, text for the oratorio "Way of the Cross", a cycle of poems "Calendar of Saints"; in the 30s "Religion and Poetry", "Mass Yonder", "The Poet Sees the Cross", "The Mysticism of Precious Stones" appeared In Catholic circles he was considered the “new Shakespeare.” The famous French encyclopedia Larousse characterizes Claudel as follows: “A symbolist and at the same time a realist, in any case a deep mystic; simple and at the same time refined, often dark and powerful, he gave his art a rough primitive form..."

In the story of Joan of Arc, which was extremely popular in France, Claudel saw mystical motives that were close to himself and was looking for an original interpretation for it. He proposed a free construction of the tragedy. According to Claudel, “the pinnacle of Joan of Arc’s life is death, the bonfire in Rouen. From this peak, she surveys the entire chain of events that brought her here, starting with those closer in time and ending with those more distant, right up to the realization of her calling, her mission.” The text was created in rhythmic prose using the features of folk poetry, many episodes in medieval Latin. According to Honegger, Claudel “showed me line by line the composition of the score. He made me feel the atmosphere of the poems, explained the nature of the melodies... It is enough to hear how Claudel reads and rereads his text. He does this with such plastic force that the verses seem to highlight a musical relief, presented clearly and distinctly to those endowed with musical imagination.” The main role was originally intended for Ida Rubinstein, who sang a children's song in only one scene. Many other roles were also intended for dramatic actors.

“Joan of Arc at the stake,” designated as a dramatic oratorio, was intended to be staged, but its premiere took place in concert performance in the homeland of Honegger’s parents, Switzerland. This happened 3 years after the completion of work on the music, on May 12, 1938 in Basel , conducted by the famous Swiss conductor Paul Sacher with Ida Rubinstein in the title role. The stage premiere took place on May 6 next year in Orleans, in a theater built on the ruins of an ancient church exactly 510 years after the feat of the Virgin of Orleans - the liberation of the city from the British. “Hundreds of Orléans " They could hardly hold back their tears. They no longer felt like an audience... but like that crowd of Rouensians who had once crowded around the fire and looked at Saint Joan, burning like a fiery whirlwind that rises from the very heart of France. " 6 years later, in 1945 Honegger wrote the prologue to the oratorio.

Music

The dramatic oratorio “Joan of Arc at the stake” combines the features of mystery, passion and folk square performances. It consists of a prologue and the following 11 scenes without interruption, where musical and speech episodes alternate. Of the solo vocal parts, the most significant are the parts of Saints Margaret and Catherine, inspiring and encouraging Zhanna. One of the most important places is given to the choirs - men's, mixed, children's.

The choral prologue depicts a France plunged into darkness, ravaged by many years of war, torn apart. From the groaning cries of the choir, a plea for salvation is born from the solo soprano to the canonical prayer text “De profundis” (“From the depths of the abyss I cry”), which is replaced by an energetic march. The reader proclaims “There was a girl named Jeanne” four times, and the chorus develops this phrase in a rapid fugato. The climax of the prologue is the ringing of bells, conveyed by the chords of 2 pianos, against the background of which the choir calls on Jeanne to heroism. Scene 4, “Jeanne given to the animals,” is set in the spirit of folk medieval farcical performances. Each episode opens with a fanfare call of trumpets. The first is the election of the chairman of the court. The tiger, fox and snake refuse, then Borov proposes his candidacy (the surname of the bishop, chairman of the Rouen tribunal that condemned Jeanne is parodied: Cauchon is a pig). It is characterized by a pompous and vulgar aria using Latin phrases, in a tense-sounding high register, accompanied by a choir and small trumpet. The next episode is the election of assessors and scribe. The first turn out to be rams (the choir imitates their bleating), the second a donkey (the soloist’s cry of “eeee” is imitated by the choir and “Marteno’s waves”). All this mocking music is superimposed on a dark chorale of low strings and wind instruments, reminiscent of the church chant Dies irae (Day of Wrath). Scene 8, “The King Gathered in Reims,” is also based on the traditions of medieval performances. However, here Onneger turns to these traditions not for a satirical characterization of Joan's enemies, but to create a broad picture of people's life. The massive celebration in honor of the victory over the enemies opens with the ringing of bells and the coronation march of the king, where the phrases of the folk song “Laonian Chime” are used. Another folk song varies in the next episode, depicting the unification of the northern and southern provinces of France (the north represents the Grain, the south the Mother of the Wine Barrels). Another authentic folk melody, the May song "Trimaso", entrusted mainly to children's voices, sounds in the central section of the 9th scene, "The Sword of Joan". The 11th scene, “Joan of Arc in the Flame,” forms a grand finale. The solo trumpet precedes the solemn phrase of a new character - the Virgin Mary, blessing Joan's sacrifice. The first section embodies the feelings of the crowd gathered in the square of Rouen: some curse Joan the Witch , others glorify Joan the Virgin.The final section ends with a solemn statement of the march theme, “There is a joy that is stronger than all things.” The tension subsides, and the peaceful voices of children are heard, praising sacrifice in the name of love for people. The oratorio concludes with the gentle singing of a nightingale, which first appeared in scene 1, “Voices of Heaven.”

L. Mikheeva

The work is based on a poem by the mystic poet Claudel. Honegger's work, interesting in form, combining the features of opera, oratorio and drama, immediately won recognition. The famous dancer and actress Ida Rubinstein took part in the premiere. Let us note the production of the famous film director R. Rossellini (1953, Naples, starring Ingrid Bergman).

Discography: CD - Deutsche Grammophon. Conductor Ozawa, soloists: Keller, Wilson, Ezcurru, Polle and others.

The history of mankind knows many people who became famous for defending their country from an external aggressor. But especially interesting are those heroes who are surrounded by an aura of mystery and a romantic flair (like Jeanne d'Arc, for example).

Birthplace of Joan of Arc

So, Joan of Arc was born in 1412, during one of the most difficult eras of French history. The country was then repeatedly defeated by the British and allied troops, and stood on the verge of complete defeat and destruction. In 1420, an agreement was concluded according to which the English king became the French monarch, and the heir to the throne was excluded from inheritance. In fact, there was already talk of legislating the occupation.

This, naturally, could not help but excite people. Zhanna was no exception. And although birthplace of Joan of Arc- the village of Domremi, where she lived in an ordinary peasant family, this did not prevent her from becoming a national heroine. Rumors and rumors are spreading throughout the country: “a woman (the queen, who was considered a traitor), is destroying France, but the maiden will be able to save her.” Zhanna takes these words personally. There is no doubt that there were quite a few of them, but the lucky chance fell to her alone. In 1425 she begins to “hear and see saints.” They urge her to quickly head to the south, where the heir is, and stop the destruction.

Why was Joan of Arc burned?

One way or another, the persistent desire to help France in the fight against enemies and the accurate prediction of the outcome of one of the battles near Orleans attracted attention to Joan of Arc. Her goal at that time was to gain command of a detachment of troops and unblock Orleans. Having successfully passed some tests, she received the position of commander. Having inflicted several heavy defeats on the English troops, Jeanne managed to achieve her goal. However, as the war continued, she was captured by the Burgundians and then handed over to the British. They accuse her of magic and burn her at the stake. That, in general terms, is the whole short life, less than 30 years.

It's obvious that Joan of Arc was burned in fact, not for “magic”, but for the victories she achieved at the head of the French army.

Her actions in the war were swift and decisive. So, on March 6, 1429, Jeanne entered the Chinon castle (where the Dauphin was present) and told him about the “voices” that indicated her chosenness - the mission to coronate the heir in Reims. It was believed that only there one could become a legitimate ruler. On April 29, a detachment under the command of Joan of Arc entered Orleans, a series of battles took place, as a result of which the city was able to be released. The defeated French troops won a series of victories that had important moral significance.

The march to Reims becomes no longer just a march of troops, but literally a triumphal procession. On July 17, the Dauphin is crowned in the liberated city. The next month the attack on Paris begins (unsuccessful), then many small clashes. And on May 23, 1430, Jeanne was captured...

Where was Joan of Arc burned?

There are two versions on this matter. According to one, she was not executed at all, but was simply taken somewhere or secretly released. But another point of view prevails - on May 30, 1431, Jeanne was taken to the market square of occupied Rouen, where she was burned at the stake.

Sometimes round dates converge strangely. In 1431, that is, 585 years ago, the legendary Frenchwoman Joan of Arc was burned as a result of the court verdict. And in 1456, 560 years ago, after a special investigation, Jeanne was completely acquitted.

And this year, through the auction house Timeline Auctions, a ring believed to have belonged to Joan of Arc was sold for £297,600. According to legend, she wore it before her execution. It is believed that the ring was given to Jeanne by her parents shortly before she was burned at the stake in 1431.

Zhanna herself spoke about him at the trial. She described the ring as follows: on the ring there is the inscription Jhesus Maria and three crosses, and it is made of gold or brass, that is, she did not know exactly which metal. Jeanne also reported that she had it on her finger when she touched Saint Catherine, who appeared to her in a dream.

“I think there is no doubt that this is her ring,” said the executive director of Timeline Auctions Brett Hammond. He believes that the fact that the 15th-century ring matches the description of Joan's ring is unlikely to be just a coincidence.

The ring had documents confirming its history. But if the ring is genuine, it may provide a solution to one of the mysteries of the history of the Maid of Orleans.

Joan, but not d'Arc

To be precise, Jeanne was never called d'Arc by her contemporaries. And she herself never called herself that, but was called “Jeanne the Virgin.”

It is not very clear when she was born. It is believed that in 1412, but when she was canonized in 1904, a different date was officially given: January 6, 1409.

Who her mother and father were is also not clear. According to one version - impoverished nobles (hence the noble "d"" in the surname), according to another - wealthy peasants (and "d"" in those days meant “from such and such a locality”, in this case, perhaps her dad was from the city, whose name included the word Arc, there were several of them. But even if the girl’s parents were peasants, they later received nobility. Jeanne’s birthplace is precisely named: the village of Domremy on the border of Champagne and Lorraine. Even the house where she appeared on the border of Champagne and Lorraine has been preserved. light.

The sudden rise of her fame and tragic end at the stake took just a few years. At the age of 13, Zhanna suddenly heard voices Saint Catherine and Archangel Michael(Moreover, she even saw the archangel several times). They told the girl that it would be she who would liberate Orleans, lifting the siege of the British, and would also place the Dauphin, the heir to the French throne, on the throne Carla.

Actually, this is where her mission in the Hundred Years' War between the French and British began.

Fighting youth

It is interesting that Zhanna, at the age of 16, turned out to be very prepared for military affairs. When they met, she impressed Karl with her ability to brilliantly ride a horse and fence. “One got the impression,” said one of her contemporaries, “that this girl was raised not in the fields, but in schools, in close contact with the sciences.”

Having passed all the tests established by the Dauphin, Jeanne, in the name of God, confirmed to Charles his right to the throne. And, in the end, Charles believed her so much that he appointed her commander-in-chief of the French troops.

Now on all monuments she is depicted in armor and with a sword. And so it was: the Dauphin ordered that armor be forged especially for Jeanne; as the commander-in-chief, she was given a banner, and as a messenger of God, a banner. The banner depicted God the Father over a rainbow and two angels. With his right hand the Lord blessed the world, and in his left he held the universe. There was also the inscription “Jesus Mary” and lilies of the French kingdom.

Jeanne asked to bring the sword from a small chapel in Fierbois, where she saw many ancient weapons. And she wanted to have a sword equal to the sword of the legendary King Charlemagne. They brought her an ancient blade marked with five crosses. When they cleaned off the rust, it turned out that this was the sword used by another famous warrior Charles Martell seven hundred years ago he defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Poitiers.

It is interesting that later, during interrogation, Jeanne, when asked whether she revered the sword or the banner more, answered that the banner.

In the famous film "Inception" Gleb Panfilov, where Jeanne plays Inna Churikova, there is one small inaccuracy, the scene where, after executing deserters, Jeanne says to her soldiers: “Whoever believes in me, follow me!” In fact, Jeanne’s famous cry sounded different: “Who loves me, follow me!”

And they loved her. The French, in love with her, drove the English away from Orleans on May 8, 1429. It was then that she became the “Maid of Orleans,” and May 8 is still the main city holiday in Orleans today.

But from that moment on, happiness turned away from Zhanna.

The Betrayal of Bishop Cauchon

Her army failed to take Paris, but the Burgundians, who fought against Charles, tricked Jeanne into a trap and handed her over to the British. More precisely, they sold it for 10,000 gold livres.

In the late autumn of 1430, Jeanne was taken to Rouen. There she was tried, accused of heresy and wearing men's clothing.

The trial began on February 21, 1431. It was headed by a bishop Pierre Cauchon, an ardent supporter of the British. The British government paid all the costs of the process. The surviving documents of the English treasury in Normandy show that these expenses were considerable.

On May 24, Bishop Cauchon led her to a post with bundles of brushwood - her future bonfire, but said that she would be transferred from the British to a church prison if she renounced her heresies. I read the paper to her with such renunciation, and then replaced the paper. Zhanna was illiterate and put an end to, figuratively speaking, her own sentence.

From the fire she shouted to Cauchon: “Bishop, I am dying because of you. I challenge you to God’s judgment!” And she asked to give her a cross. They handed her two crossed branches, and she still managed to shout several times: “Jesus!”

Was the Maid of Orleans executed?

And this is where the fun begins. Researchers of the history of the Virgin of Orleans cannot say with certainty whether Joan was burned.

In general, there are a lot of unknowns with her death.

For example, there is no formal verdict, although interrogation records have been preserved. Moreover, when the process of Jeanne’s rehabilitation was later started, of the 12 interrogated members of the Rouen judicial commission that sent Jeanne to the stake, five said that they left before the end of the hearings, three said that they were not present at the execution.

There is also no protocol on execution required for such trials.

Many volunteer historians, looking for alternative versions of great events, believe: it is quite possible that there was no execution at all, or that some other woman was burned instead of Jeanne. And so that no one would notice this, the head of the woman executed instead of Jeanne was covered with a paper cap, and the soldiers pushed the crowd away from the fire to a fairly large distance.

Why could Jeanne survive? But because, according to one version, the Virgin of Orleans was not a peasant woman or even a simple noblewoman, but a person of royal blood. That is why the Dauphin so easily entrusted her with the army, and why she was so skilled in horse riding and the use of weapons. And a few years after the “execution,” Jeanne again appeared at the royal court and even married Robert des Armoises.

There were, however, also impostors. In 1452, a lady appeared who bribed Joan's cousins ​​to pose as the Virgin of Orleans. Failed. Jeanne became the second false Joan Ferron, but she too was exposed, and shamefully: she did not know how to ride a horse.

The most successful of all was a certain Jeanne des Armoises. She appeared about five years after the execution of the Virgin of Orleans and she just married the lord Robert des Armoises. It is interesting that the residents of Orleans and the brothers of Joan of Arc (she had three brothers and a sister) recognized her. But on the other hand, she was not recognized in Paris and even, according to the verdict of the parliamentary court, was put in the pillory. Jeanne des Armoise gave birth to two sons and died in 1446.

Whether she really was an impostor and nothing more is still unknown.

But this version of the fate of the Maid of Orleans - she was not burned - indirectly confirms the very ring of Jeanne with which I began the story.

After all, it turns out to be a unique situation. If the ring was given to Jeanne by her parents before she was burned, how did it survive?

Based on the properties of the metals, the ring might not have melted. Brass melts at 880 - 950 degrees, gold - at approximately 1070 degrees Celsius. And the combustion temperature of wood is 800-1000 degrees. But the fire of Joan, executed in the open square, hardly reached the highest level of temperature. Ventilation is good. Not a stove, not even a fireplace.

I seriously doubt that after the burning, anyone sifted through the huge pile of coal and ashes and the burnt remains of the maiden in search of her ring.

The documents cited by the auctioneers say that after the execution of the Maid of Orleans, the ring was somehow owned by cardinals and court nobles. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the ring ended up in private collections and was put up for auction more than once in various auction houses. Moreover, information about all owners of the ring is documented.

But if we proceed from the fact that in life many events are interpreted much more complexly than they actually are, it is quite possible to assume that Jeanne, in fact, was not executed, and she herself handed over the ring to her saviors as a token of gratitude for deliverance from death (after all it was for Jeanne the highest jewel, consecrated by Saint Catherine), and, perhaps, also as a sign that she swears not to divulge this secret...

Justified and holy

After the end of the Normandy War in 1452 Charles VII ordered to collect all the documents related to the trial of Jeanne and check whether her trial was legal. Conclusions: no, it wasn’t. In 1455 the pope Calixtus III ordered to return once again to the trial of Jeanne and its materials. 115 witnesses were questioned, including Jeanne's mother, her comrades in arms and residents of Orleans.

Pope Pius X in 1909 he proclaimed the Virgin of Orleans blessed, and on May 16, 1920, the pope Benedict XV canonized her.

It remains to add that when the conqueror of the English, the maiden who brought the king to the throne, the heroine of France and her future saint ascended to the stake, she was only 19 years old...

Dramatic oratorio (1938, Basel) based on the poem by P. Claudel.

Cast of performers: reader, Joan of Arc (without singing), Brother Dominic, monk (without singing), Virgin Mary (soprano), Saint Margaret (soprano), Saint Catherine (contralto), Hog, chairman of the court (tenor), Donkey , scribe (tenor), Grain (without singing), Mother of the wine barrels (without singing), 3 heralds (tenor, bass, without singing), monks, priests, crowd, children (choir, children's choir), orchestra.

History of creation

In Honegger's work, oratorios belong to one of the leading genres. Most of them were created in the 1930s: “Cries of the World”, “Dance of the Dead”, “Nicolas of Fleux”, “Joan of Arc at the stake”. The latter turned out to be especially in tune with the mood of the era - the eve of World War II and the French Resistance. It was conceived, according to Honegger, as a “grandiose popular fresco” and was perceived by contemporaries as a mass performance in the spirit of the newly popular festivities of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794 at that time, unfolding in the squares of Paris with the participation and presence of thousands of people. tried in this work to be accessible to the masses and at the same time interesting for the musician," the composer asserted. On the other hand, the first thought about the oratorio came to the mind of the famous art lover, dancer and dramatic actress Ida Rubinstein, when she was present at the Sorbonne for a student performance in the style of medieval folk mysteries.The oratorio is dedicated to her.

Honegger turned to Paul Claudel with a proposal to develop a story about Joan of Arc (1410 or 1412-1431), the 500th anniversary of whose first feat - the liberation of Orleans, for which she received the name of the Virgin of Orleans - was celebrated in 1929. Paul Claudel ( 1868-1955), the largest French writer and poet, devoted almost half a century, until the mid-30s, to the diplomatic service and visited many countries. Conversion to Catholicism in 1886 left a deep mark on his work, as evidenced by the play “The Annunciation Mary", translations of psalms, text for the oratorio "Way of the Cross", a cycle of poems "Calendar of Saints"; in the 30s "Religion and Poetry", "Mass Yonder", "The Poet Sees the Cross", "The Mysticism of Precious Stones" appeared In Catholic circles he was considered the “new Shakespeare.” The famous French encyclopedia Larousse characterizes Claudel as follows: “A symbolist and at the same time a realist, in any case a deep mystic; simple and at the same time refined, often dark and powerful, he gave his art a rough primitive form..."

In the story of Joan of Arc, which was extremely popular in France, Claudel saw mystical motives that were close to himself and was looking for an original interpretation for it. He proposed a free construction of the tragedy. According to Claudel, “the pinnacle of Joan of Arc’s life is death, the bonfire in Rouen. From this peak, she surveys the entire chain of events that brought her here, starting with those closer in time and ending with those more distant, right up to the realization of her calling, her mission.” The text was created in rhythmic prose using the features of folk poetry, many episodes in medieval Latin. According to Honegger, Claudel “showed me line by line the composition of the score. He made me feel the atmosphere of the poems, explained the nature of the melodies... It is enough to hear how Claudel reads and rereads his text. He does this with such plastic force that the verses seem to highlight a musical relief, presented clearly and distinctly to those endowed with musical imagination.” The main role was originally intended for Ida Rubinstein, who sang a children's song in only one scene. Many other roles were also intended for dramatic actors.

“Joan of Arc at the stake,” designated as a dramatic oratorio, was intended to be staged, but its premiere took place in concert performance in the homeland of Honegger’s parents, Switzerland. This happened 3 years after the completion of work on the music, on May 12, 1938 in Basel , conducted by the famous Swiss conductor Paul Sacher with Ida Rubinstein in the title role. The stage premiere took place on May 6 next year in Orleans, in a theater built on the ruins of an ancient church exactly 510 years after the feat of the Virgin of Orleans - the liberation of the city from the British. “Hundreds of Orléans " They could hardly hold back their tears. They no longer felt like an audience... but like that crowd of Rouensians who had once crowded around the fire and looked at Saint Joan, burning like a fiery whirlwind that rises from the very heart of France. " 6 years later, in 1945 Honegger wrote the prologue to the oratorio.

The dramatic oratorio “Joan of Arc at the stake” combines the features of mystery, passion and folk square performances. It consists of a prologue and the following 11 scenes without interruption, where musical and speech episodes alternate. Of the solo vocal parts, the most significant are the parts of Saints Margaret and Catherine, inspiring and encouraging Zhanna. One of the most important places is given to the choirs - men's, mixed, children's.

The choral prologue depicts a France plunged into darkness, ravaged by many years of war, torn apart. From the groaning cries of the choir, a plea for salvation is born from the solo soprano to the canonical prayer text “De profundis” (“From the depths of the abyss I cry”), which is replaced by an energetic march. The reader proclaims “There was a girl named Jeanne” four times, and the chorus develops this phrase in a rapid fugato. The climax of the prologue is the ringing of bells, conveyed by the chords of 2 pianos, against the background of which the choir calls on Jeanne to heroism. Scene 4, “Jeanne given to the animals,” is set in the spirit of folk medieval farcical performances. Each episode opens with a fanfare call of trumpets. The first is the election of the chairman of the court. The tiger, fox and snake refuse, then Borov proposes his candidacy (the surname of the bishop, chairman of the Rouen tribunal that condemned Jeanne is parodied: Cauchon is a pig). It is characterized by a pompous and vulgar aria using Latin phrases, in a tense-sounding high register, accompanied by a choir and small trumpet. The next episode is the election of assessors and scribe. The first turn out to be rams (the choir imitates their bleating), the second a donkey (the soloist’s cry of “eeee” is imitated by the choir and “Marteno’s waves”). All this mocking music is superimposed on a dark chorale of low strings and wind instruments, reminiscent of the church chant Dies irae (Day of Wrath). Scene 8, “The King Gathered in Reims,” is also based on the traditions of medieval performances. However, here Onneger turns to these traditions not for a satirical characterization of Joan's enemies, but to create a broad picture of people's life. The massive celebration in honor of the victory over the enemies opens with the ringing of bells and the coronation march of the king, where the phrases of the folk song “Laonian Chime” are used. Another folk song varies in the next episode, depicting the unification of the northern and southern provinces of France (the north represents the Grain, the south the Mother of the Wine Barrels). Another authentic folk melody, the May song "Trimaso", entrusted mainly to children's voices, sounds in the central section of the 9th scene, "The Sword of Joan". The 11th scene, “Joan of Arc in the Flame,” forms a grand finale. The solo trumpet precedes the solemn phrase of a new character - the Virgin Mary, blessing Joan's sacrifice. The first section embodies the feelings of the crowd gathered in the square of Rouen: some curse Joan the Witch , others glorify Joan the Virgin.The final section ends with a solemn statement of the march theme, “There is a joy that is stronger than all things.” The tension subsides, and the peaceful voices of children are heard, praising sacrifice in the name of love for people. The oratorio concludes with the gentle singing of a nightingale, which first appeared in scene 1, “Voices of Heaven.”

L. Mikheeva

Characters and performers:

Vivaldi choir
Lieder Camera choir
Madrigal choir
Orquestra Simfonica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya (OBC)
conductor Marc Soustrot

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