Man is not an isolated, self-contained being who lives and develops from himself. He is connected to the world around him and needs it. Its very existence as an organism presupposes the exchange of substances between it and nature. To maintain his existence, a person needs substances and products located outside him; for its continuation in others, like oneself, a person needs another person. In the process of historical development, the circle of what a person needs continues to expand. This objective need, reflected in the human psyche, is experienced by him as a need. A need is, therefore, a need experienced by a person for something lying outside of him; it reveals a person’s connection with the outside world and his dependence on it.

In addition to the objects necessary for the existence of a person, for which he feels a need, without which his existence is either in general or at a given level impossible, there are others, the presence of which, not being objectively necessary in the strict sense and not being subjectively experienced as a need, represents for human interest. Ideals rise above needs and interests.

The dependence experienced or realized by a person on what he needs or what he is interested in, which is a need or interest for him, gives rise to a focus on the corresponding object. In the absence of what a person has a need or interest in, a person experiences a more or less painful tension, weighing down his anxiety, from which he naturally strives to relieve himself.

loosen up. From here, at first, a more or less indefinite, dynamic tendency arises, which appears as an aspiration when the point towards which it is directed is already somewhat clearly visible. As tendencies become objectified, that is, the object to which they are directed is determined, they are recognized and become more and more conscious motives of activity, more or less adequately reflecting the objective driving forces of human activity. Since a tendency usually causes activity aimed at satisfying the need or interest that caused it, emerging but inhibited motor moments are usually associated with it, which enhance the dynamic, directed nature of the tendencies.

Problem focus- this is first of all a question about dynamic trends, which, as motives, determine human activity, themselves in turn being determined by its goals and objectives. The focus includes two closely related points: a) subject matter content, since focus is always a focus on something, on some more or less specific object, and b) tension, tension which then arises.<...>

Dynamic tendencies in concrete form appeared in modern psychology for the first time - with Freud - in the form of drives. In an unconscious drive, the object towards which it is directed is not realized. Therefore, the object seems unimportant in the drive, and the very direction expressed in the drive appears as something inherent in the individual in itself, in his body and coming from within, from his depths. This is how the nature of dynamic tendencies in Freud’s doctrine of drives is depicted, and this interpretation has affected the doctrine of dynamic tendencies in the modern doctrine of motivation. Meanwhile, the orientation expressed in drives is actually generated by the need for something located outside the individual. And every dynamic tendency, expressing a person’s orientation, always contains a more or less conscious connection between the individual and something outside him, the relationship between the internal and the external. But in some cases, as is the case in drives associated with a stimulus fixed in the body, the line coming from the inside, from the internal to the external, comes to the fore; in other cases, on the contrary, this two-way dependence or relationship is ultimately established, directed first from the outside to the inside. This is what happens when socially significant goals and objectives that are set by society for an individual and accepted become personally significant for him. Socially significant, due, being fixed in the norms of law and morality regulating social life, becoming personally significant for a person, gives rise to dynamic tendencies in him, sometimes of great effective force, trends

obligations, different from the original attraction tendencies in their source and content, but similar to them in their dynamic effect. The ought, in a certain sense, is opposed to what directly entails, since something is accepted as a ought not because it attracts me, that I immediately want it. But this does not mean that antagonism will certainly form between them, that I obey what I should only as some external force coming from outside, forcing me to act contrary to my inclinations and desires. The whole point is that what is due does not become a significant goal for me because I directly want it, but because I want it - sometimes with my whole being, to its most intimate depths - because I realized the social significance of this goal and its implementation became my vital, personal matter, to which I am sometimes drawn with a force that exceeds the force of elementary, only personal inclinations. The possibility of such reversibility of this relationship between the significance of the goal and attraction, aspiration, will lies the most specific and original feature of a person’s orientation and the tendencies that form it.<.. .>

In contrast to intellectualistic psychology, which derived everything from ideas, from ideas, we put forward, allocating to it a certain, delimited place, the problem of tendencies, attitudes, needs and interests, as diverse manifestations of the orientation of the individual. However, we disagree in its resolution with the currents of modern foreign psychology, which look for a source of motivation only in the dark “depths” of a tendency inaccessible to consciousness, no less, if not more, than with intellectualistic psychology, which ignored this problem.

The motives of human activity are a reflection of the objective driving forces of human behavior more or less adequately refracted in consciousness. The very needs and interests of the individual arise and develop from the changing and developing relationships of a person with the world around him. Man's needs and interests are therefore historical; they develop, change, restructure; the development and restructuring of existing needs and interests are combined with the emergence, emergence and development of new ones. Thus, the orientation of the individual is expressed in diverse, ever expanding and enriching trends, which serve as a source of diverse and versatile activities. In the process of this activity, the motives from which it comes change, are restructured and are enriched with ever new content.

Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. 2nd ed. M., 1946, p. 623-626.

A. V. Petrovsky

BE A PERSONAL

The problem of human sociogenic needs has recently increasingly attracted the attention of psychologists. The list of these needs is very long... These include such fundamental needs as the need for communication, knowledge, creativity, work, imitation, aesthetic pleasure, self-determination and many others.

Based on all of the above, shouldn’t we highlight another sociogenic need of the individual, namely the need to be an individual, the need for personalization. We obviously have no reason to fear reproaches for the banality of the question. If we see in a person not just an individual as a bearer of one or another social role or the holder of a “package” of his individual psychological characteristics, but a certain “supersensible” quality of a person that relies on other people, interpersonal relationships and himself “as another” through socially determined activity, then we have the right to think about the source and conditions of the process of such positing. To do this, let us turn to the main source of human activity - to his needs: “No one can do anything without doing it at the same time for the sake of some of his needs...” 1.

It can be assumed that the individual has a certain sociogenic need to be a person in the fullness of its social definitions. Precisely personality! Because the need to be, or more precisely, to remain an individual, largely coincides with the need for self-preservation, with the entire ensemble of human vital needs.

A person becomes a person through work and communication. “Personality is not an integrity determined genotypically: one is not born with a personality, become" 2. Joint work is impossible without mutual exchange of ideas, intentions, and thoughts. But it also presupposes the need to know what the participants in labor are like. This knowledge is obtained mainly indirectly through activities that are carried out jointly. A person is judged not by what he says or thinks about himself, but by what he does. So shouldn’t it be assumed that in unity with the need to say something to each other about a common cause, there is also a need to somehow show oneself to each other, to highlight one’s contribution to the common success, to be best understood and appreciated by others.

By providing through active participation in activities

1 Marx TO-, Engels F. Leipzig Cathedral, Soch., vol. 3, p. 245.

2 Leontyev A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality, p. 176.

one’s “other existence” in other people, an individual objectively forms in the group the content of its need for personalization, which subjectively can act as a desire for attention, fame, friendship, respect, leadership, and may or may not be reflected or realized. The individual’s need to be a person becomes a condition for the formation in other people of the ability to see him as a person. By distinguishing himself as an individual, achieving a differentiated assessment of himself as an individual, a person in his activity puts himself into a community as a necessary condition for its existence. The social need for personalization is clear. Otherwise, the trusting, intimate connection between people, the connection between generations disappears, because the individual absorbs not only the knowledge that is transmitted to him, but also the personality of the person transmitting the knowledge.

Using a metaphor, we can say that society initially develops a kind of “social insurance of the individual” system. By making positive “contributions” to other people through activity, generously sharing his being with them, the individual provides himself with attention, care, love in case of old age, illness, disability, etc. This should not be understood too pragmatically. Believing his existence in other people, a person does not necessarily anticipate future dividends, but acts with specific goals of activity in mind, its substantive content (although an intentional, conscious need for personalization is not excluded). If we consider, for example, a grandfather’s love and care for his grandson objectively, without sentimentality, then this relationship as a moment of personalization continues in the future with the grandson’s love for his grandfather, that is, it returns him with his own existence, enriched by the existence of the younger generation.

Here you can clearly see the actual human element inherent in the process of personalization. Soviet psychologist K.K. Platonov once jokingly said<...>during a conversation about Vercors’ novel “People or Animals?”, where the question of the difference between humans and animals is posed in an acutely grotesque form: “And I will point out to you one obvious difference - animals do not know grandparents!” In fact, only a person is capable of continuing himself not only in the next generation, but also through generations, creating his ideal representation in his grandchildren.

A person’s need to be an individual, to carry out his activities nkya with benefit for the community to which he belongs, and therefore for himself as its member, already contained in itself the possibility of splitting the action “for himself” and “for others,” in his own favor or in favor of the community, group, collective. Wherein act could easily turn into a crime.

The sociogenic need to be an individual always exists in a specific historical form and has a class content. In antagonistic socio-economic formations, this

the need could be fully realized only by representatives of the ruling class and was suppressed by all means among the enslaved.

Alienation of the results of labor, characteristic of antagonistic formations, gave rise to perverted forms of personal attribution of the individual. Having imprinted his work in the produced object, its creator could not hope that he would thereby continue himself in those for whom this object was intended. This paradox depersonalization the creator in a society of exploitation of man by man is perfectly captured in a grotesque form by E. T. A. Hoffmann in the short story “Little Tsakhes, called Zinnober,” where the little freak Tsakhes, by the power of magic, is attributed all the merits of those around him, and all his own shortcomings and mistakes are attributed to someone to another,

In a socialist society there is no suppression of the individual for the sake of someone’s economic calculations and interests.<...>

The free and comprehensive development of abilities allows a person, through socially useful activities, to make a positive contribution to other people, to the life of society as a whole.

So, the hypothetical sociogenic need to be a person is realized in the desire to be ideally represented in another person, to live in him, to change him in the desired direction. Just as an individual strives to continue himself in another person physically(continue the race, produce offspring), the individual’s personality strives to continue itself, establishing an ideal representation, its “otherness” in other people. Let us ask again: isn’t this the essence communication, which does not come down only to the exchange of information, to acts of communication, but acts as a process in which a person shares his existence with other people, imprints, continues himself in them and appears before them as a person.

The realization of the need to be a person, obviously, lies at the basis of artistic creativity, where works of art act as a translator, with the help of which one achieves the position of oneself in others. Of course, it is by no means assumed that the need to personalize through another person is clearly recognized both by those who experience this need and by those through whom acts of personalization are carried out. A sculptor carving a statue satisfies his creative need to embody his plan in marble and is primarily aware of this desire itself. It is this moment that is captured and stuck on by various theories of “self-expression” and “self-actualization” of the individual, such as the concept of A. Maslow. Why does the artist strive to demonstrate his creation to the largest possible circle of people, especially those whom he considers “connoisseurs,” i.e., his reference group? It would seem that he has carried out an act of “self-actualization”, expressed himself, realized himself in an object, finally received money - and move on to current

business! So, maybe the whole point is that the “subject-object” act (artist-sculpture) does not end the creative activity and the need remains unsatisfied until the next link in the subject-object-subject connection (artist - sculpture - viewer) is completed. , which will allow for the necessary personalization of the artist in others significant to him.

One might object: well, of course, the artist has the future connoisseur in mind when he creates his work. But this is not so much an objection as support - it’s just that the third link still exists in ideal form in the artist’s head, but it exists. In Vladimir Orlov’s story “Violist Danilov”, in the image of a violinist, the creator of “tishism”, a special direction in music (silent musical works), a subject-object relationship (violinist-instrument) is presented, eliminating, along with the last link, the music itself - an example of “ self-realization" and self-actualization" in its pure form.

The need to “be a person,” the need for personalization, ensures the active inclusion of the individual in the system of social connections and at the same time turns out to be conditioned by these social connections, which ultimately develop objectively, regardless of the will of the individual. Striving to include one’s self in the consciousness, feelings and will of others through active participation in joint activities, introducing them to one’s interests and desires, a person thereby satisfies the need for personalization. However, satisfaction of a need, as is known, gives rise to a new need of a higher order, and the process continues either by extensions subject of personalization, the emergence of new individuals in which a given individual is imprinted, or by recesses the process itself.

Transformation of the subject of activity changes the transforming subject himself. In relation to personality psychology, this psychological pattern appears in a twofold form. Having committed a noble or unworthy act, a person, by the very fact of this act, changes myself. Here the “contribution” through the act of activity is made into the individual himself, “as into another.” An individual may interpret a noble act as meaningless, “empty,” “normal,” and a mean one as “forced,” “harmless,” and even generally as an act dictated by more than noble motives (a psychological defense mechanism). At the same time, the committed act rebuilds the affective-need and intellectual sphere another individual in relation to whom the first behaved nobly or meanly. A person grows or falls in the eyes of other people, and this acts as a characteristic of him, precisely his personality.

An individual transfers himself into another not in the airless environment of “communication of souls,” but in specific activities carried out in specific social communities. From the main provisions

stratometric. concept it follows that, for example, altruistic motives (altruism is the purest case of placing oneself in another), depending on whether they are mediated by the socially valuable content of joint activity or not, in one case can act in the form of collectivistic identification, and in another - like forgiveness, connivance. In one case, the one to whom the altruistic act is addressed (or an outside observer), characterizing the personality of the first, says "a kind person", in a different - "kind." A person who continues his existence in another satisfies his need for positive personalization if his action is most consistent with the content and values ​​of the activity that unites him with other people and, ultimately, with the public interests reflected in it.

The need for personalization may not be recognized either by the person experiencing this need or by the objects of his actions. It can be realized and verbalized in an aggravated, sometimes painfully hypertrophied form. The desire to become famous (and, therefore, to imprint oneself on people) leads to oddities, many times described by satirical writers. The landowner Bobchinsky, as we remember, had only one simple request to the “auditor”. “I humbly ask you, when you go to St. Petersburg, tell all the different nobles there: senators and admirals, that, your Excellency or Excellency, Pyotr Ivanovich Bobchinsky lives in such and such a city. Just say: Pyotr Ivanovich Bobchinsky lives." 1

A socially valid and valuable way to express needs and personalize lies in work activity.

One can argue about the ethical aspects of ambition - whether a person has the right to reveal to others in an explicit and conscious form his desire, if any, to act as an example and thereby continue himself in his own kind. But, apparently, if this desire is mediated by socially valuable labor, creative activity, then it is unlikely to be fair to question the appropriateness of such motivation.

The individual’s need to realize himself as a person, most often manifested unconsciously, as the hidden motivation of his actions and deeds, is represented in numerous and well-studied in psychology phenomena of aspirations, risk-taking, altruism, etc.<.. .>

The dependence of an individual on society is manifested in the motives of his actions, “but they themselves act as forms of the individual’s apparent spontaneity. If, in need, a person’s activity depends on its objective-social content, then in motives this dependence is manifested in the form of the subject’s own activity. Therefore, the system of motives of behavior personality, motivation to achieve

1 Gogol N.V. Collection. op. In 7 volumes. M., 1977, vol. 4, p. 62.

marriages, friendship, altruism, “supra-situational” risk are richer in characteristics, more elastic, more mobile than the need, in this case the need for personalization, which constitutes their essence.

The need to be an individual involves the ability to be her. This ability, as one can assume, is nothing more than the individual psychological characteristics of a person, which allow him to carry out actions that ensure his adequate personalization in other people. So, in unity with the need for personalization, which is the source of the subject’s activity, as its prerequisite and result, the socially conditioned ability to be a person appears as actually human ability.

Like any ability it individual, distinguishes a given person from other people and, in a certain sense, contrasts him with them. The dramatic nature of the fate of a person who, due to external conditions and circumstances, is deprived of the opportunity to realize his need for personalization is obvious. However, it also happens that the ability to be a person remains undeveloped in a person and takes on ugly forms. A person who purely formally fulfills his duties avoids socially useful activities, showing indifference to the fate of people and the cause he serves, loses the ability to be ideally represented in the deeds and thoughts, in the lives of other people. A person who prides himself on his individuality and isolates himself from others also ultimately becomes depersonalized and ceases to be a person. Paradox! A person emphasizes his “self”, but thereby loses any individuality, loses “his face”, and is erased in the consciousness of others. “Empty space” - this is what they say about a person who has lost the ability to personalize, and emptiness, as we know, does not have its own individuality.

But, in addition to the individual, the ability to personalize also contains the general. It manifests itself in the subject’s translation of elements of the social whole, patterns of behavior, norms, and at the same time in his own activity, which is of a supra-individual nature, just as belonging to him as to other representatives of a given social community.

These are, in general terms, the psychological characteristics of the need and ability to be a person, acting in an inextricable unity.<.. .>

We should not forget that at the basis of personality formation, in addition to the individual’s need to be a person, there are, of course, other needs, both material and spiritual. The latter should include the fundamental sociogenic need for cognition and its numerous derivatives (for example, the need for aesthetic pleasure). There is neither reason nor possibility to reduce the need for personalization to a person’s cognitive need, or vice versa. The personality of an individual is constructed in the process of realizing all its capabilities and

needs for socially determined activities. However, identifying among them another class of human needs and abilities - to be an individual, as well as carrying out an experimental test of their real creative role, it is hoped, will contribute to the further development of the Marxist-Leninist theory of personality in a team.

Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activities. Team. M., 1982, p. 235-

I. S. Kon PERSONALITY CONSISTENCY: MYTH OR REALITY!

The idea of ​​personal identity, the constancy of the basic traits and structure of personality is the central postulate, an axiom of personality theory. But is this axiom confirmed empirically? At the end of the 60s, the American psychologist W. Michel, after analyzing the data of experimental psychology, came to the conclusion that no.

The so-called “personality traits”, the stability of which was measured by psychologists, are not special ontological entities, but conditional constructs, behind which there are often very vague behavioral or motivational syndromes, and the distinction between permanent, stable “traits” and changeable, fluid psychological “states” (shyness - a stable personality trait, and embarrassment or calmness are temporary states) is largely conditional. If we also take into account the conventionality of psychological measurements, the variability of situations, the time factor and other points, then the constancy of most “personality traits,” with the possible exception of intelligence, looks very doubtful. Whether we take people's attitude towards authoritative elders and peers, moral behavior, dependence, suggestibility, tolerance for contradictions or self-control - everywhere variability prevails over constancy.

The behavior of the same person in different situations can be completely different, therefore, based on how one or another individual acted in a certain situation, it is impossible to accurately predict variations in his behavior in another situation. W. Michel also believes that there is no reason to believe that the present and future behavior of an individual is completely determined by his past. The traditional psychodynamic concept sees the individual as a helpless victim of childhood experience, fixed in the form of rigid, unchanging properties. While paying lip service to the complexity and uniqueness of human life, this concept actually leaves no room for independent creative decisions that a person makes taking into account the special circumstances of his life at any given moment. However,

And Order 5162

Psychology cannot take into account the extraordinary adaptability of man, his ability to rethink and change himself.

This criticism of “individualistic,” asocial psychology is largely fair. But if individuals do not have relatively stable behavior that distinguishes them from other people, then the very concept of personality becomes meaningless.

Michel's opponents pointed out that “mental traits” are not “bricks” of which a personality and (or) its behavior supposedly “consists,” but generalized dispositions (states), a predisposition to think, feel and behave in a certain way. Without predetermining individual actions, which rather depend on specific situational factors, such “personality traits” influence the overall style of behavior of the individual in the long term, internally interacting with each other and with the situation. For example, anxiety is the tendency to experience fear or worry in a situation where there is some kind of threat, sociability is the tendency to behave friendly in situations involving communication, etc.

“Personality traits” are not static or simply reactive, but involve dynamic motivational tendencies, the tendency to seek out or create situations that are conducive to their expression. An individual with the trait of intellectual openness tries to read books, attend lectures, and discuss new ideas, whereas a person who is intellectually closed usually does not do this. The internal dnspositional sequence, manifested in different behavioral forms, also has age specificity. The same anxiety can manifest itself in a teenager mainly in tense relationships with peers, in an adult - in a feeling of professional uncertainty, in an old person - in an exaggerated fear of illness and death.

Knowing the psychological properties of an individual, it is impossible to predict with certainty how he will act in any particular situation (this depends on many reasons that lie outside his individuality), but such knowledge is effective in explaining and predicting the specific behavior of people of a given type or the behavior of a given individual in more or less long term.

Let's take, for example, the trait of honesty. Can we assume that a person who shows honesty in one situation will be honest in another? Apparently not. A study by G. Hartshorne and M. May recorded the behavior of the same children (over 8 thousand children were tested) in different situations: using a cheat sheet in class, cheating while doing homework, cheating in a game, stealing money, lying, falsifying results sports competitions, etc. The intercorrelations of 23 similar tests were very low, leading to the idea that the expression of honesty in one situation has low predictive value for another single situation. But as soon as scientists combined several tests into a single

scale, as it immediately acquired high predictive value, allowing one to predict the behavior of a given child in almost half of the experimental situations. We reason the same way in everyday life: judging a person by one action is naive, but several actions of the same type are already something...

Experimental psychology judges the constancy or variability of personality using certain test indicators. However, dimensional consistency can be explained not only by the invariance of the measured traits, but also by other reasons, for example, the fact that the person guessed the psychologists' intention or remembers his past answers. It is no easier to record continuity of behavior. When trying to predict or explain an individual’s behavior by the characteristics of his past (retrodiction), one must take into account that “the same” behavior based on external signs can have completely different psychological meanings at different ages. If, for example, a child tortures a cat, this does not mean that he will necessarily grow up to be cruel. In addition, there is a so-called “dormant” or “delayed” effect, when some quality exists for a long time in the form of a latent predisposition and manifests itself only at a certain stage of human development, and at different ages in different ways. For example, the properties of a teenager’s behavior that can be used to predict the level of his mental health at 30 years old are different than those that predict the mental health of 40-year-olds.

Any theory of personality development postulates the presence of certain successive phases or stages in this process. But there are at least five different theoretical models of individual development. One model suggests that although the rate of development of different individuals is not the same and therefore they reach maturity at different ages (the principle of heterochrony), the end result and criteria of maturity are the same for everyone. Other model proceeds from the fact that the period of development and growth is strictly limited by chronological age: what was missed in childhood cannot be made up later, and the individual characteristics of an adult can be predicted already in childhood. The third model starting from the fact that the duration of the period of growth and development varies from person to person, he believes it is impossible to predict the properties of an adult from his early childhood; an individual who is lagging behind at one stage of development can get ahead at another. Fourth model focuses on the fact that development is heterochronic not only in an inter-individual, but also in an intra-individual sense: different subsystems of the body and personality reach the peak of development at different times, so an adult is higher in some respects, and lower in others than a child. Fifth model emphasizes, first of all, the internal contradictions specific to each phase of an individual’s development, the method of resolution of which predetermines the possibilities of the next stage (this is the theory of E. Ernkson).

But besides theories, there is empirical data. While developmental psychology was limited to comparative age studies, the problem of personality constancy could not be discussed in detail. But in recent decades, longitudinal studies have become widespread, tracking the development of the same people over a long period of time...

The general conclusion of all longitudinals is stability, constancy and continuity of individual personality traits at all stages of development are more pronounced than variability. However, the continuity of personality and its properties does not exclude their development and change, and the ratio of both depends on a number of conditions.

First of all, the degree of constancy or variability of individual properties is related to their own nature and presumed determination.

Biologically stable traits genetically determined or arising in the initial stages of ontogenesis, they persist throughout life and are more closely related to gender than to age. Culturally determined traits much more variable, and shifts that appear to be age-dependent in age-comparative studies often in fact express sociohistorical differences. Biocultural traits, subject to double determination, vary depending on both biological and socio-cultural conditions.

According to many studies, the most stable are cognitive properties, in particular, the so-called primary mental abilities, and properties associated with the type of higher nervous activity (temperament, extraversion or introversion, emotional reactivity and neuroticism).

The long-term persistence of many behavioral and motivational syndromes is also beyond doubt. For example, three different teachers' descriptions of the behavior of the same children at 3, 4, and 7 years old turned out to be very similar. Several classmates' assessments of the degree of aggressiveness (tendency to pick fights, etc.) of 200 sixth-grade boys had changed little three years later. “Many forms of behavior of a 6-10-year-old child and certain forms of his behavior between 3 and 6 years already make it possible to quite definitely predict the theoretically associated forms of behavior of a young adult. Passive withdrawal from stressful situations, dependence on the family, hot temper, love of mental activity, communicative anxiety, gender-role identification and sexual behavior of an adult are associated with his similar, within reasonable limits, behavioral dispositions in the first school years" (Kagan I., Moss X. ).

High mental constancy is also observed in adults. In 53 women tested at age 30 and again at age 70, 10 of 16 measurements were stable. According to P. Costa and R. McCrae, men from 17 to 85 years old, tested three times

Man is not an isolated, self-contained being who lives and develops from himself. He is connected to the world around him and needs it. Its very existence as an organism presupposes the exchange of substances between it and nature. To maintain his existence, a person needs substances and products located outside him; for its continuation in others, like oneself, a person needs another person. In the process of historical development, the circle of what a person needs continues to expand. This objective need, reflected in the human psyche, is experienced by him as a need. A need is, therefore, a need experienced by a person for something lying outside of him; it reveals a person’s connection with the outside world and his dependence on it.

In addition to the objects necessary for the existence of a person, for which he feels a need, without which his existence is either in general or at a given level impossible, there are others, the presence of which, not being objectively necessary in the strict sense and not being subjectively experienced as a need, represents for human interest. Ideals rise above needs and interests.

The dependence experienced or realized by a person on what he needs or what he is interested in, which is a need or interest for him, gives rise to a focus on the corresponding object. In the absence of what a person has a need or interest in, a person experiences a more or less painful tension, weighing down his anxiety, from which he naturally strives to relieve himself.

loosen up. From here, at first, a more or less indefinite, dynamic tendency arises, which appears as an aspiration when the point towards which it is directed is already somewhat clearly visible. As tendencies become objectified, that is, the object to which they are directed is determined, they are recognized and become more and more conscious motives of activity, more or less adequately reflecting the objective driving forces of human activity. Since a tendency usually causes activity aimed at satisfying the need or interest that caused it, emerging but inhibited motor moments are usually associated with it, which enhance the dynamic, directed nature of the tendencies.

Problem focus- this is first of all a question about dynamic trends, which, as motives, determine human activity, themselves in turn being determined by its goals and objectives. The focus includes two closely related points: a) subject matter content, since focus is always a focus on something, on some more or less specific object, and b) tension, tension which then arises.<...>

Dynamic tendencies in concrete form appeared in modern psychology for the first time - with Freud - in the form of drives. In an unconscious drive, the object towards which it is directed is not realized. Therefore, the object seems unimportant in the drive, and the very direction expressed in the drive appears as something inherent in the individual in itself, in his body and coming from within, from his depths. This is how the nature of dynamic tendencies in Freud’s doctrine of drives is depicted, and this interpretation has affected the doctrine of dynamic tendencies in the modern doctrine of motivation. Meanwhile, the orientation expressed in drives is actually generated by the need for something located outside the individual. And every dynamic tendency, expressing a person’s orientation, always contains a more or less conscious connection between the individual and something outside him, the relationship between the internal and the external. But in some cases, as is the case in drives associated with a stimulus fixed in the body, the line coming from the inside, from the internal to the external, comes to the fore; in other cases, on the contrary, this two-way dependence or relationship is ultimately established, directed first from the outside to the inside. This is what happens when socially significant goals and objectives that are set by society for an individual and accepted become personally significant for him. Socially significant, due, being fixed in the norms of law and morality regulating social life, becoming personally significant for a person, gives rise to dynamic tendencies in him, sometimes of great effective force, trends

obligations, different from the original attraction tendencies in their source and content, but similar to them in their dynamic effect. The ought, in a certain sense, is opposed to what directly entails, since something is accepted as a ought not because it attracts me, that I immediately want it. But this does not mean that antagonism will certainly form between them, that I obey what I should only as some external force coming from outside, forcing me to act contrary to my inclinations and desires. The whole point is that what is due does not become a significant goal for me because I directly want it, but because I want it - sometimes with my whole being, to its most intimate depths - because I realized the social significance of this goal and its implementation became my vital, personal matter, to which I am sometimes drawn with a force that exceeds the force of elementary, only personal inclinations. The possibility of such reversibility of this relationship between the significance of the goal and attraction, aspiration, will lies the most specific and original feature of a person’s orientation and the tendencies that form it.<.. .>

In contrast to intellectualistic psychology, which derived everything from ideas, from ideas, we put forward, allocating to it a certain, delimited place, the problem of tendencies, attitudes, needs and interests, as diverse manifestations of the orientation of the individual. However, we disagree in its resolution with the currents of modern foreign psychology, which look for a source of motivation only in the dark “depths” of a tendency inaccessible to consciousness, no less, if not more, than with intellectualistic psychology, which ignored this problem.

The motives of human activity are a reflection of the objective driving forces of human behavior more or less adequately refracted in consciousness. The very needs and interests of the individual arise and develop from the changing and developing relationships of a person with the world around him. Man's needs and interests are therefore historical; they develop, change, restructure; the development and restructuring of existing needs and interests are combined with the emergence, emergence and development of new ones. Thus, the orientation of the individual is expressed in diverse, ever expanding and enriching trends, which serve as a source of diverse and versatile activities. In the process of this activity, the motives from which it comes change, are restructured and are enriched with ever new content.

Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. 2nd ed. M., 1946, p. 623-626.

A. V. Petrovsky

BE A PERSONAL

The problem of human sociogenic needs has recently increasingly attracted the attention of psychologists. The list of these needs is very long... These include such fundamental needs as the need for communication, knowledge, creativity, work, imitation, aesthetic pleasure, self-determination and many others.

Based on all of the above, shouldn’t we highlight another sociogenic need of the individual, namely the need to be an individual, the need for personalization. We obviously have no reason to fear reproaches for the banality of the question. If we see in a person not just an individual as a bearer of one or another social role or the holder of a “package” of his individual psychological characteristics, but a certain “supersensible” quality of a person that relies on other people, interpersonal relationships and himself “as another” through socially determined activity, then we have the right to think about the source and conditions of the process of such positing. To do this, let us turn to the main source of human activity - to his needs: “No one can do anything without doing it at the same time for the sake of some of his needs...” 1.

It can be assumed that the individual has a certain sociogenic need to be a person in the fullness of its social definitions. Precisely personality! Because the need to be, or more precisely, to remain an individual, largely coincides with the need for self-preservation, with the entire ensemble of human vital needs.

A person becomes a person through work and communication. “Personality is not an integrity determined genotypically: one is not born with a personality, become" 2. Joint work is impossible without mutual exchange of ideas, intentions, and thoughts. But it also presupposes the need to know what the participants in labor are like. This knowledge is obtained mainly indirectly through activities that are carried out jointly. A person is judged not by what he says or thinks about himself, but by what he does. So shouldn’t it be assumed that in unity with the need to say something to each other about a common cause, there is also a need to somehow show oneself to each other, to highlight one’s contribution to the common success, to be best understood and appreciated by others.

By providing through active participation in activities

1 Marx TO-, Engels F. Leipzig Cathedral, Soch., vol. 3, p. 245.

2 Leontyev A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality, p. 176.

one’s “other existence” in other people, an individual objectively forms in the group the content of its need for personalization, which subjectively can act as a desire for attention, fame, friendship, respect, leadership, and may or may not be reflected or realized. The individual’s need to be a person becomes a condition for the formation in other people of the ability to see him as a person. By distinguishing himself as an individual, achieving a differentiated assessment of himself as an individual, a person in his activity puts himself into a community as a necessary condition for its existence. The social need for personalization is clear. Otherwise, the trusting, intimate connection between people, the connection between generations disappears, because the individual absorbs not only the knowledge that is transmitted to him, but also the personality of the person transmitting the knowledge.

Using a metaphor, we can say that society initially develops a kind of “social insurance of the individual” system. By making positive “contributions” to other people through activity, generously sharing his being with them, the individual provides himself with attention, care, love in case of old age, illness, disability, etc. This should not be understood too pragmatically. Believing his existence in other people, a person does not necessarily anticipate future dividends, but acts with specific goals of activity in mind, its substantive content (although an intentional, conscious need for personalization is not excluded). If we consider, for example, a grandfather’s love and care for his grandson objectively, without sentimentality, then this relationship as a moment of personalization continues in the future with the grandson’s love for his grandfather, that is, it returns him with his own existence, enriched by the existence of the younger generation.

Here you can clearly see the actual human element inherent in the process of personalization. Soviet psychologist K.K. Platonov once jokingly said<...>during a conversation about Vercors’ novel “People or Animals?”, where the question of the difference between humans and animals is posed in an acutely grotesque form: “And I will point out to you one obvious difference - animals do not know grandparents!” In fact, only a person is capable of continuing himself not only in the next generation, but also through generations, creating his ideal representation in his grandchildren.

A person’s need to be an individual, to carry out his activities nkya with benefit for the community to which he belongs, and therefore for himself as its member, already contained in itself the possibility of splitting the action “for himself” and “for others,” in his own favor or in favor of the community, group, collective. Wherein act could easily turn into a crime.

The sociogenic need to be an individual always exists in a specific historical form and has a class content. In antagonistic socio-economic formations, this

the need could be fully realized only by representatives of the ruling class and was suppressed by all means among the enslaved.

Alienation of the results of labor, characteristic of antagonistic formations, gave rise to perverted forms of personal attribution of the individual. Having imprinted his work in the produced object, its creator could not hope that he would thereby continue himself in those for whom this object was intended. This paradox depersonalization the creator in a society of exploitation of man by man is perfectly captured in a grotesque form by E. T. A. Hoffmann in the short story “Little Tsakhes, called Zinnober,” where the little freak Tsakhes, by the power of magic, is attributed all the merits of those around him, and all his own shortcomings and mistakes are attributed to someone to another,

In a socialist society there is no suppression of the individual for the sake of someone’s economic calculations and interests.<...>

The free and comprehensive development of abilities allows a person, through socially useful activities, to make a positive contribution to other people, to the life of society as a whole.

So, the hypothetical sociogenic need to be a person is realized in the desire to be ideally represented in another person, to live in him, to change him in the desired direction. Just as an individual strives to continue himself in another person physically(continue the race, produce offspring), the individual’s personality strives to continue itself, establishing an ideal representation, its “otherness” in other people. Let us ask again: isn’t this the essence communication, which does not come down only to the exchange of information, to acts of communication, but acts as a process in which a person shares his existence with other people, imprints, continues himself in them and appears before them as a person.

The realization of the need to be a person, obviously, lies at the basis of artistic creativity, where works of art act as a translator, with the help of which one achieves the position of oneself in others. Of course, it is by no means assumed that the need to personalize through another person is clearly recognized both by those who experience this need and by those through whom acts of personalization are carried out. A sculptor carving a statue satisfies his creative need to embody his plan in marble and is primarily aware of this desire itself. It is this moment that is captured and stuck on by various theories of “self-expression” and “self-actualization” of the individual, such as the concept of A. Maslow. Why does the artist strive to demonstrate his creation to the largest possible circle of people, especially those whom he considers “connoisseurs,” i.e., his reference group? It would seem that he has carried out an act of “self-actualization”, expressed himself, realized himself in an object, finally received money - and move on to current

business! So, maybe the whole point is that the “subject-object” act (artist-sculpture) does not end the creative activity and the need remains unsatisfied until the next link in the subject-object-subject connection (artist - sculpture - viewer) is completed. , which will allow for the necessary personalization of the artist in others significant to him.

One might object: well, of course, the artist has the future connoisseur in mind when he creates his work. But this is not so much an objection as support - it’s just that the third link still exists in ideal form in the artist’s head, but it exists. In Vladimir Orlov’s story “Violist Danilov”, in the image of a violinist, the creator of “tishism”, a special direction in music (silent musical works), a subject-object relationship (violinist-instrument) is presented, eliminating, along with the last link, the music itself - an example of “ self-realization" and self-actualization" in its pure form.

The need to “be a person,” the need for personalization, ensures the active inclusion of the individual in the system of social connections and at the same time turns out to be conditioned by these social connections, which ultimately develop objectively, regardless of the will of the individual. Striving to include one’s self in the consciousness, feelings and will of others through active participation in joint activities, introducing them to one’s interests and desires, a person thereby satisfies the need for personalization. However, satisfaction of a need, as is known, gives rise to a new need of a higher order, and the process continues either by extensions subject of personalization, the emergence of new individuals in which a given individual is imprinted, or by recesses the process itself.

Transformation of the subject of activity changes the transforming subject himself. In relation to personality psychology, this psychological pattern appears in a twofold form. Having committed a noble or unworthy act, a person, by the very fact of this act, changes myself. Here the “contribution” through the act of activity is made into the individual himself, “as into another.” An individual may interpret a noble act as meaningless, “empty,” “normal,” and a mean one as “forced,” “harmless,” and even generally as an act dictated by more than noble motives (a psychological defense mechanism). At the same time, the committed act rebuilds the affective-need and intellectual sphere another individual in relation to whom the first behaved nobly or meanly. A person grows or falls in the eyes of other people, and this acts as a characteristic of him, precisely his personality.

An individual transfers himself into another not in the airless environment of “communication of souls,” but in specific activities carried out in specific social communities. From the main provisions

stratometric. concept it follows that, for example, altruistic motives (altruism is the purest case of placing oneself in another), depending on whether they are mediated by the socially valuable content of joint activity or not, in one case can act in the form of collectivistic identification, and in another - like forgiveness, connivance. In one case, the one to whom the altruistic act is addressed (or an outside observer), characterizing the personality of the first, says "a kind person", in a different - "kind." A person who continues his existence in another satisfies his need for positive personalization if his action is most consistent with the content and values ​​of the activity that unites him with other people and, ultimately, with the public interests reflected in it.

The need for personalization may not be recognized either by the person experiencing this need or by the objects of his actions. It can be realized and verbalized in an aggravated, sometimes painfully hypertrophied form. The desire to become famous (and, therefore, to imprint oneself on people) leads to oddities, many times described by satirical writers. The landowner Bobchinsky, as we remember, had only one simple request to the “auditor”. “I humbly ask you, when you go to St. Petersburg, tell all the different nobles there: senators and admirals, that, your Excellency or Excellency, Pyotr Ivanovich Bobchinsky lives in such and such a city. Just say: Pyotr Ivanovich Bobchinsky lives." 1

A socially valid and valuable way to express needs and personalize lies in work activity.

One can argue about the ethical aspects of ambition - whether a person has the right to reveal to others in an explicit and conscious form his desire, if any, to act as an example and thereby continue himself in his own kind. But, apparently, if this desire is mediated by socially valuable labor, creative activity, then it is unlikely to be fair to question the appropriateness of such motivation.

The individual’s need to realize himself as a person, most often manifested unconsciously, as the hidden motivation of his actions and deeds, is represented in numerous and well-studied in psychology phenomena of aspirations, risk-taking, altruism, etc.<.. .>

The dependence of an individual on society is manifested in the motives of his actions, “but they themselves act as forms of the individual’s apparent spontaneity. If, in need, a person’s activity depends on its objective-social content, then in motives this dependence is manifested in the form of the subject’s own activity. Therefore, the system of motives of behavior personality, motivation to achieve

1 Gogol N.V. Collection. op. In 7 volumes. M., 1977, vol. 4, p. 62.

marriages, friendship, altruism, “supra-situational” risk are richer in characteristics, more elastic, more mobile than the need, in this case the need for personalization, which constitutes their essence.

The need to be an individual involves the ability to be her. This ability, as one can assume, is nothing more than the individual psychological characteristics of a person, which allow him to carry out actions that ensure his adequate personalization in other people. So, in unity with the need for personalization, which is the source of the subject’s activity, as its prerequisite and result, the socially conditioned ability to be a person appears as actually human ability.

Like any ability it individual, distinguishes a given person from other people and, in a certain sense, contrasts him with them. The dramatic nature of the fate of a person who, due to external conditions and circumstances, is deprived of the opportunity to realize his need for personalization is obvious. However, it also happens that the ability to be a person remains undeveloped in a person and takes on ugly forms. A person who purely formally fulfills his duties avoids socially useful activities, showing indifference to the fate of people and the cause he serves, loses the ability to be ideally represented in the deeds and thoughts, in the lives of other people. A person who prides himself on his individuality and isolates himself from others also ultimately becomes depersonalized and ceases to be a person. Paradox! A person emphasizes his “self”, but thereby loses any individuality, loses “his face”, and is erased in the consciousness of others. “Empty space” - this is what they say about a person who has lost the ability to personalize, and emptiness, as we know, does not have its own individuality.

But, in addition to the individual, the ability to personalize also contains the general. It manifests itself in the subject’s translation of elements of the social whole, patterns of behavior, norms, and at the same time in his own activity, which is of a supra-individual nature, just as belonging to him as to other representatives of a given social community.

These are, in general terms, the psychological characteristics of the need and ability to be a person, acting in an inextricable unity.<.. .>

We should not forget that at the basis of personality formation, in addition to the individual’s need to be a person, there are, of course, other needs, both material and spiritual. The latter should include the fundamental sociogenic need for cognition and its numerous derivatives (for example, the need for aesthetic pleasure). There is neither reason nor possibility to reduce the need for personalization to a person’s cognitive need, or vice versa. The personality of an individual is constructed in the process of realizing all its capabilities and

needs for socially determined activities. However, identifying among them another class of human needs and abilities - to be an individual, as well as carrying out an experimental test of their real creative role, it is hoped, will contribute to the further development of the Marxist-Leninist theory of personality in a team.

Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activities. Team. M., 1982, p. 235-

I. S. Kon PERSONALITY CONSISTENCY: MYTH OR REALITY!

The idea of ​​personal identity, the constancy of the basic traits and structure of personality is the central postulate, an axiom of personality theory. But is this axiom confirmed empirically? At the end of the 60s, the American psychologist W. Michel, after analyzing the data of experimental psychology, came to the conclusion that no.

The so-called “personality traits”, the stability of which was measured by psychologists, are not special ontological entities, but conditional constructs, behind which there are often very vague behavioral or motivational syndromes, and the distinction between permanent, stable “traits” and changeable, fluid psychological “states” (shyness - a stable personality trait, and embarrassment or calmness are temporary states) is largely conditional. If we also take into account the conventionality of psychological measurements, the variability of situations, the time factor and other points, then the constancy of most “personality traits,” with the possible exception of intelligence, looks very doubtful. Whether we take people's attitude towards authoritative elders and peers, moral behavior, dependence, suggestibility, tolerance for contradictions or self-control - everywhere variability prevails over constancy.

The behavior of the same person in different situations can be completely different, therefore, based on how one or another individual acted in a certain situation, it is impossible to accurately predict variations in his behavior in another situation. W. Michel also believes that there is no reason to believe that the present and future behavior of an individual is completely determined by his past. The traditional psychodynamic concept sees the individual as a helpless victim of childhood experience, fixed in the form of rigid, unchanging properties. While paying lip service to the complexity and uniqueness of human life, this concept actually leaves no room for independent creative decisions that a person makes taking into account the special circumstances of his life at any given moment. However,

And Order 5162

Psychology cannot take into account the extraordinary adaptability of man, his ability to rethink and change himself.

This criticism of “individualistic,” asocial psychology is largely fair. But if individuals do not have relatively stable behavior that distinguishes them from other people, then the very concept of personality becomes meaningless.

Michel's opponents pointed out that “mental traits” are not “bricks” of which a personality and (or) its behavior supposedly “consists,” but generalized dispositions (states), a predisposition to think, feel and behave in a certain way. Without predetermining individual actions, which rather depend on specific situational factors, such “personality traits” influence the overall style of behavior of the individual in the long term, internally interacting with each other and with the situation. For example, anxiety is the tendency to experience fear or worry in a situation where there is some kind of threat, sociability is the tendency to behave friendly in situations involving communication, etc.

“Personality traits” are not static or simply reactive, but involve dynamic motivational tendencies, the tendency to seek out or create situations that are conducive to their expression. An individual with the trait of intellectual openness tries to read books, attend lectures, and discuss new ideas, whereas a person who is intellectually closed usually does not do this. The internal dnspositional sequence, manifested in different behavioral forms, also has age specificity. The same anxiety can manifest itself in a teenager mainly in tense relationships with peers, in an adult - in a feeling of professional uncertainty, in an old person - in an exaggerated fear of illness and death.

Knowing the psychological properties of an individual, it is impossible to predict with certainty how he will act in any particular situation (this depends on many reasons that lie outside his individuality), but such knowledge is effective in explaining and predicting the specific behavior of people of a given type or the behavior of a given individual in more or less long term.

Let's take, for example, the trait of honesty. Can we assume that a person who shows honesty in one situation will be honest in another? Apparently not. A study by G. Hartshorne and M. May recorded the behavior of the same children (over 8 thousand children were tested) in different situations: using a cheat sheet in class, cheating while doing homework, cheating in a game, stealing money, lying, falsifying results sports competitions, etc. The intercorrelations of 23 similar tests were very low, leading to the idea that the expression of honesty in one situation has low predictive value for another single situation. But as soon as scientists combined several tests into a single

scale, as it immediately acquired high predictive value, allowing one to predict the behavior of a given child in almost half of the experimental situations. We reason the same way in everyday life: judging a person by one action is naive, but several actions of the same type are already something...

Experimental psychology judges the constancy or variability of personality using certain test indicators. However, dimensional consistency can be explained not only by the invariance of the measured traits, but also by other reasons, for example, the fact that the person guessed the psychologists' intention or remembers his past answers. It is no easier to record continuity of behavior. When trying to predict or explain an individual’s behavior by the characteristics of his past (retrodiction), one must take into account that “the same” behavior based on external signs can have completely different psychological meanings at different ages. If, for example, a child tortures a cat, this does not mean that he will necessarily grow up to be cruel. In addition, there is a so-called “dormant” or “delayed” effect, when some quality exists for a long time in the form of a latent predisposition and manifests itself only at a certain stage of human development, and at different ages in different ways. For example, the properties of a teenager’s behavior that can be used to predict the level of his mental health at 30 years old are different than those that predict the mental health of 40-year-olds.

Any theory of personality development postulates the presence of certain successive phases or stages in this process. But there are at least five different theoretical models of individual development. One model suggests that although the rate of development of different individuals is not the same and therefore they reach maturity at different ages (the principle of heterochrony), the end result and criteria of maturity are the same for everyone. Other model proceeds from the fact that the period of development and growth is strictly limited by chronological age: what was missed in childhood cannot be made up later, and the individual characteristics of an adult can be predicted already in childhood. The third model starting from the fact that the duration of the period of growth and development varies from person to person, he believes it is impossible to predict the properties of an adult from his early childhood; an individual who is lagging behind at one stage of development can get ahead at another. Fourth model focuses on the fact that development is heterochronic not only in an inter-individual, but also in an intra-individual sense: different subsystems of the body and personality reach the peak of development at different times, so an adult is higher in some respects, and lower in others than a child. Fifth model emphasizes, first of all, the internal contradictions specific to each phase of an individual’s development, the method of resolution of which predetermines the possibilities of the next stage (this is the theory of E. Ernkson).

But besides theories, there is empirical data. While developmental psychology was limited to comparative age studies, the problem of personality constancy could not be discussed in detail. But in recent decades, longitudinal studies have become widespread, tracking the development of the same people over a long period of time...

The general conclusion of all longitudinals is stability, constancy and continuity of individual personality traits at all stages of development are more pronounced than variability. However, the continuity of personality and its properties does not exclude their development and change, and the ratio of both depends on a number of conditions.

First of all, the degree of constancy or variability of individual properties is related to their own nature and presumed determination.

Biologically stable traits genetically determined or arising in the initial stages of ontogenesis, they persist throughout life and are more closely related to gender than to age. Culturally determined traits much more variable, and shifts that appear to be age-dependent in age-comparative studies often in fact express sociohistorical differences. Biocultural traits, subject to double determination, vary depending on both biological and socio-cultural conditions.

According to many studies, the most stable are cognitive properties, in particular, the so-called primary mental abilities, and properties associated with the type of higher nervous activity (temperament, extraversion or introversion, emotional reactivity and neuroticism).

The long-term persistence of many behavioral and motivational syndromes is also beyond doubt. For example, three different teachers' descriptions of the behavior of the same children at 3, 4, and 7 years old turned out to be very similar. Several classmates' assessments of the degree of aggressiveness (tendency to pick fights, etc.) of 200 sixth-grade boys had changed little three years later. “Many forms of behavior of a 6-10-year-old child and certain forms of his behavior between 3 and 6 years already make it possible to quite definitely predict the theoretically associated forms of behavior of a young adult. Passive withdrawal from stressful situations, dependence on the family, hot temper, love of mental activity, communicative anxiety, gender-role identification and sexual behavior of an adult are associated with his similar, within reasonable limits, behavioral dispositions in the first school years" (Kagan I., Moss X. ).

High mental constancy is also observed in adults. In 53 women tested at age 30 and again at age 70, 10 of 16 measurements were stable. According to P. Costa and R. McCrae, men from 17 to 85 years old, tested three times

studied at intervals of 6-12 years, found almost no changes in temperament on many other indicators. Longitudinal studies have also established that such traits as activity, mood swings, self-control and self-confidence depend both on “personality syndromes” and on social factors (education, profession, social status, etc.) much more more than age; but the same traits are relatively constant in some people, while changeable in others. Stable personality traits include, as evidenced by various studies, the need for achievement and a creative thinking style.

Among men, the most stable traits turned out to be defeatism, willingness to accept failure, a high level of aspirations, intellectual interests, changeability of moods, and among women - aesthetic reactivity, cheerfulness, perseverance, and a desire to go to the limits of the possible.

However, not only personality traits, but also individuals differ in varying degrees of variability. Therefore, it is more correct to ask not the question “Do people remain unchanged?”, but “Which people change, which people do not, and why?” Comparing adults with what they were like at age 13, D. Blok statistically identified five male and six female types of personality development.

Some of these types are distinguished by great constancy of mental traits. Thus, men with a resilient, elastic “I” at the age of 13-14 differed from their peers in reliability, productivity, ambition and good abilities, breadth of interests, self-control, directness, friendliness, philosophical interests and comparative self-satisfaction. They retained their ethnographic properties even at the age of 45, having lost only part of their former emotional warmth and responsiveness. Such people highly value independence and objectivity and score high on scales such as dominance, self-acceptance, sense of well-being, intellectual efficiency and psychological state of mind.

The traits of unbalanced men with weak self-control, who are characterized by impulsiveness and inconstancy, are also very stable. As teenagers, they were distinguished by rebellion, talkativeness, love of risky actions and deviations from the accepted way of thinking, irritability, negativism, aggressiveness, and poor controllability. Reduced self-control, a tendency to dramatize their life situations, unpredictability and expressiveness characterize them in adulthood. They changed their jobs more often than other men.

Belonging to the third male type - with hypertrophied control - in adolescence they were distinguished by increased emotional sensitivity, self-absorption, and a tendency to reflect. Ethn boys feeling bad

They found themselves in uncertain situations, did not know how to quickly change roles, easily despaired of success, were dependent and distrustful. Having passed forty, they remained just as vulnerable, inclined to move away from potential frustrations, feel sorry for themselves, tense and dependent, etc. Among them, the highest percentage of bachelors<.. .>

Some other people, on the other hand, change greatly from youth to adulthood. Such, for example, are men whose stormy, tense youth gives way to a calm, measured life in adulthood, and “intellectual” women, who in their youth are absorbed in mental searches and seem emotionally drier, colder than their peers, and then overcome communication difficulties, become softer, warmer, etc.

More recent studies also testify to the stability of personality syndromes associated with self-control and “power of the self.” A longitudinal study of 116 children (59 boys and 57 girls) tested at 3, 4, 5, 7 and 11 years old showed that 4-year-old boys who showed strong self-control in a short-term laboratory experiment (the ability to delay the gratification of their immediate desires, resist temptation etc.), at older ages, seven years later, are described by experts as able to control their emotional impulses, attentive, able to concentrate, reflective, reflective, reliable, etc. In contrast, boys who have this ability was the least developed, and at older ages they are characterized by weak self-control: they are restless, fussy, emotionally expressive, aggressive, irritable and unstable, and in stressful situations they show immaturity. The relationship between self-control and the ability to delay gratification does not exist in girls, but in girls it is looks more complicated.

Although the stability of many individual personality traits can be considered proven, one cannot help but make a reservation that we are talking mainly about psychodynamic properties, one way or another related to the characteristics of the nervous system. What about content personality, with its value orientations, beliefs, ideological orientation, i.e. such features in which the individual not only realizes the potential inherent in him, but makes his self-conscious choice? The influence of various environmental factors, from world-historical events to seemingly random, but nevertheless fateful encounters, in this case is colossal. Usually people highly value the constancy of life plans and attitudes. A monolith man a priori evokes more respect than a weather vane man. But any apriorism is an insidious thing. The firmness of convictions, as V. O. Klyuchevsky accurately noted, can reflect not only the consistency of thinking, but also the inertia of thought.

What does the preservation, change and development of personality depend on, not in the ontogenetic, but in a broader and more capacious biographical sense?

physical key? Traditional psychology knows three approaches to the problem. Biogenetic orientation believes that since human development, like any other organism, is ontogenesis with a phylogenetic program embedded in it, its basic patterns, stages and properties are the same, although sociocultural and situational factors leave their mark on the form of their course. Sociogenetic orientation puts the processes of socialization and learning in the broad sense of the word at the forefront, arguing that age-related changes depend primarily on shifts in social status, the system of social roles, rights and responsibilities, in short, the structure of the individual’s social activity. IIersonological orientation brings to the fore the consciousness and self-awareness of the subject, believing that the basis for the development of the individual, in contrast to the development of the organism, is the creative process of the formation and implementation of its own life goals and values. Since each of these models (implementation of a biologically given program, socialization and conscious self-realization) reflects real aspects of personality development, a debate based on the “either-or” principle makes no sense. It is also impossible to “separate” these models into different “carriers” (organism, social individual, personality), because this would mean a cruel, unambiguous distinction between the organic, social and mental properties of the individual, which all modern science opposes.

The theoretical solution to the problem is, apparently, that personality, like culture, is a system that, throughout its development, adapts to its external and internal environment and at the same time more or less purposefully and actively changes it, adapting it to its conscious needs. It is in the direction of such an integrative synthesis that Soviet theoretical psychology is moving.

But the ratio of genetically given, socially educated and independently achieved is fundamentally different for different individuals, in different types of activity and socio-historical situations. And if the properties and behavior of a person cannot be derived from any separate system of determinants, then the idea of ​​a uniform course of age-related processes collapses. So an alternative formulation of the question - age determines personality properties or, on the contrary, personality type determines age properties - is replaced by the idea dialectical interaction both, and again not in general, but within a specific sphere of activity, in certain social conditions.

Accordingly, the system becomes more complex age categories, which have not one, as previously thought, but three systems of reference - individual development, age stratification of society and age symbols of culture. The concepts of “lifetime”, “life cycle” and “life path” are often used interchangeably. But their content is significantly different.

Lifetime, its extent simply denotes the time interval between birth and death. Life expectancy has important social and psychological consequences. It largely determines, for example, the duration of the coexistence of generations, the duration of the primary socialization of children, etc. Nevertheless, “lifetime” is a formal concept, denoting only the chronological framework of individual existence, regardless of its content.

Concept "life cycle" assumes that the course of life is subject to a certain pattern, and its stages, like the seasons, form a gradual cycle. The idea of ​​the cyclical nature of human life, like natural processes, is one of the most ancient images of our consciousness. Many biological and social age-related processes are indeed cyclical. The human body goes through a sequence of birth, growth, maturation, aging and death. A person learns, performs and then gradually leaves a certain set of social roles (work, family, parental), and then the same cycle is repeated by her descendants. Cyclicity also characterizes the change of generations in society. The analogy between the ascending and descending phases of development is not without heuristic value. However, the concept of a life cycle presupposes a certain closure, a completeness of the process, the center of which is in itself. Meanwhile, personal development is carried out in broad interaction with other people and social institutions, which does not fit into a cyclical scheme. Even if each individual aspect or component represents a certain cycle (biological life cycle, family cycle, professional-labor cycle), individual development is not the sum of variations on a given theme, but a specific story, where much is done anew, by trial and error.

Concept "life path" precisely implies the unity of many autonomous lines of development that converge, diverge or intersect, but cannot be understood separately from each other and from specific socio-historical conditions. Its study is a must interdisciplinary- psycho-logo-sociological-historical, without being confined to the framework of the theoretical model of ontogenesis traditional for psychology. The expression “personality development in ontogenesis,” if taken literally, contains a contradiction in terms. The transformation of an individual from an object or agent of social activity into its subject (and this is what is meant by the formation and development of personality) is impossible apart from and outside of his own social activity; of course, it is not programmed in his body and requires much more complex research methods and principles of periodization.

Kon I.S. In search of oneself. M., 1984, p. 158-17a

Rubinstein describes cognition as an active activity, and not just contemplation.

Adhering to this idea, he formulated the principle of the unity of activity and consciousness. This position was stated in the period of the 30-40s of the 20th century, when the trends of behaviorism and introspective psychology had the strongest influence in psychology.

The principle of the unity of consciousness called for perceiving and understanding mental processes, consciousness as an individual’s activity and a certain process, and not simply as something passive and receptive. Thus, human activity should become the subject of psychological research.

But Rubinstein notes that a person is not simply influenced by activity, but is also capable, thanks to his right of choice, of being active and proactive. In order to fully answer the question about the emergence and development of the connection between consciousness and human activity, it is necessary to first know where and how it is formed.

According to Rubinstein, personality is the source of this connection. The answer to this question is not so simple due to the fact that it is not so easy to perceive consciousness from the individual and consider them separately. At the very beginning of the formation of domestic psychology, when studying the concept of the personal principle, it was necessary to overcome the ideas of functionalism, the disconnection of activity and consciousness from the personality.

The main attention was paid to the importance of activity in the formation and development of personality. The initial task was to determine the structure of personality in order to move on to the study of exclusively the personality, and not just the personality as a subject - a representative of individual functions.

According to the ideas of S.L. Rubinstein, personality as an integral unit is revealed through the trinity:

Attitudes and needs (what a person wants);

Gifts and abilities (what a person can do);

Fixed motives and needs of character (what a person is).

If in the 30s and 40s the concept of personality was used to explain the principle of the unity of activity and consciousness, then in the 50s it was already used to reveal the concept of determinism. Based on this principle, it was necessary to reveal the specificity of mental activity, without breaking away from other phenomena of the real and material world.

According to Rubinstein, the dialectic of the external and internal world was determined through the essence of determinism. Personality was considered the highest level of organization of matter, a regulator of consciousness regarding activity. The mental properties of a person and the personality itself are both the result and a prerequisite of activity.

An important point in the study of personality is its inclusion in a larger context - in life along with activity. The final expression of the essence of a person's personality lies in the possession of his history. The concept of “subject of life” more clearly expresses this feature. The subject of life is a personality represented in a higher sense. A personality, according to Rubinstein, is a person with his own clearly developed life position and worldview, which was formed as a result of painstaking work on himself, with a clearly expressed conscious attitude to everything that happens in life.

If we consider a personality as a subject of life, then it has the following levels of organization:

1. Life style (worldview, life experience, intelligence, morality).

2. Personality (character traits and peculiarities).

3. Mental makeup (specificity of an individual’s mental processes).

Not least in Rubinstein’s concept is the issue of self-awareness and consciousness. His understanding of self-consciousness is in opposition to the idealistic understanding, which is closed in on itself. Rubinstein's understanding contains an attitude towards the world and oneself, mediated by life phenomena. Self-awareness grows out of consciousness, and not vice versa.

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Introduction

Personality is a concept developed to reflect the social nature of a person, defining him as a bearer of an individual principle, self-revealing in the contexts of social relations, communication and objective activity. “Personality” can be understood either as a human individual as a subject of relationships and conscious activity (“person” in the broad sense of the word), or a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize the individual as a member of a particular society or community. Personality structure is a set of unchanging and stable properties that are manifested by individuals in a wide variety of situations.

S.L. Rubinstein is a famous scientist, encyclopedist, researcher who worked on issues of philosophy and psychology. He researched the psychology of thinking, is the founder of the methodological foundation of psychology, and wrote one of the most popular textbooks on psychology, which has become a reference book for more than one generation of students.

This test will examine the main provisions of the theory of S.L. Rubinstein about the structure of personality. I believe that this topic is most relevant these days, when personal relationships and communication between people come to the fore.

1. The concept of personality

What is personality? For a deeper understanding of the essence of the topic discussed in the test, let’s find out what “personality” is. Let's consider some definitions of the concept of personality:

Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifest themselves in social connections and relationships by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are of significant importance for himself and those around him

Personality is a multidimensional and multilevel system of psychological characteristics that provide individual originality, temporary and situational stability of human behavior.

Also, personality in psychology refers to a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the level and quality of representation of social relations in the individual.

On the other hand, personality is a system of mental regulators that provides a person’s orientation and behavior in the supra-situational integrity of the social environment (such as ideals, morality, truth and similar universal human values). By personality, the science of psychology understands a specific person with his unique morphophysiological qualities (height, physique, etc.), endowed with his own mental organization and engaged in some kind of activity.

Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifest themselves in social connections and relationships by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are of significant importance for himself and those around him.

It is difficult to choose a definition that is uniquely correct in all respects for such a complex and multifaceted concept as “personality.” But it can still be unequivocally stated that from all the definitions of the concept of personality, something common can be identified and reduced to one definition:

Most often, “personality” is understood as a person in the totality of his social and vital qualities acquired by him in the process of social development - by personality, psychology understands a specific person with his unique morphophysiological qualities (height, physique, etc.), endowed with his own mental organization and engaged in some activity.

Personality is the object of a number of sciences and, being a complex, multifaceted social phenomenon, requires a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach (philosophical-sociological, socio-psychological, etc.). Psychology studies a person from the point of view of his mental and spiritual life.

In a broad sense, human personality is an integral integrity of biogenic, sociogenic and psychogenic elements.

The biological basis of personality covers the nervous system, the glandular system, metabolic processes (hunger, thirst, sexual impulse), sexual differences, anatomical features, processes of maturation and development of the body.

The social dimension of personality is determined by the influence of the culture and structure of communities in which a person was raised and in which he participates. The most important sociogenic components of a personality are the social roles it performs in various communities (family, school, peer group). Thus, the concept of “personality” characterizes the features of human development as a social being.

2. Psychological structure of personality

psychological personality rubinstein

“Structure is a set of stable connections between many components of an object, ensuring its integrity and self-identity. The idea of ​​structure presupposes consideration of an object as a system...” (Dictionary of a practical psychologist)

The problem of personality structure in psychology is even more confusing than the concept of “personality” itself. Within the framework of this work it is impossible to cover all theories about the psychological structure of personality. All of them are based on one or another differing views of domestic and foreign psychologists. I do not consider it possible to single out something common among them and generalize all theories.

Currently, taking into account modern data from personality psychology, neuropsychology, neurophysiology and psychogenetics, it is extremely relevant to build a holistic biopsychological, natural-cultural model of personality. Such a model should combine both functional and structural-material characteristics of the psyche and personality.

The psychological elements of the personality structure are its psychological properties and characteristics. There are a lot of them. Some of them can be displayed in a substructure. There are no two identical personalities on earth; each personality has its own structure. However, there is a lot in common, which allows us to highlight the personality structure in general, which consists of four sides:

1. Block of mental phenomena (motivational) - orientation (stable system of motives):

I. drive - one of the forms of personality orientation, expressed in an insufficiently conscious desire to achieve something; drive is often based on biological needs;

II. desires are an experience, one of the forms of manifestation of a personality’s orientation, characterized by the individual’s desire to achieve some goal, but sometimes by insufficient awareness of the reasons for such a desire;

III. interests are one of the forms of personality orientation, consisting in its directed cognitive activity, colored by positive emotions and attention to the object. An individual's interest is usually socially conditioned;

IV. ideals - an image that is the embodiment of perfection, a model, the highest goal of a person’s aspirations;

V. worldview - a system of views on the world as a whole, on a person’s relationship to society, nature, and himself; the main form of personality orientation;

VI. beliefs are a form of personality orientation, expressed in a deeply meaningful need to act in accordance with one’s value orientations, organically merging with the feelings and will of a person and receiving personal meaning for him. A person's belief system reflects his worldview;

VII. needs - an objective need for something experienced by a subject, which is also reflected subjectively, being a source of activity, personal development, and social community. There are often contradictions between objective need and its subjective reflection, which significantly influence the development of the individual;

2. Personal experience - a person’s acquisition of social experience (socialization). This experience includes the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for his life:

I. knowledge - a system of scientific concepts about the laws of nature, society, the formation and development of man and his consciousness;

II. skills - a person’s ability, based on knowledge and skills, to perform work productively, efficiently and in a timely manner in new conditions;

III. skills are automated components of purposeful conscious activity.

3. The block for regulating personal behavior (self-control system) includes forms of mental cognitive processes, in particular:

I. sensations are the simplest of mental processes through which we receive information about the world around us. They arise in receptors - especially sensitive nerve cells of the human body, with all this, receptors of each type are responsible for sensitivity to certain stimuli;

II. perception is the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena in reality in the totality of their various properties and parts, associated with an understanding of the integrity of what is reflected. Occurs as a result of the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of analyzers;

III. attention is a mental cognitive process consisting in the primary focus of a person’s consciousness on a certain object or phenomenon, as a result of which they are reflected more fully, clearly, and deeply;

IV. memory is a psychophysiological process that performs the functions of consolidating, preserving and reproducing past experiences. Provides the accumulation of impressions about the world around us, serves as the basis for the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities and their subsequent use;

V. observation - a personality quality consisting in a high level of development of the ability to concentrate attention on a particular object; the ability to notice and perceive details, subtle phenomena, but essential for analysis;

VI. imagination is a mental process consisting of creating new ideas and thoughts based on existing experience. It is expressed: 1) in constructing an image of the means and the final result of objective activity; 2) in creating a behavior program when a problem situation is characterized by uncertainty; 3) in the production of images that do not program, but replace, simulate reality: 4) in the creation of images that correspond to the description of the object;

VII. thinking is the process of indirect reflection in human consciousness of complex connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the subjective world; cognitive activity of the individual, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality. There are theoretical and practical thinking; intuitive and verbal-logical; visually effective and visually figurative; formal-logical and creative, etc.;

VIII. speech is a historically established form of communication between people through language, which is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic means and rules of communication;

IX. emotions are a special form of reflection of the surrounding world by the psyche, manifesting itself mainly in biologically determined experiences that reflect the needs of the body and activate or inhibit activity;

X. feelings are a special form of reflection by the psyche of the surrounding world, the individual’s relationship to the environment, manifested in socially conditioned experiences that activate or inhibit activity.

4. Biologically determined properties and qualities of personality:

I. anthropological characteristics - race, gender, age, etc.;

II. physical features - body size and its structural and mechanical properties;

III. external anatomy of the body;

IV. functional and anatomical features;

V. biochemical features and pathologies of the isolated elements;

VI. properties and types of temperament - a stable correlation of human characteristics that characterize various aspects of his mental activity. It represents a general characteristic of human higher nervous activity and expresses the basic natural properties of the nervous system.

The derivatives of these basic substructures are:

Character is a set of the most pronounced and relatively stable traits that are typical for a given person and systematically manifested in his behavior. It is closely related to temperament, which determines the external form of character expression and leaves a peculiar imprint on certain of its manifestations. But temperament is determined by the innate properties of higher nervous activity and is practically not subject to change throughout a person’s life. Character develops in the process of education; it reflects the conditions of human life and is capable of changing as these conditions change.

Abilities are a mental property of a person, manifested in the compliance of a person’s psychophysiological and mental characteristics with the requirements imposed on him by one or more types of activity, which gives him the opportunity to master them more quickly and efficiently.

Will and volitional qualities of a person are a form of mental reflection of reality, allowing a person to overcome obstacles, achieve a subjectively set goal, allowing a person to regulate his actions and mental processes, realize the ability of volitional regulation, conscious and purposeful regulation by a person of his activities.

3. Concept of personality S.L. Rubinstein

The first thing S.L. specifically draws attention to is Rubinstein, starting to characterize personality, is the dependence of mental processes on personality. According to the author, this is expressed, firstly, in individual differential differences between people. Different people, depending on their individual, i.e. Personal characteristics include different types of perception, memory, attention, styles of mental activity.

Secondly, the personal dependence of mental processes is expressed in the fact that the very course of development of mental processes depends on the general development of the individual. The change of life eras through which each personality passes and its development occurs leads not only to a change in life attitudes, interests, value orientations, but also leads to a change in feelings and volitional life. Just as the disease (its course) influences significant changes in the patient’s personality, so personal changes during its development lead to changes in mental processes (cognitive, affective, volitional).

Thirdly, the dependence of mental processes on personality is expressed in the fact that these processes themselves do not remain independently developing processes, but turn into consciously regulated operations, i.e. mental processes become mental functions of the individual. Thus, in the course of personality development, perception turns into a more or less consciously regulated process of observation, and involuntary imprinting is replaced by conscious memorization. Attention in its specifically human form turns out to be voluntary, and thinking is a set of operations consciously directed by a person to solve problems. Based on this context, all human psychology is personality psychology.

The next important point for the psychological concept of personality is that any external influence acts on the individual through the internal conditions that he had already formed earlier, also under the influence of external influences. Expanding this position, S.L. Rubinstein notes: “the “higher” we rise - from inorganic nature to organic, from living organisms to humans - the more complex the internal nature of phenomena becomes and the greater the proportion of internal conditions in relation to external ones becomes.” It is this methodological position derived by S.L. Rubinstein, makes clear the well-known formula: “one is not born as a person, one becomes one.” Indeed, each type of mental process, fulfilling its role in the life of an individual, in the course of activity turns into personality properties. Therefore, the mental properties of a person are not an initial given; they are formed and developed in the course of activity. So, to understand personality psychology, from the point of view of S.L. Rubinstein the following points become important:

1. the mental properties of a person in her behavior, in the actions and deeds that she performs, are simultaneously manifested and formed;

2. the mental appearance of a person in all the diversity of its properties is determined by real life, way of life and is formed in specific activities;

3. The process of studying the mental appearance of a person involves solving three questions:

a. What does a person want, what is attractive to him, what does he strive for? It is a question of direction, attitudes and tendencies, needs, interests and ideals;

b. what can a person do? This is a question about a person’s abilities, about his gifts, about his giftedness;

c. What is a personality, what of its tendencies and attitudes has become part of its flesh and blood and has become entrenched as the core characteristics of the personality? This is a question of character.

Having highlighted these aspects of the mental appearance of a person, S.L. Rubinstein emphasized that they are interconnected and interdependent, that in specific activities they are woven into a single whole. The orientation of the personality, its attitudes, giving rise to certain actions in homogeneous situations, then pass into character and are fixed in it in the form of properties. The presence of interests in a certain area of ​​activity stimulates the development of abilities in this direction, and the presence of abilities, determining successful work, stimulates interest in it.

Abilities and character are also closely related. The presence of abilities gives rise to self-confidence, firmness and determination in a person or, on the contrary, conceit or carelessness. Equally, character properties determine the development of abilities, since abilities develop through their implementation, and this in turn depends on character properties - determination, perseverance, etc. Thus, in real life, all sides, aspects of the mental appearance of a person, passing into each other, form an inextricable unity.

Principles of the methodological foundations of psychology S.L. Rubinstein are very similar to the ideas of K. Marx. In one of his articles on the principle of creative initiative, Rubinstein describes cognition as active activity, and not just contemplation. Adhering to this idea, he formulated the principle of the unity of activity and consciousness. This position was stated in the period of the 30-40s of the 20th century, when the trends of behaviorism and introspective psychology had the strongest influence in psychology. The principle of the unity of consciousness called for perceiving and understanding mental processes, consciousness as an individual’s activity and a certain process, and not simply as something passive and receptive. Thus, human activity should become the subject of psychological research. But Rubinstein notes that a person is not simply influenced by activity, but is also capable, thanks to his right of choice, of being active and proactive. In order to fully answer the question about the emergence and development of the connection between consciousness and human activity, it is necessary to first know where and how it is formed.

According to Rubinstein, personality is the source of this connection. The answer to this question is not so simple due to the fact that it is not so easy to perceive consciousness from the individual and consider them separately. At the very beginning of the formation of domestic psychology, when studying the concept of the personal principle, it was necessary to overcome the ideas of functionalism, the disconnection of activity and consciousness from the personality. The main attention was paid to the importance of activity in the formation and development of personality. The initial task was to determine the structure of personality in order to move on to the study of exclusively the personality, and not just the personality as a subject - a representative of individual functions.

According to the ideas of S.L. Rubinstein, personality as an integral unit is revealed through the trinity:

· attitudes and needs (what a person wants);

· gifts and abilities (what a person can do);

· fixed motives and character needs (what a person is).

If in the 30s and 40s the concept of personality was used to explain the principle of the unity of activity and consciousness, then in the 50s it was already used to reveal the concept of determinism. Based on this principle, it was necessary to reveal the specificity of mental activity, without breaking away from other phenomena of the real and material world. According to Rubinstein, the dialectic of the external and internal world was determined through the essence of determinism. Personality was considered the highest level of organization of matter, a regulator of consciousness regarding activity.

The mental properties of a person and the personality itself are both the result and a prerequisite of activity. An important point in the study of personality is its inclusion in a larger context - in life along with activity. The final expression of the essence of a person's personality lies in the possession of his history. The concept of “subject of life” more clearly expresses this feature. The subject of life is a personality represented in a higher sense. A personality, according to Rubinstein, is a person with his own clearly developed life position and worldview, which was formed as a result of painstaking work on himself, with a clearly expressed conscious attitude to everything that happens in life.

If we consider a personality as a subject of life, then it has the following levels of organization:

1. Life style (worldview, life experience, intelligence, morality);

2. Personality (character traits and peculiarities);

3. Mental makeup (specificity of an individual’s mental processes).

Not least in Rubinstein’s concept is the issue of self-awareness and consciousness. His understanding of self-consciousness is in opposition to the idealistic understanding, which is closed in on itself. Rubinstein's understanding contains an attitude towards the world and oneself, mediated by life phenomena. Self-awareness grows out of consciousness, and not vice versa. The latest work by S.L. Rubinstein was published forty years after his death, thanks to a number of authors continuing the work of this outstanding man.

S.L. Rubinstein laid the methodological platform for considering problems of human psychology. S.L. Rubinstein opposes:

* idealization of personality;

* functionalization - crushing into separate functions;

* separation from activity;

* bringing the personality to consciousness.

Notes the dependence of the individual and his activities on social relations and the specific conditions of his social existence, the dependence of his consciousness on his activities. According to S.L. Rubinstein, a person as a personality is formed by interacting with the world (and other people). In the author's concept, personality is a set of internal conditions through which external influences are refracted.

The core of the personality consists of the motives of conscious actions, however, the personality is also characterized by unconscious tendencies or motivations.

S.L. Rubinstein, contrary to the widespread tendencies in Russian psychology to level out individual properties with an excessive emphasis on the model of a socially desirable personality, did not discount the importance of innate human characteristics inherited from parents and grandparents in the formation of personality. He viewed the impact of environmental phenomena on the human psyche not as a passive process, but as a subjectively preferable, selective, largely unconscious choice. S.L. Rubinstein believed that individually defined properties indirectly refract (each person in his own way) information about the environment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we can draw a general conclusion. So, personality formation is a very complex process that lasts our entire life. S.L. Rubinstein divided the personality traits inherent in us at birth, that is, those that are determined by the biological factor of personality development, and others that are developed in the process of our life.

In my opinion, becoming a person means, firstly, taking a certain life, moral position; secondly, to be sufficiently aware of it and bear responsibility for it; thirdly, affirm it with your actions, deeds, and your whole life. After all, the origins of a person, her value, and finally, the good or bad reputation about her are ultimately determined by the social, moral significance that she really shows in her life.

Bibliography

1. Averin V.A. Psychological structure of personality // Personality psychology: Textbook. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of Mikhailov V.A., 1999. - 89 p.

2. Agafonov A.V., Psychology and pedagogy: Part I. Psychology. Lecture texts. - M.: MSTU GA, 2004

3. Semenyuk L.M. Reader on developmental psychology: a textbook for students / Ed. DI. Feldstein: 2nd edition, expanded. Moscow: Institute of Practical Psychology, 1996. - 304 p.

5. Human psychology in the modern world. Volume 2. The problem of consciousness in the works of S.L. Rubinshteina, D.N. Uznadze, L.S. Vygotsky. The problem of activity in domestic psychology. Study of thinking and cognitive processes. Creativity, ability, giftedness. / Responsible editors: A.L. Zhuravlev, I.A. Dzhidaryan, V.A. Barabanshchikov, V.V. Selivanov, D.V. Ushakov - M.: "Institute of Psychology RAS", 2009. - 404 p.

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Psychology of Personality.

Olga Valerievna.

Topic 1. The problem of personality in psychology.

1. Correlation of concepts: subject, individual, personality and individuality.

3. The problem of personality development.

1) The subject is the one who is active. S.L. Rubinstein introduced this concept.

S. L. Rubinstein said that the action we perform is determined internally.

A.N. Leontyev – the internal is expressed through the external, determines our behavior.

Our consciousness determines our activity - this thought determines both opinions.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. That is, the influence goes equally.

Types of subjects:

Natural– man is a part of nature, a representative of the human species, the class of mammals. The natural principle refers to the subject. We are in search of satisfying biological needs.

Social- a person as a member of a certain society. Endowed with consciousness, thanks to which it is able to reflect the world and, in its own way, a social subject is the bearer of assigned norms.

Cultural- a person who independently and responsibly relies on universal human principles and is capable of meaningful transformation of his own natural properties.

Subject and personality.

Subject = personality - according to Rubinstein. That is, the personality includes social, natural and cultural subjects.

The concept of individual and personality are separated (Leontyev). Leontyev argues that only a social and cultural subject is considered a personality, and a natural subject is an individual.

An individual is a separate representative of the human species.

V. Petukhov argues that only a cultural subject is a person. It is inherent in humanity, like many animals, to live in a pack, in society. That is, the social subject resembles animals.

Personality is a systemic quality of an individual acquired through joint activity and communication. A person is born an individual and becomes a personality.

Personality is a characteristic of an individual.

Personality – Individual:

There is a personality without individual characteristics - an artistic image.

An individual without personal characteristics - a baby, Mowgli's children.

Personal characteristics can only be accepted in society.

I am self - self-determination.

I am a concept - an idea of ​​myself.

Geminis do not have self-determination - they have the concept of we-self. Biologically there are 2 people, but culturally and socially there is one person.

There are a lot of personality structures.

E. Berne - theory of personality.

Child, parent and adult are components of personality.

Personality structure according to S. L. Rubinstein.

1. Directional block - everything that directs activity, encourages activity. (Needs, goals, incentives)

2. Individual typological abilities, temperament, character, abilities, inclinations.

3. Knowledge, abilities, skills.

Personality structure of A.V. Petrovsky.

1. Intra-individual component – ​​intra-individual component. Orientation, knowledge, skills, abilities of the individual.

2. Interindividual component – ​​interindividual component. Everything that concerns communication between individuals, their interaction.

3. Over (meto) individual component. The desire to transfer part of one's personality to another individual. Parents, teachers.

Individuality is inherent in both the individual and the individual.

Individuality is a combination of a person’s psychological characteristics that make up his originality, his difference from other people and uniqueness.

Man - Individual - personality. And individuality permeates all these levels.

Individuality

2) There are 3 periods in the history of research into personality psychology.

1. Philosophical and literary. 2nd century BC -19th centuries from the works of ancient thinkers to the 19th century.

Temperament, Hippocrates spoke about it, and Kant introduced the term. Not only psychologists, but also writers thought about this topic.

2. Clinical. 19th century – until the 40s. 20th century.

Psychotherapists and psychiatrists make a significant contribution. Ganushkin, Freud, Jung. Certain types and clinical pictures are identified and characterized. But there was no way to practice; the patients could not yet be treated.

3. Experimental. 40s 20th century - to the present day.

New knowledge. They introduced an experiment into psychology. Observation is a method of knowing a person. Statistical data processing. Trait theories. Typologies are emerging that differ from theme trait theory. That it reflects a complex of traits.

3) The problem of personality in psychology.

Criteria for personality development (domestic psychologists):

1. Hierarchization of motives - a person can now deny himself the satisfaction of his needs for the sake of the norms accepted in society. Appears by age six.

2. Self-awareness - a person begins to become aware of himself. At the age of three, attempts at self-awareness occur when a person calls the pronoun “I”. This means that a person begins to separate his personality from the world around him. Self-awareness belongs to adolescence. We are aware of our actions and their results. Therefore, criminal liability begins at the age of 14.

Mechanisms leading to the formation of personality:

1. The mechanism of shifting the motive to the goal. Motive is something that encourages action. The goal is what we want to get.

2. Identification is the likening, usually not consciously, of oneself to a significant other subject, as a model, based on an emotional connection with him. This is an unconscious mechanism.

3. The mechanism of acceptance and development of social roles.

This mechanism is described using the concepts of social position and social role. A social position is a social place that a person can occupy in relation to other people, characterized from the position of rights and responsibilities; having occupied it, a person must play a role.

Mastering a social role:

1. Mastering the role begins with the dreaming phase. The basic principle is that it is good where we are not. In dreams there is an ideal, a positive, it is unrealistic, when we dream, we do not understand what the essence of the role is. Therefore, adaptation problems may arise.

2. After a dream, as soon as a person enters the role, merging with the role gradually occurs.

Mastering social roles influences the formation of an individual’s life. New motives are acquired, motives are subordinated, the system of views, values, ethical norms and relationships is modified.

A role often creates changes in personality.

Each person has many roles. And sometimes a role conflict arises, for example, the role conflict of a working woman.

The process of personal development is always deeply individual. This is by no means a uniform forward movement; it has crisis periods and turning points.

Topic 2. Psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud.

1. Biography of Freud and the concept of psychoanalysis.

2. Levels of human mental life.

3. Personality structure.

4. Psychosexual stages of development.

5. Mechanisms of psychological defense.

1) Freud (1856-1939) called his teaching psychoanalysis after the name of the method he developed for the treatment and diagnosis of neuroses. It arose as a concept for the explanation and treatment of neuroses. Its provisions have a great influence on the development of world psychology and culture. For the first time in 1896, Freud spoke about psychoanalysis, and a year later he began to take care of himself. 1900 – his book of dreams was published. 1910 - Fred lectures in America.

The term psychoanalysis has three meanings:

a. Theory of personality and psychopathology

b. Method of therapy for personality disorders

c. A method of studying an individual's unconscious thoughts and feelings.

In a general sense, psychoanalysis is the desire to identify the hidden motives of actions and opinions, the sources of the moral and psychological attitudes of the individual.

For several decades, psychoanalysis was banned in the USSR.

2) Freud believed that mental life is a consistent and continuous process. Every thought, feeling or action has a cause, is caused by conscious or unconscious intention and is determined by previous events.

3 levels of mental life.

· Consciousness

· Preconscious

· Subconscious (unconscious)

consciousness

Preconscious

unconscious

Consciousness is all perception that comes from outside, from within, what we call associations and feelings.

Consciousness is a form of reflection of reality.

According to Freud, consciousness is only a small island washed by the ocean of the unconscious. In the unconscious, a distinction is made between the preconscious and the unconscious itself.

The preconscious is not consciously realized by a person, but it can be conscious.

The unconscious is something that a person is not aware of, but energetically denies the presence of such contents in his soul. Those qualities, interests, needs that a person is not aware of in himself, but which are inherent in him and manifest themselves in various involuntary reactions or actions.

The unconscious and preconscious are separated from consciousness by a typical authority called censorship.

Censorship functions:

o Displace into the unconscious area unacceptable and conscious feelings, thoughts, concepts

o Resist the active unconscious striving to manifest itself in consciousness.

3) Personality structure.

Super ego

I am ego

ID – “it” includes primitive instincts, innate aspects of personality. Functions entirely in the unconscious and is connected to primary needs. Something dark, biological, does not obey any rules. Throughout life, a person follows the principle of pleasure.

Ego is the “I” component of a person’s life, responsible for making decisions. Tries to express and satisfy desires. "It" according to the limitations imposed by the outside world. Uses cognitive and perceptual processes. (at the level of feelings).

Super ego - “super ego” - in order for a person to function effectively in society, he must have a system of values ​​​​and norms that are reasonably compatible with those accepted in his environment. All this is acquired in the process of socialization and is shaped by the influence of the super ego. Freud divided the super ego into 2 subsystems: conscience and ego-ideal.

Conscience is acquired through parental punishment. The ego ideal is an incentive that is formed from the fact that significant people approve or favorably value a person.

4) A person is born with a certain amount of sexual energy, which is called libido, which then develops through several psycho-sexual stages that occur in the instinctive processes of the body.

1. Oral - most of the energy is concentrated in the mouth area.

Affixation is getting stuck at one stage.

2. From 2 to 4 years of age, attention is focused on going to the toilet - anal. Shows interest in one's own bowel movements. With a negative assessment of parents, 2 types of character are formed: anal-pushing and anal-retaining.

3. Physical stage (from 3 years old) – the child pays attention to the presence or absence of a penis. Sexuality reaches its peak. 2 complexes: Oedipus (male) and Electra (female) - the desire to take the place of parents of the opposite sex.

4. Latent period from 6 to 12 years.

5. Genital period – from the moment of puberty. Combining all past stages. With normal personality development, sexual ideas associated with the pregenital period are completely repressed into the sphere of the unconscious, and the corresponding ideas are isolated.

5) Mechanisms of psychological defense.

A defense mechanism is a psychological strategy by which people avoid or reduce the intensity of negative states such as conflict, frustration, anxiety and stress.

Defense mechanisms are associated with the Ego, automatically unconscious mechanisms of the psyche that provide psychological protection of the ego from external and (or) internal real or imaginary dangers, negative impulses, negative information and unacceptable assessments and self-esteem (according to Freud).

a. Repression is the suppression of subconscious impressions and experiences that pose a threat to self-consciousness and their displacement into the unconscious.

b. Identification – in difficult situations, identify yourself with someone who can cope.

c. Projection – attributing one’s unacceptable experiences to others (persecution mania)

d. Substitution is the direction of the energy of attraction to a safe object.

e. Rationalization - a person strives to give a rational explanation for his actions committed under the influence of intense drives.

f. Reactive education.

1. The unacceptable experience is suppressed.

2. In its place an opposite feeling is formed

g. Regression is a return to childhood early forms of behavior.

h. Suppression of desires is the removal of desires from consciousness, since it cannot be satisfied.

i. Inversion is the substitution of actions, thoughts, feelings that correspond to a genuine desire with diametrically opposed behavior.

j. Isolation is the separation of the threatening part of the situation from the rest of the mental sphere.

k. Denial - a person has committed an act and denies it himself.

Freud defends mechanisms operating at the subconscious level and all people resort to them from time to time and, when it is not possible to reduce tension with their help, neuroses arise.

Mental approaches

The concept of mental development as motivational, personal,

Idea of ​​development as it adapts to the environment

The idea of ​​the driving forces of mental development as innate and unconscious

The idea that the basic mechanisms of development are also innate, capture the foundations of the personality and its motives already in early childhood and this structure does not undergo significant changes in the future.

Topic 3. Analytical psychology of Carl Gustave Jung.

1. Biography of Jung. Definition of Analytical Psychology

2. Structure of the psyche

3. Classification of personalities

4. The main differences between Jung's analytical psychology and Freud's psychoanalysis.

1) 1909-1913 collaborated with Sigmund Freud.

Developed the theory of analytical psychology.

Covered a wide range of psychological issues.

Analytical psychology - 1. One of the psychodynamic directions, the founder of which is Jung, this direction is related to psychoanalysis, but has significant differences. Its essence lies in understanding the deep forces and motivation behind human behavior through the study of the phenomenology of dreams, folklore and mythology.

2) Jung argued that the soul consists of three separate, interacting structures. These are the Ego, the Personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.

Ego is the center of consciousness and includes all thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations, thanks to which we feel our integrity. It serves as the basis of our self-awareness

Personal unconscious includes conflicts and memories once recognized but now repressed and forgotten. The material of the personal unconscious is unique to each person and is accessible to awareness.

Collective unconscious represents a repository of hidden traces of human memory. Consists of archetypes.

Jung called groups of emotionally charged concepts complexes. Exploring the complexes of his patients, he discovered that finding all his personal associations in the patient did not lead to automatic recovery. The complex contains a core. It may come out. Jung hypothesized that the collective unconscious consists of powerful primary mental images - archetypes - these are innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience and react to events in a certain way. These are universal models of perception. God, Mother, Child, Sun, etc.

An archetype is an archaic phenomenon that has manifestations in myths and folklore.

The archetype must manifest itself in all peoples and in all eras. Must be taken consciously.

An archetype has a positive and a negative aspect. It has a strong influence on human emotions.

Archetypes have their own initiative. They are generated by thoughts and feelings.

Jung considered the main archetypes of the individual unconscious to be:

Ego- the central element of personal consciousness, collecting disparate data from personal experience into a single whole.

A person- this is the part of the personality that we show to the world, what we want to be in the eyes of other people. If he is dominant, then he can give away a person's personality, but he also protects the personality. This is a mask.

Shadow is the center of the personal unconscious. The shadow focuses and systematizes those impressions that have been repressed from consciousness. Content is what is denied by a person, what is incompatible with his person. Hitler, Satan.

Anima(husband) and Animus (wives) are those parts of the soul that reflect ideas about the opposite sex. Parents influence development. They influence behavior, creativity, and choice of partner. Man, Woman, Virgin Mary.

Archetype selfhood the center of the entire personality, order and integrity of the individual. He does not oppose the two spheres of the soul - consciousness and the unconscious, but connects them together. Circle.

Consciousness

unconscious

According to Jung, archetypes constitute the material of dreams, myths, religions, art and manifest themselves in philosophy, sociology, politics and other activities.

3) As an initial feature for classification, he accepted a certain direction of the spread of psychic energy or libido.

An extrovert is characterized by an innate tendency to direct his psychic energy into the external world. Shows itself in relationships. He feels best among people; he becomes restless from loneliness. Weak connection with the outside world. An introvert is characterized by the tendency of his libido to rush inwards, that is, into himself. He does best alone or with loved ones. They both have flaws, but each tends to underestimate the other.

Every person carries both extra and intra, but sometimes one dominates.

In addition, Jung identified 4 functional types:

1. thinking

2. feelings

3. sensations

4. intuition

Rational types include those types that are characterized by reasonable judgment - thinking and feeling. A common feature is submission to reason. But they are mutually exclusive.

Irrational – sensations and intuition. They are based on perception. They perceive the world without judgment.

Each person has one dominant function.

1. Extroverted rational types - extroverted thinking, extroverted feeling. Subordinate to the rational, almost independent of the unconscious.

a) Thinking type – thinking is guided by objective data. Analyzes all presented options and chooses your own. The motto is no exceptions. Suppresses everything that comes from it. Thinking leads to new facts, progressive.

b) Feeling type - the feeling function comprehends the world, evaluating phenomena from the point of view of whether it is accepted or not accepted, acceptable or not. The function is focused on external data.

· Positive – (theater, church, etc.)

· Negative (fanatics)

2. Extroverted irrational types. They operate based on their experience.

a) Sensing type. Those objects. Which ones cause the strongest sensations are decisive. A person accumulates experience, but does not use it. The most fanatical people.

b) Intuitive type. Intuition is an active creative process that affects the object to the same degree as the object influences intuition. The intuitive type describes the completeness of events according to internal sensations. Focused on the future. They stand at the forefront of their endeavors, but do not see things through to completion.

3. Introverted rational type. Relies on sub. Data

a) Thinking type. Focuses on the subjective factor. This type is influenced by ideas that come from outside. Silent. This type occurs more often in men.

b) Feeling type. The feeling is determined by a subjective factor. More often among women. Silent, inaccessible, incomprehensible, melancholic. True motives are hidden within.

4. Introverted irrational type. Difficult to analyze. They only appear internally. Their achievements have no social significance.

a) Sensing type – sensations are subjective in nature. Often among artists. A person of this type conveys an image that does not reproduce the external side of the object, but processes it in accordance with subjective experience and reproduces it in accordance with them.

b) Intuitive type - aimed at internal objects, which are presented in the form of subjective images. The mysticism of the dreamer and visionary.

You need to master all four functions in order to give an adequate response to any life situations. But this is almost impossible. 2 dominate more often.

There is a questionnaire to determine.

4. Freud – libido – sexual sphere.

Jung – libido – vital energy in general.

Jung rejected Freud's understanding of the Oedipus complex. He explained the child’s attachment to his mother by the child’s purely everyday needs and the mother’s ability to satisfy them.

The direction of the forces that determine a person’s personality.

Freud is a man derived from childhood.

Jung is a man not only a product of his childhood, but also his plans for the future. Personality formation is not completed by age 5.

Jung penetrated deeper into the unconscious than Freud, highlighting the collective unconscious.

Individual psychology of Alfred Adler.
1. Biographical data and definition of the concept of individual psychology.

2. Key concepts and principles of Alfred Adler’s individual concept.

1) 1870-1937 – the years of life of Alfred Adler.

Creator of the system of individual psychology. His own life path was an important contribution to the creation of an individual theory of personality.

In 1902, Adler joined Freud's circle. From the fundamental works: The meaning of life, Way of life, Comprehension of human nature.

Adler is often presented as a student of Freud. In fact, he was a colleague of Freud; one cannot perceive him as a neo-Freudian. Adler never subjected himself to self-analysis.

A person's character is determined by his life path. An idea of ​​that. that man is a unified and self-consistent organism is the main premise of Adlerian psychology. He gave his theory the name individual psychology.

Unlike Freud, he formulated a very economical theory of personality.

2) 1st concept.

Feelings of inferiority and confiscation.

Adler suggested that each individual has some organs that are weaker than others and this makes him more susceptible to diseases and lesions of these particular organs. Each person develops a disease of precisely the organ that was less developed and functioned less successfully from birth. People with significant organic weakness or defect often try to compensate for these defects by training and exercise, which often results in the development of outstanding skill or strength. If the efforts made to achieve compensation do not lead to the desired result, then a feeling of personal inferiority is caused.

2nd concept.

Inferiority complex and its exhaustion.

Adler suggested that feelings of inferiority originate in childhood. The desire for excellence is the main motivational force in human life. When feelings of inferiority become excessive, an inferiority complex appears, which is an exaggerated sense of one's own weakness and inadequacy.

3 types of suffering in childhood that contribute to the development of the complex:

Organ deficiency

Overprotectiveness

Parental rejection

3rd concept.

Striving for excellence.

This is the tendency to exaggerate one's physical, social and intellectual abilities.

The idea of ​​masculine protest.

Masculine protest is a form of overcompensation that both sexes experience in an attempt to repress feelings of inferiority.

There were 3 different stages in thinking about the ultimate goal of human life:

1. Be aggressive

2. Be powerful

3. Be unattainable

The desire for excellence is a fundamental law of human life. Adler considers the desire for superiority as the main motive in his theory; the desire for superiority is innate, but this feeling must be nurtured and developed.

The process begins in the 5th year of life, when the human purpose of life is formalized.

Adler viewed the striving for superiority as a single fundamental motive; he established that the great striving forward and upward is universal in nature, that is, it is common to everyone. Superiority can be understood both negatively and positively. The desire for superiority is associated with large energy costs; the desire for superiority manifests itself both at the level of the individual and at the level of society.

4th concept.

Life style.

It involves a unique combination of traits, modes of behavior and habits, which, taken together, determine a unique picture of the existence of an individual.

Lifestyle is a complex of behavioral activity aimed at overcoming inferiority.

The lifestyle becomes stronger at the age of 4-5 years.

Personality types are attitudes associated with lifestyles.

Global problems that people face: work, friendship, love. They are interconnected.

Social interest is a feeling of empathy for all people. This is the main criterion of psychological maturity.

Personality types:

1) Manager - not socially active (young offenders, drug addicts)

2) Taker - no social interest. The main thing is to get as much as possible from other people.

3) Avoidant – the goal is to avoid all problems.

4) Socially useful - the embodiment of maturity in life: both a high level of social interest and activity.

5th concept:

Social interest.

Adler believed that the prerequisites for social interest are innate, but it requires that it be developed, it is educated and produces results through training.

The mother has a task - to cultivate a sense of cooperation in the child.

Our lives are valuable only to the extent that we contribute to the value of other people's lives.

6th concept.

It is the most important component of Adler's theory.

Lifestyle is formed under the influence of the creative abilities of the individual.

The creative power of man is the result of a long history of evolution. People have creative power because they are human.

People are the masters of their own lives.

7th concept.

Birth order.

This is the main determinant of attitudes. Birth order is critical (birth position).

1st position:

1) Firstborn

2) An only child is the center of life of the whole family, which leads to selfishness and dependence.

3) The second child (middle) - a constant desire to prove that he is better than the first.

4) The third child (the youngest) is the darling of the family, but there is no sense of independence, but the motivation for superiority is high.

8th position.

Fictional finalism.

The idea that an individual's behavior is subordinated to their own intended goals for the future.

Our main goals are fictitious goals, the correlation of which with reality cannot be verified or confirmed. The individual's desire for superiority is governed by his chosen fictitious goal.

Personality theory by K. Horney (wives).

She founded and headed the American Institute of Psychoanalysis.

Books: “Neurotic personality”, “Internal conflicts”.

Horney's main postulates:

a) Women do not envy the male organ.

b) There are sociocultural influences.

c) 1. A man honors a woman as a mother.

2. admiration for a woman - men envy a woman as a mother (according to Freud, women envy men because of the male organ).

3. Often a man’s relationship with a woman is associated with the fear of death: whoever is able to give life is able to take it away.

4. men are afraid of a woman as a sexual being.

d) Challenges the position of gender equality.

e) The hostility of the sexes manifests itself in women. Compensation for these experiences is masculine manners.

Reasons for failure in marriage:

a. Mistrust of the sexes.

b. Poor choice of partner.

c. Presentation of impossible demands in advance.

How to resolve marriage conflicts:

· Through conversation

· Through an open marriage

· Through consistent relationship building

Neurosis in modern psychology is a group of borderline functional neuropsychic disorders that manifest themselves in specific clinical phenomena.

Neuroses according to K. Horney.

In childhood, the appearance of basal anxiety (basic) is possible. Its origins:

1) Feelings of insecurity if parents do not meet the child's needs. This leads to hostility.

2) Hypocrisy. If mom plays the role of a good mom. Insincere love.

3) Contradictions of cultures – conflict of value systems.

Basic anxiety is an intense, pervasive feeling of insecurity. On its basis, a person develops neurosis.

Neurosis according to Horney is an individual way of adapting to culture.

Strategies for compensating for basal anxiety.

Neurotic needs:

o Need for love and approval. It manifests itself in the behavior of neurotics - an insatiable desire to be loved.

o The need for a guiding partner - appears in excessive dependence on others. People who are afraid of being rejected.

o The need for clear restrictions - a lifestyle where everything is strictly on schedule. This leads to severe restrictions.

o The need for power – dominance, desire for power. Despises weakness.

o The need to exploit others. People are afraid of being dependent.

o The need for social recognition - depends on status (admiration of others).

o Self-admiration - the need for flattery and compliments.

o The need for ambition is the fear of failure.

o The need for self-sufficiency - a person avoids close, loving relationships, distances himself from everyone.

o In the impeccability and irrefutability of attempts to make society ideal.

Neurotic love is a varying degree of realized and exaggerated need for emotional attachment, positive assessment of others, exaggerated sensitivity to the frustration of these needs.

Feature - demands are made on another person - you must love me.

ü Love is never enough.

ü A neurotic person is not capable of giving love.

ü Exorbitant fear of rejection.

Neurosis is a conflict, a contradiction. Horney is looking to see if there is an underlying conflict. According to Freud, she believes that the conflict between ego and libido is not primary. According to Jung, the conflict between consciousness and the unconscious can be resolved. But this is also not a basic conflict.

Horney sees a basic conflict - a conflict of fundamentally contradictory attitudes that a person has formed in relation to other people.

3 attitudes (behavior strategies).

v Movement towards people

v Against people

v From people

A healthy person is equally characterized by all attitudes. In neurotics, one predominates.

1. individuals who strive to dissolve in other people and communicate with them as much as possible. They strive to please everyone around them - this is the problem. A person loses himself in the variety of expectations of the people around him. Doesn't take the blame. Any form of aggressiveness is excluded. There may be attitudes towards oneself: 1) I am weak and helpless; 2) it goes without saying that every person is superior to me, feelings of insecurity; 3) the tendency to evaluate oneself from the position of other people. How I am judged is how I am.

2. life is an arena, a struggle against everyone. They resort to force and manipulation. The specific form of manipulation depends on the nature of the person. This person will never do anything good to others if he doesn’t need it. He is not capable of sincere love.

3. exacerbation. These individuals do not have a developed life strategy. No skill in building relationships with people. You show interest in your own person, like in a painting. Emotional distance is established between oneself and others. Character - Robinson Crusoe. Do everything in order to survive.

The nature of a neurotic depends on his abilities. A neurotic cannot sincerely love not only people, but also the work he does.

Neurotics show the deepest interest in themselves. Set a reasonable distance.

Key ideas from Eric Erinson.

His direction is called ego psychology. Epigenetic principle: a genetic program unfolds in a person's life.

1) personality develops step by step. The transition from one stage to another is predetermined by the readiness to move towards further growth.

2) society is trying to help maintain this trend.

Erikson identifies 8 stages (developmental crises), with the first 5 stages being similar to the stages of sexual development.

1. Infancy (oral-sensory) - from birth to one year. Sensory energy is concentrated in the mouth area. Satisfaction of the baby's sensory needs by parents leads to the fact that the child begins to trust the world.

2. early childhood (muscular-anal) - from one year to 3 years. The child develops a feeling of shame.

3. Age of play (lonamotor-genital) from 3 to 6 years. Boys learn that they are boys and girls learn that they are girls. Children are happy about everything. An overestimate, but not a high one, provides an additional stimulus for cognition.

4. School age (latent stage) from 6 to 12 years. Sensory energy is not localized anywhere. Man creates cultural objects. Playing sports, it should be a little difficult for a child to awaken his ability to work.

5. Youth from 12 to 19 years is a very difficult, transitional period. Conflict is what is needed in adolescence to show character. A conflict appears in the educational process. Self-identity is formed - a person begins to understand himself and distinguish himself in the world. Including all spheres of life. This is in normal development. In abnormal development - role fusion. Ego-identity is an internal consistency, an internal identity that people who are significant to me should feel.