Description: War Thunder is a next generation military MMO game dedicated to...
Complete set: with spare parts, tripod, covers, tape measure and other accessories for the device. With "hammer-sickle" branding on the surface. The date of the last repair in the instructions is 1960! This is a standard military-grade anti-aircraft rangefinder in excellent condition (storage conservation). The optics are clean, the product is without mechanical damage. For operation, the rangefinder is mounted on a tripod, which consists of a holder and a tripod (all included). In a wooden box for transportation and carrying. The size of the box is 117x27x17 cm.
This optical device can decorate the interior of a study or office, giving a modern interior a retro entourage, and also serve practically - to monitor a potential enemy (neighbors in the country, for example) ...
MANAGEMENT
for
INFANTRY FIGHTER
Chapter 12
MACHINE GUN SERVICE
P the gunner is entrusted with a tested weapon - the Maxim machine gun.
With accurate and merciless machine-gun fire, the undaunted fighters of the Red Army smashed the White Guard gangs in battles during the civil war in the USSR. The Red Army is equipped with many models of machine guns, but the Maxim machine gun remains the most powerful of them. This was experienced by the White Poles, samurai and White Finns.
The machine gun shoots with a lead jet, throwing out 600 bullets per minute. This terrible jet destroys the attacking enemy infantry and cavalry and stops their advance.
Machine gun fire only prepares for success, completes his bayonet strike.
Don't forget for a moment that the machine gun provides the infantry with fire and helps them accomplish their mission.
MACHINE GUN CREW
FROM a tank machine gun is serviced by a machine gun chief and six fighters: an observer - a rangefinder, a gunner, an assistant gunner, two cartridge carriers, a rider.
Each machine gunner must be able to perform the duties of any machine gun fighter in case he has to replace him in battle.
The head of the machine gun is replaced by a gunner.
Each heavy machine gun carries a combat set of cartridges, 12 boxes of machine-gun belts, two spare barrels, one box of spare parts, one box of accessories, three cans for water and grease, and an optical machine gun sight. If the machine gun is assigned to fire at air targets, then it has an anti-aircraft tripod and an anti-aircraft sight.
To take up a firing position, a command is given (approximately): "Direction to a green bush! On skating rinks! (with a wheelbarrow, on hands). To position!"
The machine gun is delivered by the method specified in the command to the position. To install the machine gun, choose a flat area with solid ground (turf is best). If there is no such site, prepare it with the help of a entrenching tool. In loose or rocky soil, place linings from the material that is at hand (felt, overcoat, etc.) under the rollers of the machine gun. Set the machine gun straight.
If one wheel is higher, dig up the soil, but do not add it. After placing the machine gun in position, prepare it for firing.
Gunner! Set the barrel of the machine horizontally (by eye). To do this, pull the handle of the stoppers towards you with your right hand, and move the body of the machine gun along the arcs of the machine with your left hand by the handle of the butt plate so that the barrel is horizontal. After that, secure the machine gun: drop the handle of the stoppers and slightly move the body of the machine gun back and forth. Then set the body of the machine gun horizontally. To do this, select the desired hole of the rods, acting with the help of mechanisms for coarse and fine pickup.
Having installed the machine gun, direct the body of the machine gun in the direction of fire.
Raise the sight post or, when shooting with a telescopic sight, remove the cap from the panorama.
Gunner's Assistant! Remove the cap of the muzzle, open the steam vent, screw on the steam vent and take the end of it into the ground or lower it into a vessel with water. Place the cartridge box to the right of the receiver, flip the cover to the right, prepare the tape for feeding and open the shield shutter.
The gunner lies down behind the machine gun, legs slightly spread to the sides, turning the soles of his feet and pressing them to the ground. He raises his head as he sees fit. The elbows rest on the armrests (roll, turf, boxes, etc.), which should not put pressure on the trunk of the machine.
Gunner's Assistant! Lie down to the right of the machine gun so that it is convenient to work with a machine gun.
The remaining fighters of the machine-gun crew are located depending on the terrain and situation, so that they can better fulfill their duties (Fig. 205).
For anti-aircraft shooting from a universal machine arr. 1931 the machine gun is pre-discharged, all the mechanisms of the machine are fixed, and the optical sight with traction and the shield are removed. An anti-aircraft sight is mounted on a machine gun.
On command "By Airplane":
Gunner! Press the latch of the middle leg of the tripod with your left hand, grasp the coulter ring and pull out all three legs at the same time; turn the front leg of the tripod to the right by the heel, and the left leg to the left; take them out of the grip with the middle leg and spread them to the sides, then stand behind the machine gun and grab the butt plate handle with both hands.
Gunner's Assistant! Stand in front of the machine gun, grab the casing closer to the front edge of the box and, together with the gunner, lift the machine gun up and tilt it onto the rear leg of the machine; then pull back on the locking pin of the travel connecting fork and separate the travel from the machine table by turning it forward and downward.
Gunner! Release the coarse vertical aiming clamps and disengage the machine gun from the sector of the right swivel post.
Gunner's Assistant! Press the swivel latch down and release the swivel head.
In order to get the possibility of circular fire, the gunner rotates the machine gun on the table for half a circle (180 ").
For firing from an anti-aircraft machine-gun tripod mod. 1928 one of the cartridge carriers is assigned to aim.
On command "By Airplane" assistant gunner unscrews the nut of the connecting bolt.
Gunner! Remove the connecting bolt and give it to the assistant gunner.
Gunner's Assistant! Take out the bolt of fine aiming.
Gunner! Take the body of the machine gun and bring it to the tripod.
Gunner's Assistant! Take the connecting bolt from the gunner and insert it into the eyes of the machine.
First ammo carrier! Move the tripod to the place indicated by the commander, and unfasten the strap that tightens its legs.
Aiming! Loosen the clamping bolt of the tripod center tube coupling clamp.
Ammo carrier and aiming! Stretch your tripod.
Aiming! Tighten the clamping bolt of the clamp of the center tube of the tripod.
The squad leader unscrews the nut of the connecting bolt on the tripod swivel, removes the bolt and passes it to the first cartridge carrier.
Gunner! Now put the machine gun on the swivel, and take the aiming machine gun from the gunner.
First ammo carrier! Insert the connecting bolt.
Aiming! Tighten the nut of the connecting bolt, insert the fine aiming bolt into the machine gun eyes, take out the split pin of the butt plate and reinsert it through the breastplate eyes.
The machine-gun crew is left to install a sight on the machine gun.
ON THE MACHINE GUN AND REMOVING IT
The sight is mounted on a machine gun when switching from a ground machine to an anti-aircraft tripod. Commander's command:
Gunner! Take the rear sight out of the case, unscrew the locking screws of the base and attach the base of the sight to the right side of the ground sight post so that the holes in the sight post and the rear sight base match. Pass the set screws through the bore of the sight base and ground sight post and secure them.
Remove the aiming ruler with the adjusting device and clamping clip from the case and put the clip on the machine gun box, inserting the axis of the sight indicator (eccentric) into the hole in the leash.
Gunner's Assistant! Set the sight pointer to the "0" division and, when the gunner puts the clip on the machine gun box, screw the connecting screw of the sighting line into the hole in the upper part of the collar.
Remove the front sight from the case, insert it into the stand and sight holder tube and secure it.
Aiming! Remove the clamp from the case and, having unscrewed the nuts of the tightening screws, separate the upper and lower clamps. Then, together with the assistant gunner, put the clamp on the machine gun casing so that the front part of the upper clamp coincides with the line notched on the casing, and fasten the clamp (screw the nuts of the caps), making sure that the clamp is not knocked off; screw in the clamping screw.
The yoke and rear sight mounted on the machine gun do not interfere with shooting with a ground sight, so they are removed only when cleaning the machine gun. This makes it possible to reduce the installation time of the anti-aircraft sight and its alignment.
The anti-aircraft sight must be installed on the machine gun within 10 seconds.
To remove the sight, unscrew the connecting screw of the sighting line and separate the end of it from the collar;
set the eccentric pointer to zero division;
release the clamping screw of the clip and lift the clip up, at the same time removing the axis of the sight pointer from the hole in the leash;
Separate the front sight from the carriage by releasing the clamp and, removing the holder leg from the carriage socket, carefully place the sight into the box.
For automatic firing, the machine gun is loaded as follows:
Gunner's Assistant! With your left hand, push the tip of the tape into the receiver.
Gunner! Take the end of the tape with your left hand and, holding it with your thumb from above, pull the tape to the left and a little forward to failure; push the handle forward with your right hand and hold it in this position; pull the tape to the left again; drop the handle, take your hand to the side and forward; push the handle forward a second time, pull the tape to the left again, drop the handle.
To fire single shots, the gunner loads the machine guns for automatic firing, after which he feeds the handle forward once and throws it.
2. AIMING THE MACHINE GUN
Gunner! When aiming the machine gun at the target on the open sight with the thumb of your right hand, slide the brake bar and rotate the handwheel of the sight until the upper edge of the collar aligns with the desired division of the aim bar (Fig. 206). In old-style sights, the pointer in the form of a white dash in the clamp window is combined with the desired division of the aiming bar (Fig. 206).
After that, slide the brake bar into place and install the rear sight by turning the head of the lead screw with your left hand until the rear sight pointer aligns with the desired scale division on the tube.
It remains to point the machine gun at the target. To do this, unfasten the fine vertical aiming mechanism with your right hand, and the scattering mechanism with your left hand. With your right hand, turn the handwheel of the fine aiming mechanism and, lightly hitting the butt plate with the palm of your left hand, aim the machine gun at the target.
With correct aiming, the top of the front sight should be in the middle of the rear sight slot and flush with its edges, touching the aiming point from below.
Gunner! When aiming, give your eyes 12-15 centimeters from the rear sight slot, close your left eye or keep both eyes open.
He pointed the machine gun, - fix the fine aiming mechanisms with the right, and the scattering one - with the left hand.
When shooting at a point and with dispersion along the front, a fine vertical aiming mechanism is fixed.
When shooting with dispersion in depth, only the scattering mechanism is fixed.
Gunner's Assistant!(After the gunner has fixed the fine aiming mechanism and indicated the division of the ring.) Install the aiming ring (Fig. 206). To do this, take the aiming ring with the thumb and forefinger of your right hand and rotate it until the desired division is aligned with the indication in the sleeve window.
The setting of the ring always corresponds to the setting of the scope (unless a special command has been given).
Gunner's Assistant! If the fire is fired with simultaneous dispersion along the front and in depth, cover the flywheel with your left hand from below and report to the squad leader or raise your hand to head level. The gun is ready to fire.
Gunner! At the same time, check the installation of the aiming ring and the aiming.
Before installing an optical sight, you need to make sure that all its scales are in the zero position, and the 30-00 goniometric scale is opposite the pointer, then remove the safety cap from the connecting rod finger and put it in the box.
Gunner! To install the sight, move the handle of the connecting rod clamp up, release the clamp of the connecting rod pin;
put the sight with the tubular axis of the body on the connecting rod pin so that the connecting rod pin freely enters the opening of the mounting collar between the adjusting screws, and screw the rear adjusting screw until it fails, but without undue force;
fasten the sight, for which the connecting rod finger clamp handle is turned down until it fails;
fasten the locknut of the rear adjusting screw with a special wrench, remove the leather cap from the panorama.
Then, making sure that division 30-00 of the goniometric scale of the panorama is against the pointer, set the goniometer and the drum handwheel until the desired division is aligned with the pointer (Fig. 207).
After that, make sure that the scale of the drum for setting the elevation angles of the target and the scale of the drum for setting the aiming angles are zero divisions against their pointers; set the aiming angle for the bullet mod. 1908 or 1930 and the level by rotating the target elevation scale drum: "more" - on the inner scale, "less" - on the outer one.
Now pull the clutch with a rubber eyecup back and aim the machine gun at the desired point so that the top of the triangle of aiming threads (optical front sight) is aligned with the aiming point (Fig. 208). 
The assistant gunner does the same as when aiming with an open sight.
P In automatic fire from an easel machine gun, individual bullets that fly in one direction form a machine-gun sheaf of shots.
When shooting at a point with fixed mechanisms, the dimensions of the sheaf in height, width and range are the smallest. When firing from a machine gun with detached mechanisms, the size of the sheaf of shots increases, especially in range, or in height, if firing at a vertical target.
The size of the sheaf of shots depends on the degree of serviceability of the mechanisms of the machine and the connecting bolts.
The distance of the terrain from the point of impact of the nearest bullet to the point of impact of the farthest bullet is called depth of dispersion of bullets.
If the terrain at the target increases, the depth of dispersion of bullets decreases, if it decreases, it increases.
The most profitable thing is to "hit the enemy with the core of bullets."
Gunner! To fire in bursts, raise the fuse, push the trigger lever forward to failure and hold it until the machine gun releases a burst of (10-30) rounds; then quickly, if necessary, correct the aiming and again fire a burst of (10-30) rounds, so do this until the prescribed number of rounds is used up.
The length of each burst is adjusted by the gunner by ear (without an accurate count of cartridges).
In a training setting, the assigned number of rounds can be separated in the tape in advance.
When shooting, do not press the butt plate handles either up or down. Do not correct shooting (changing the range) by pressing the knobs. With a dead move, which is always in the machine gun, shooting over your troops and raising the butt plate handles, you can fire at your own troops.
Gunner's Assistant! While shooting, support the tape with your left hand and guide it into the receiver. If the shooting stops involuntarily, raise your hand and say loudly: "Hold!" At the same time, look at the position of the handle and indicate to the gunner (approximately): "The handle is in a vertical position", "The handle is in its place", etc. Help the gunner eliminate the delay.
The gunner, when firing single shots, after each shot, gives the handle forward and throws it.
Shooting at a point with dispersion along the front and in depth is carried out by automatic fire. The same fire is firing. When shooting at a point, the sheaf of fire is very narrow. Therefore, if the distance is incorrectly determined and atmospheric conditions are not accurately taken into account, the sheaf may miss the target. To avoid this, it is necessary to increase the sheaf of fire by dispersion along the front and in depth.
When administering fire to the point the gunner slightly unfastens the scattering mechanism and makes sure that the aiming line does not deviate from the aiming point.
When administering fixed fire to the point the gunner, after aiming the machine gun, fixes the scattering mechanism and the fine vertical aiming mechanism.
When administering fire with dispersion along the front the gunner releases the dispersion mechanism, aims the machine gun at the left or right edge of the target and, opening fire, smoothly, without jerking, without pressing the butt plate handles, drives the machine gun to the right or left within the specified limits, monitoring dispersion along the aiming line; the fine vertical aiming mechanism is fixed at the same time.
The normal dispersion rate is such that there are at least two bullets per meter of front.
If the target is not visible or poorly visible, the gunner limits the scattering to local objects between which the target is located (for example, from a bush to a road).
Gunner! When shooting with dispersion at the angle indicated by the commander, first find the limits of dispersion using a machine-gun ruler: mark with your thumbnail the division of the goniometric scale on the ruler indicated by the team; remove the ruler 50 centimeters from the eye, direct the zero division of the scale to the aiming point and notice on the ground a point that falls opposite the marked division on the ruler.
The limits of dispersion are also determined by: 1) an optical sight: set the panorama drum (and, if necessary, its rotary head) from its main installation to the angle indicated by the commander in the direction opposite to the direction of dispersion; note the object on the ground, then reinstall the drum (swivel head) on the main installation; 2) in its entirety, moving it by the indicated number of divisions and noticing the limits of dispersion on the ground.
Gunner! Firing with dispersion in depth, at the end of the machine gun aiming, without fixing the fine vertical aiming mechanism, grasp the handwheel from below with your right hand and after the first shot, begin to rotate the handwheel.
Gunner's Assistant! Follow the aiming ring for the accuracy of dispersion within the specified limits.
The rate of dispersion in depth is one division of the aiming ring in one second.
When firing with simultaneous dispersion along the front, and the assistant gunner - along the ring in depth. In this case, the rate of two scatterings can be increased to two divisions of the ring per second.
The machine gun can be fired with automatic fire continuously or in bursts, or single shots. Shooting with single shots is used only for training and in order to warm up the frozen liquid and the barrel of the machine gun.
Scattering in depth is carried out along the ring within the required limits, for example, from 11 to 12. In this case, the sheaf of shots will move in depth by 100 meters. Dispersion to a depth of 100 meters is useful when firing at shallow or small targets. Large dispersion in depth, for example, at 200 meters (along the ring from 11 to 13 approximately), is used as an exception, since in this case the depth of dispersion of the bullets greatly increases and the validity of the fire decreases.
Broad and deep targets should be fired upon, scattering fire simultaneously along the front and in depth.
Sighting is carried out by fire at a point with fixed mechanisms. Zeroing in on targets in combat will be an exception. Targets in combat will hide behind cover very quickly. Therefore, they must be hit by immediately opening fire to kill, setting the sight according to the distance to the target, taking into account atmospheric influences(wind, temperature, pressure).
When automatic fire is being fired and the place where the bullets hit is clearly visible, corrections need to be made, for example: "flight 50 meters - give half a division back along the ring", "undershoot 100 meters - give one forward along the ring", etc.
In all cases, strive to direct the fire of your machine gun to the flank or obliquely. Such fire gives the greatest results in combat.
FIRE CORRECTION
It is especially important to continuously monitor the fall of bullets, how the living target behaves - the enemy. With proper observation, you can correct an error in choosing a sight, taking into account the influence of temperature and wind, and a gunner's error.
The most important thing is to establish where the core of the shots lies. Shooting cannot be corrected for individual random bullets.
On damp ground, in grass, with heavy artillery shelling of the target area, it is impossible to observe the fall of bullets. Then you should observe how the enemy behaves. With well-aimed fire, you can notice the dead and wounded, the enemy will lie down, stop moving and fire, the columns will be deployed, etc.
Report your results as follows:
1) the core covered the target - report: "Good";
2) bullets lay closer to the target - report: "Undershot 100" (approximately in meters);
3) bullets lay further than the target - report: "Flight 50" (approximately in meters);
4) bullets fell to the right or left of the target - report: "To the right (or left) 15" (in goniometer divisions).
When flying - reduce the sight, when short-range - increase. In case of lateral deviation of the bullets, correct the installation of the rear sight (goniometer).
Remember! "The bullet follows the whole thing" (goniometer): rear sight to the left - bullets to the left, rear sight to the right - bullets to the right.
anti-aircraft sight arr. 1929
For firing at an air target, it is necessary to accurately determine the distance and speed of the target and, accordingly, set the front sight on the scale of the aiming line, and the aiming mechanism according to the firing distance;
select the reticle ring according to the speed of the target and set the reticle to a horizontal or vertical position, depending on the elevation angle of the target.
What should the gunner, assistant gunner and aimer do, opening fire on command?
Aiming! Being to the left of the machine gun, move the carriage of the front sight along the sighting line to the division corresponding to the commanded range, and give the sight, depending on the elevation angle of the target, a horizontal or vertical position.
The setting of the front viewfinder in a horizontal or vertical position is carried out by rearranging the plumb bob; to do this, pull the plumb line to the side and turn it 90 *.
Shooting at an aircraft with the front sight horizontal is possible only if the target visibility angle (target elevation angle) is at least 10*. In cases where the aircraft is moving at an angle of less than 10 degrees to the target, aim with the sight in the vertical position.
At the same time, set the sight on the course of the target, i.e. parallel to the direction of its movement in relation to the plane of fire.
The aimer must have sufficient skill to quickly determine the elevation angle of the target by eye.
Gunner's Assistant! Being on the right of the machine gun, set the sight pointer according to the shooting distance, direct the tape into the receiver and during the shooting, follow the correct setting of the sight. When shooting at a target moving at distances not exceeding 1000 meters, set the sight pointer to division 10. When shooting at distances over 1000 meters, move the sight pointer to the division corresponding to the distance specified in the command.
Gunner! Aim the machine gun at the target by aiming it through the rear sight diopter and the corresponding point of the front sight, depending on the direction and speed of the target.
If the plane dives onto a machine gun or leaves after a dive, then, regardless of its speed, aim through the center of the rear sight diopter and the center (hub hole) of the front sight directly at the head of the aircraft (Fig. 209);
if the aircraft passes overhead in the direction of the machine gun, aim through the center of the diopter and the intersection of the vertical spoke of the front sight with the ring corresponding to the speed of the target, at the bottom or in front of the sight, depending on the vertical or horizontal position of the ring (Fig. 210); if the plane goes overhead in the direction from the machine gun, aim through the center of the diopter and the intersection of the vertical spoke of the front sight with the ring corresponding to the speed of the target, in the upper or rear part of the sight, depending on the vertical or horizontal position of the ring (Fig. 211);
if the aircraft passes along the front or at an angle to it, aim through the center of the diopter and the point selected on the corresponding ring of the front sight so that the extended line of the target passes through the center of the front sight and the head of the aircraft touches the outer edge of the ring (Fig. 212 and 213);
if the speed of the aircraft does not correspond to any of the rings of the front sight, then aim at an imaginary point between the corresponding rings.
To determine the distance to aircraft with an eye meter, you can use the following data (for normal vision):
from 1200 meters - you can distinguish identification marks,
from 800 meters - wheels and chassis are visible,
from 600 meters - stretch marks are visible,
from 300 meters - the heads of the pilots are visible.
Gunner! For a temporary ceasefire, release the fuse and trigger.
Gunner's Assistant! Report the setting of the aiming ring, for example: "Twelve".
Gunner! With a complete ceasefire, unload the machine gun, for which move the handle forward to failure, lower the firing pin, set the sight and rear sight to their original position, put the sight stand on the box cover and push the cartridge case or cartridge out of the output tube; after that report: "The trunk and the excretory tube are free." Cover the panorama of the optical sight with a cover, and if necessary, remove the sight and hand it over to the assistant gunner to put it in the box.
Gunner's Assistant! Take the tape out of the receiver and put it in the cartridge box, unscrew the steam vent, close the steam vent, put on the cap, close the shield flap and put the covers on the machine gun.
In peacetime, the command "Pull the lock" is given.
Gunner! On this command, unload the machine gun, open the lid of the box, lift the lock out of the box and put it on the butt plate.
Gunner's Assistant! Grab the cover of the box, put it close to the shield and grab the sight with the rack.
SHOOTING IN-BAND AND PAST
FLANK YOUR UNITS
AT in combat it is often imagined to fire past the flank and into the gaps between the units of their troops acting in front.
For such shooting, first of all, it is necessary to strictly ensure safety limits of his troops, which are shown in the following table:
If the norms indicated in the table are met, then shooting past the flank and in the gaps is allowed. In this case, the bullets should not fall next to our troops or behind them, since their fighters can be hit by ricocheting bullets.
Example 1 Removal of their troops from the machine gun 400 meters (Fig. 214).
If the fire is conducted with the help of an optical sight, a machine gun with a zero setting of the protractor is aimed at the right-flank fighter and the machine gun is fixed. Then set the protractor (safety angle) at 30 - 30. With this setting, the goniometer is pointed at the right-flank fighter, the machine gun is fixed and the limiter is placed on the left.
If firing is carried out with an open sight, then the gunner, using a machine-gun ruler or a finger, measures a safety angle of 30 thousandths of a finger from the right flank (Fig. 215) and notices a point on the right safety border. Then he aims the machine gun at the spotted point and sets the limiter on the left.
Example 2 (Fig. 216). Their troops moved forward 300 meters. The gunner finds the flank fighters of his advanced units. Then it sets the right and left safety margins according to the optical sight or according to the terrain. The value of the safety angle will be 60 goniometric divisions (the width of two fingers at a distance of 50 centimeters from the eye). Between the right and left safety margins there must be a gap of at least 5 goniometric divisions. If it doesn't, you can't shoot.
A machine gun can also fire through friendly troops, however, such fire is fired only at the command of the commander.
5. AIMING THE MACHINE GUN ON THE GONITOR
P ri indirect
Quantum rangefinders.
4.1 The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders.
The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders is based on measuring the time of passage of a light pulse (signal) to the target and back.
Determination of polar coordinates of points;
Maintenance of zeroing targets (creating benchmarks);
Study of the area.
Rice. 13. DAK-2M in combat position.
1- transceiver; 2- angle measuring platform (UIP); 3- tripod; 4- cable;
5- battery 21NKBN-3.5.
4.2.2. Basic performance characteristics DAK-2M
|
№№ |
Characteristic name |
Indicators |
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
|
1 |
Range and measurements, M: Minimum; Maximum; Up to targets with angular dimensions ≥2′ |
8000 |
|
2 |
Maximum measurement error, m, no more |
10 |
|
3 |
Working mode: Number of range measurements in a series; Measurement frequency; Break between series of measurements, min; Time of readiness for distance measurement after power-on, sec., no more; The time spent in the readiness mode for range measurement after pressing the START button, min., no more. |
1 measurement in 5-7 seconds 30 1 |
|
4 |
Number of measurements (pulses 0 without recharging the battery, not less than |
300 |
|
5 |
Pointing angle range: |
± 4-50 |
|
6 |
Angle measurement accuracy, d.c. |
±0-01 |
|
7 |
Optical characteristics: Increase, times; Field of view, deg.; Periscopicity, mm. |
6 |
|
8 |
Food: Voltage of standard battery 21NKBN-3.5, v; Voltage of non-standard batteries, V; Voltage of the on-board network, V, (with the inclusion of a battery with a voltage of 22-29 V in the buffer. In this case, voltage fluctuations and ripple should not exceed ± 0.9 V). |
22-29 |
|
9 |
Rangefinder weight: In combat position without stowage box and spare battery, kg; In the stowed position (set weight), kg |
|
|
10 |
Calculation, pers. |
2 |
4.2.3. Set (composition) DAK-2M(Fig. 13)
Transceiver.
Angle measuring platform (UIP).
Tripod.
Cable.
Rechargeable battery 21NKBN-3.5.
Single set of spare parts.
Stacking box.
A set of technical documentation (form, TO and IE).
The device of the components of the DAK-2M.
Transceiver- is intended for conducting optical (visual) reconnaissance, measuring vertical angles, generating a light probing pulse, receiving and registering probing and reflected from local objects (targets) light pulses, converting them into voltage pulses, generating pulses to start and stop the time interval meter ( IVI).
a) The main blocks and nodes of the transceiver are:
optical quantum generator (OQG);
photodetector device (FPU);
amplifier FPU (UFPU);
launch block;
time interval meter (IVI);
direct current converter (DCC);
ignition unit (BP);
direct current converter (PPN);
control unit (BU);
block of capacitors (BC);
arrester;
head;
binocular;
mechanism for counting vertical angles.
WGC designed to form a powerful narrowly directed radiation pulse. The physical basis of the laser action is the amplification of light by stimulated emission. To do this, the laser uses an active element and an optical pumping system.
FPU is designed to receive pulses reflected from the target (reflected light pulses), their processing and amplification. To amplify them, the FPU has a preliminary photodetector amplifier (UPFPU).
UFPU is designed to amplify and process pulses coming from the UPFPU, as well as to generate stopping pulses for IVI.
BZ is designed to generate the trigger pulses of the TIE and FPA and delay the start pulse of the TIE relative to the laser radiation pulse for the time required for the stopping pulses to pass through the UPFPU and FPA.
IVI is designed to measure the time interval between the fronts of the triggering and one of the three stopping pulses. Converting it into a numerical value of the range in meters and indicating the range to the target, as well as indicating the number of targets in the radiation range.
TTX IVI:
Range of measured ranges - 30 - 97500 m;
Resolution according to D - not worse than 3 m;
The minimum value of the measured range can be set:
1050 m ± 75 m
2025 m ± 75 m
3000m±75m
IVI measures the range to one of three targets within the range of measured ranges at the choice of operators.
PPT is intended for a block of pump capacitors and storage capacitors of the power supply unit, as well as for issuing a stabilized supply voltage to the control unit.
BP is designed to form a high-voltage pulse that ionizes the discharge gap of a pulsed pump lamp.
PPN is designed to output a stabilized supply voltage to the UPFPU, UFPU, BZ and stabilize the rotational speed of the electric motor of the opto-mechanical shutter.
BOO is designed to control the operation of units and units of the range finder in a given sequence and control the voltage level of the power source.
BC designed to store charge.
Discharger designed to remove the charge from the capacitors by shorting them to the body of the transceiver.
Head designed to accommodate a sighting mirror. At the top of the head there is a slot for mounting a sighting pole. A lens hood is attached to protect the head glass.
Binocular is a part of the reticle and is designed to observe the area, aim at the target, as well as to read the indications of the range indicators, the target counter, indicate the readiness of the range finder to measure the range and the state of the battery.
Vertical angle reference mechanism
is intended for counting and indication of measured vertical angles.
b) Optical scheme of the transceiver(fig.14)
consists of: - transmitter channel;
The optical channels of the receiver and the reticle partially coincide (they have a common objective and a dichroic mirror).
Transmitter channel designed to create a powerful monochromatic pulse of short duration and small angular divergence of the beam and send it in the direction of the target.
Its composition: - OGK (mirror, flash lamp, active element-rod, reflector, prism);
Telescopic system of Galileo - to reduce the angular divergence of radiation.
Receiver channel
designed to receive the radiation pulse reflected from the target and create the required level of light energy on the FPU photodiode. Its composition: - lens; - dichroic mirror.
Rice. fourteen. Optical scheme of the transceiver.
Left: 1- telescope; 2- mirror; 3- active element; 4- reflector; 5- flash lamp ISP-600; 6- prism; 7.8 - mirrors; 9- eyepiece.
Connector "POWER";
PSA connector (for connecting a calculating device);
Drying valve.
On the head of the transceiver are:
Drying valve;
Socket for sighting pole.
TARGET switch is designed to measure the distance to the first or second or third target located in the radiation range.
GATE switch is designed to set the minimum ranges 200, 400, 1000, 2000, 3000, closer than which the range measurement is impossible. The indicated minimum ranges correspond to the positions of the "STROBING" switch:
400 m - "0.4"
1000 m - "1"
2000 m - "2"
3000 m - "3"
When the switch position "STROBING" is set to position "3", the sensitivity of the photodetector to reflected signals (pulses) is increased.
Rice. fifteen. DAK-2M controls.
1 - drying cartridge; 2-node grid illumination; 3-switch LIGHT FILTER; 4-switch PURPOSE; 5.13-bracket; 6-control panel; 7-button MEASUREMENT; 8-button START; 9-knob BRIGHTNESS; 10-toggle switch BACKLIGHT; 11-toggle switch POWER; 12-pin PARAMETER CONTROL ; 14-switch STROBING; 15-level; 16-reflector; 17-scale mechanism for reading vertical angles.
Rice. 16. DAK-2M controls.
Left: 1-strap; 2-fuse; 3-plug LANTERN; 4-control panel; 5-ring; 6-connector PSA; 7,11-rings; 8-plug power supply; 9-button CALIBRATION; 10-button CHECK VOLT.
Right: 1-socket; 2-head; 3.9-drying valve; 4-body; 5-eyecup; 6-binocular; 7-handle vertical guidance; 8-bracket.
Angle measuring platform (UIP)
UIP designed for mounting and leveling the transceiver, turning it around a vertical axis and measuring horizontal and directional angles.
Composition of the UIP(fig.17)
clamping device;
Device;
Ball level.
The UIP is mounted on a tripod and fastened through the threaded bushing with a set screw.
Rice. 17. Angle measuring platform DAK-2M.
1-handle for layering the worm; 2-level; 3-handle; 4 clamping device; 5-base with wheel; 6-drum; 7-handle of precise guidance; 8-nut; 9-limb; 10-handle; 11-threaded sleeve; 12-base; 13-lifting screw.
Tripod designed to install the transceiver to install the transceiver in the working position at the required height. The tripod consists of a table, three paired rods and three retractable legs. The rods are interconnected by a hinge and a clamping device in which the retractable leg is clamped with a screw. The hinges are attached to the table with overlays.
Battery 21 NKBN-3.5 is designed to power rangefinder blocks with direct current through a cable.
NK - nickel-cadmium battery system;
B - battery type - panelless;
H - technological feature of the manufacture of plates - spread;
3.5 - nominal battery capacity in ampere-hours.
- buttons "MEASUREMENT 1" and "MEASUREMENT 2" - for measuring the distance to the first or second target located in the radiation range.
Rice. twenty. Controls of LPR-1.
Top: 1-casing; 2-handle; 3-index; 4-buttons MEASUREMENT1 and MEASUREMENT 2; 5-strap; 6-panel; 7-toggle switch handle LIGHT; 8 eyepiece sight; 9 screws; 10 eyepiece sight; 11-fork; 12-battery compartment cover; 13-toggle switch handle ON-OFF.
Bottom: 1 drying cartridge; 2-rmen; 3-bracket; 4-lid.
On the back and bottom sides:
Bracket for mounting the device on the UID bracket or on the bracket - adapter when installing the device on the compass;
drying cartridge;
Viewfinder lens;
telescope lens;
Connector with a cover for connecting the cable of remote buttons.
Rice. 21. Field of view of the LPR-1 indicator
1-range indicator; 2,5,6-dicimal dots; 3-readiness indicator (green); 4-battery discharge indicator (red).
Note . In the absence of a reflected pulse, zeros (00000) are displayed in all digits of the range indicator. In the absence of a probing pulse, zeros are displayed in all digits of the range indicator and a decimal point is displayed in the third digit (Fig. 21. position 5).
If there are several targets in the radiation target (in the break of the goniometric grid) during the measurement, the decimal point lights up in the low-order digit of the range indicator (Fig. 21. position 2).
If it is impossible to remove shielding interference beyond the break of the goniometric grid, and also in cases where interference is not observed, and the decimal point in the low (right) digit of the range indicator is lit, aim the rangefinder at the target so that the target overlaps, possibly, a large area of the gap goniometric grid. Measure the range, then set the minimum range limit knob to a range value that exceeds the measured value by 50-100 meters and measure the range again. Repeat these steps until the decimal point in the most significant digit goes out.
When zeros are displayed in all digits of the range indicator and the decimal point is lit in the most significant digit (left) (Fig.21. position 6) of the indicator, it is necessary to reduce the minimum measured range by turning the minimum range limiting knob until a reliable measurement result is obtained.
2. Angle measuring device
(Fig.22.).
Designed for installation of a rangefinder, aiming a rangefinder and measuring horizontal, vertical and directional angles
In the hands of the advanced observer of the Italian army, the Elbit PLDRII reconnaissance and target designation device, which is in service with many customers, including the corps marines, where it is designated AN/PEQ-17
Looking for a purpose
In order to generate target coordinates, the data acquisition system must first know its own position. From it, she can determine the range to the target and the angle of the latter relative to the true pole. A surveillance system (preferably day and night), an accurate positioning system, a laser rangefinder, a digital magnetic compass are typical components of such a device. It is also a good idea in such a system to have a tracking device capable of identifying a coded laser beam to confirm the target to the pilot, which, as a result, increases safety and reduces communication exchange. Pointers, on the other hand, are not powerful enough to aim weapons, but allow the target to be marked for ground or airborne (airborne) designators, which, ultimately, direct the semi-active laser homing head of the ammunition to the target. Finally, artillery position radars allow you to accurately determine the position of enemy artillery, even if (and most often it happens) they are not in line of sight. As said, only manual systems will be considered in this review.
In order to understand what the military wants to have in their hands, let's look at the requirements published by the US Army in 2014 for their LTLM (Laser Target Location Module) II laser reconnaissance and target designation device, which should eventually replace the armed with the previous version of the LTLM. The Army expects a device weighing 1.8 kg (ultimately 1.6 kg), although the entire system, including the device itself, cables, tripod and lens cleaning kit, can raise the bar to 4.8 kg at best to 3.85 kg. By comparison, the current LTLM module has a base weight of 2.5 kg and a total weight of 5.4 kg. Target location error threshold is defined as 45 meters at 5 kilometers (same as LTLM), practical circular error probable (CEP) of 10 meters at 10 kilometers. For daytime operations, the LTLM II will have a minimum magnification of x7 optics, a minimum field of view of 6°x3.5°, an eyepiece scale in 10 mil increments, and a daytime color camera. It will provide streaming video and a wide field of view of 6°x4.5°, guaranteeing a recognition rate of 70% at 3.1 km and identification at 1.9 km in clear weather. The narrow field of view should be no more than 3°x2.25°, preferably 2.5°x1.87°, with appropriate recognition ranges of 4.2 or 5 km and identification ranges of 2.6 or 3.2 km. The thermal imaging channel will have the same target fields of view with a probability of 70% recognition at 0.9 and 2 km and identification at 0.45 and 1 km. Target data will be stored in the UTM/UPS coordinate unit, and data and images will be transmitted via RS-232 or USB 2.0 connectors. Power will be provided by L91 AA lithium batteries. The minimum ability to establish communication should be provided by a lightweight high-precision PLGR (Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver) GPS receiver and an advanced military DAGR (Defense Advanced GPS Receiver) GPS receiver, as well as developed GPS systems. However, the Army would prefer a system that could also interface with the Pocket Sized Forward Entry Device, Forward Observer Software/System, Force XXI Battle Command, Brigade-and-Below, and the Network Soldier System. Net Warrior.
BAE Systems offers two reconnaissance and target designation devices. The UTB X-LRF is an evolution of the UTB X device, to which a Class 1 laser rangefinder has been added with a range of 5.2 km. The device is based on an uncooled thermal imaging matrix of 640x480 pixels with a pitch of 17 microns, it can have optics with a focal length of 40, 75 and 120 mm with the corresponding magnification x2.1, x3.7 and x6.6, diagonal fields of view 19°, 10.5 ° and 6.5° and x2 electronic zoom. According to BAE Systems, the ranges of positive (80% probability) detection of a NATO standard target with an area of 0.75 m2 are 1010, 2220 and 2660 meters, respectively. The UTB X-LRF is equipped with a GPS system with an accuracy of 2.5 meters and a digital magnetic compass. It also includes a Class 3B laser pointer in the visible and infrared spectra. The instrument can store up to one hundred images in uncompressed BMP format. Power is provided by four L91 lithium batteries providing five hours of operation, although the instrument can be connected to an external power source via the USB port. The UTB X-LRF is 206mm long, 140mm wide and 74mm high, weighing 1.38kg without batteries.
In the US Army, BAE Systems' Trigr is known as the Laser Target Locator Module, it includes an uncooled thermal imaging array and weighs less than 2.5 kg.
The UTB X-LRF device is a further development of the UTB X, it has added a laser rangefinder, which made it possible to turn the device into a full-fledged reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation system
Another product from BAE Systems is the Trigr (Target Reconnaissance Infrared GeoLocating Rangefinder) laser reconnaissance and target designation device, developed in collaboration with Vectronix. BAE Systems provides the instrument with an uncooled thermal imager and a state-of-the-art selective availability GPS receiver, while Vectronix provides x7 magnification optics, a 5 km range fiber laser rangefinder and a digital magnetic compass. According to the company, the Trigr device guarantees a CEP of 45 meters at a distance of 5 km. The recognition range during the day is 4.2 km or more than 900 meters at night. The device weighs less than 2.5 kg, two sets guarantee round-the-clock operation. The entire system with tripod, batteries and cables weighs 5.5 kg. In the US Army, the device received the designation Laser Target Locator Module; in 2009, she was signed to a five-year, unspecified contract, plus two more in August 2012 and January 2013, worth $23.5 million and $7 million, respectively.
Northrop Grumman's Mark VII handheld laser reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation device has been replaced by an improved Mark VIIE device. This model received a thermal imaging channel instead of the image brightness enhancement channel of the previous model. The uncooled sensor significantly improves visibility at night and in difficult conditions; it features a field of view of 11.1°x8.3°. The daytime channel is based on forward-looking optics with an x8.2 magnification and a field of view of 7°x5°. The digital magnetic compass is ±8 mil accurate, the electronic clinometer is ±4 mil accurate, and positioning is provided by a built-in GPS/SAASM selective anti-jamming module. Laser rangefinder Nd-Yag (laser neodymium yttrium-aluminum garnet) with optical parametric generation provides a maximum range of 20 km with an accuracy of ±3 meters. The Mark VIIE weighs 2.5 kg with nine commercial CR123 cells and is equipped with an RS-232/422 data interface.
The newest product in Northrop Grumman's portfolio is the HHPTD (Hand Held Precision Targeting Device), which weighs less than 2.26 kg. Compared to its predecessors, it has a daytime color channel, as well as a non-magnetic celestial navigation module, which significantly improves the accuracy to the level required by modern GPS-guided munitions. A $9.2 million contract to develop the device was awarded in January 2013 in collaboration with Flir, General Dynamics and Wilcox. In October 2014, the device was tested at the White Sands missile range.
The Hand Held Precision Targeting Device is one of Northrop Grumman's latest developments; its comprehensive tests were carried out at the end of 2014
The main channel of the Flir Recon B2 family is a cooled thermal imaging channel. Device B2-FO with an additional daytime channel in the hands of an Italian commando (pictured)
Flir has several handheld targeting devices in its portfolio and works with other companies to provide night vision devices for such systems. The Recon B2 features a main thermal imaging channel operating in the mid-IR range. The 640x480 cooled indium antimonide sensor provides a 10°x8° wide field of view, a 2.5°x1.8° narrow field of view, and x4 continuous electronic zoom. The thermal imaging channel is equipped with autofocus, automatic brightness gain control and digital data enhancement. The auxiliary channel can be equipped with either a day sensor (model B2-FO) or a far infrared channel (model B2-DC). The first one is based on a color 1/4" color CCD camera with a 794x494 matrix with x4 continuous digital zoom and two same fields of view as the previous model. magnification x4.The B2 has a GPS C/A code (Coarse Acquisition code) module (however, a military standard GPS module can be built in to improve accuracy), a digital magnetic compass and a laser range finder with a range of 20 km and an 852nm Class 3B laser pointer.The B2 can store up to 1000 jpeg images that can be uploaded via USB or RS-232/422, NTSC/PAL and HDMI are also available for video recording. The instrument weighs less than 4 kg, including six D-batteries for four hours of continuous operation or more than five hours in an energy-saving mode. The Recon B2 can be equipped with a remote control kit that includes a tripod, pan/tilt head, power and communications box, and control box.
Flir offers a lighter version of the Recon V surveillance and targeting device, which includes a thermal sensor, a range finder and other typical sensors packed in a 1.8 kg case.
The lighter model Recon B9-FO features an uncooled thermal imaging channel with a 9.3°x7° field of view and x4 digital zoom. The color camera has x10 continuous zoom and x4 digital zoom, while the GPS receiver, digital compass and laser pointer features are the same as the B2. The main difference lies in the rangefinder, which has a maximum range of 3 km. The B9-FO is designed for shorter range operation; it also weighs significantly less than the B2, less than 2.5 kg with two D batteries that provide five hours of continuous use.
With no day channel, the Recon V weighs even less, at just 1.8 kg with batteries that provide six hours of hot-swappable operation. Its 640x480 indium antimonide cooled matrix operates in the mid-IR region of the spectrum, it has optics with x10 magnification (wide field of view 20°x15°). The rangefinder device is designed for a range of 10 km, while the gyroscope based on microelectromechanical systems provides image stabilization.
The French company Sagem offers three binocular solutions for day/night target detection. They all feature the same color daylight channel with a 3°x2.25° field of view, an eye-safe 10 km laser rangefinder, a digital magnetic compass with 360° azimuth and ±40° elevation angles, and a GPS C/S module with accuracy up to three meters (the device can be connected to an external GPS module). The main difference between the devices lies in the thermal imaging channel.
Topping the list is the Jim UC multifunctional binoculars, which have an uncooled 640x480 sensor with identical night and daytime fields of view, while the wide field of view is 8.6°x6.45°. Jim UC is equipped with digital zoom, image stabilization, built-in photo and video recording; optional image fusion function between day and thermal imaging channels. It also includes an eye-safe 0.8µm laser pointer plus analog and digital ports. Without batteries, the binoculars weigh 2.3 kg. The rechargeable battery provides more than five hours of continuous operation.
The multifunctional binoculars Jim Long Range of the French company Sagem were supplied to the French infantry as part of the Felin combat equipment; in the photo, the binoculars are mounted on the Sterna target designation device from Vectronix
Next comes the more advanced Jim LR multifunctional binoculars, from which, by the way, the UC device “budded”. It is in service with the French army, being part of the combat equipment of the French soldier Felin. Jim LR features a thermal imaging channel with a 320x240 pixel sensor operating in the 3-5 µm range; the narrow field of view is the same as the UC model, and the wide field of view is 9°x6.75°. A more powerful laser pointer that increases the range from 300 to 2500 meters is available as an option. The cooling system naturally increases the mass of Jim LR devices to 2.8 kg without batteries. However, the cooled thermal imaging module significantly improves performance, the ranges of detection, recognition and identification of a person are respectively 3/1/0.5 km for the UC model and 7/2.5/1.2 km for the LR model.
The range is completed by Jim HR multifunctional binoculars with even higher performance, provided by a high-resolution VGA 640x480 matrix.
Vectronix's Sagem division offers two surveillance platforms that, when connected to systems from Vectronix and/or Sagem, form extremely accurate, modular targeting tools.
The digital magnetic compass included with the GonioLight Digital Observation Station is accurate to 5 mils (0.28°). Connecting a true (geographic) pole gyroscope improves accuracy to 1 mil (0.06°). A 4.4 kg gyroscope is installed between the station itself and the tripod, as a result, the total weight of the GonioLight, gyroscope and tripod tends to 7 kg. Without a gyroscope, such accuracy can be achieved through the use of built-in topographic referencing procedures using known landmarks or celestial bodies. The system has a built-in GPS module and an access channel to an external GPS module. The GonioLight station is equipped with an illuminated screen and has interfaces for computers, communications equipment and other external devices. In the event of a malfunction, the system has auxiliary scales to determine the direction and vertical angle. The system allows you to accept a variety of day or night surveillance devices and rangefinders, such as the Vector family of rangefinders or the Sagem Jim binoculars described above. Special mounts in the upper part of the GonioLight station also allow the installation of two optoelectronic subsystems. The total weight varies from 9.8 kg in the GLV configuration, which includes the GonioLight plus the Vector rangefinder, to 18.1 kg in the GL G-TI configuration, which includes the GonioLight, Vector, Jim-LR and gyroscope. The GonioLight observation station was developed in the early 2000s and since then more than 2000 of these systems have been delivered to many countries. This station was also used in combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Vectronix's experience helped them develop the ultra-light, non-magnetic Sterna target designation system. If GonioLite is designed for ranges over 10 km, then Sterna for ranges of 4-6 km. Together with the tripod, the system weighs about 2.5 kg and is less than 1 mil (0.06°) accurate at any latitude using known landmarks. This allows you to get a target location error of less than four meters at a distance of 1.5 km. In the event that landmarks are not available, the Sterna system is equipped with a hemispherical resonant gyroscope jointly developed by Sagem and Vectronix, which provides an accuracy of 2 mils (0.11°) in determining true north up to a latitude of 60°. Set-up and orientation time is less than 150 seconds, and a rough alignment of ±5° is required. The Sterna is powered by four CR123A cells providing 50 orientations and 500 measurements. Like GonlioLight, the Sterna system can accept different types optoelectronic systems. For example, Vectronix's portfolio includes the lightest instrument at less than 3 kg, the PLRF25C, and the slightly heavier (less than 4 kg) Moskito. For more complex tasks, Vector or Jim devices can be added, but the weight increases to 6 kg. The Sterna system has a special attachment point for installation on the vehicle trunnion, from which it can be quickly removed for dismounted operations. To evaluate these systems in large quantities were supplied to the troops. The U.S. Army ordered Vectronix handheld systems and Sterna systems as part of the Handheld High Precision Targeting Device Requirements issued in July 2012. Vectronix is confident about the continued growth in sales of the Sterna system in 2015.
In June 2014, Vectronix showed the Moskito TI surveillance and target designation device with three channels: daytime optical with x6 magnification, optical (CMOS technology) with brightness enhancement (both with a 6.25 ° field of view) and uncooled thermal imaging with a 12 ° field of view. The device also includes a 10 km rangefinder with an accuracy of ±2 meters and a digital compass with an accuracy of ±10 mils (±0.6°) in azimuth and ±3 mils (±0.2°) in elevation. The GPS module is optional, although there is a connector for external civilian and military GPS receivers, as well as Galileo or GLONASS modules. It is possible to connect a laser pointer. The Moskito TI device has RS-232, USB 2.0 and Ethernet interfaces, Bluetooth wireless communication is optional. It is powered by three batteries or CR123A batteries, providing over six hours of uninterrupted operation. And finally, all the above systems are packed in a 130x170x80 mm device weighing less than 1.3 kg. This new product is a further development of the Moskito model, which, with a mass of 1.2 kg, has a daytime channel and a channel with brightness enhancement, a laser rangefinder with a range of 10 km, a digital compass; optional integration of civil standard GPS or connection to an external GPS receiver is possible.
Thales offers a complete range of reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation systems. The 3.4 kg Sophie UF system has an optical day channel with x6 magnification and a 7° field of view. The range of the laser rangefinder reaches 20 km, the Sophie UF can be equipped with a GPS P (Y) code (encrypted code for the exact location of an object) or C / A code (coarse location code for objects), which can be connected to an external DAGR / PLGR receiver. A magnetoresistive digital compass with 0.5° azimuth accuracy and a gravity sensor inclinometer with 0.1° accuracy complete the sensor package. The device is powered by AA cells providing 8 hours of operation. The system can operate in the modes of correcting the fall of shells and reporting data about the target; for exporting data and images, it is equipped with RS232/422 connectors. The Sophie UF system is also in service with the British Army under the designation SSARF (Surveillance System and Range Finder).
Moving from simple to complex, let's focus on the Sophie MF device. It includes a cooled 8-12 µm thermal imager with wide 8°x6° and narrow 3.2°x2.4° fields of view and x2 digital zoom. As an option there is a color day channel with a field of view of 3.7°x2.8° along with a laser pointer with a wavelength of 839 nm. The Sophie MF system also includes a 10 km laser rangefinder, a built-in GPS receiver, a connector for connecting to an external GPS receiver, and a magnetic compass with an accuracy of 0.5° in azimuth and 0.2° in elevation. Sophie MF weighs 3.5 kg and runs on a set of batteries for more than four hours.
The Sophie XF is almost identical to the MF model, the main difference is the thermal imaging sensor, which operates in the mid-wave (3-5 µm) IR region and has a wide 15°x11.2° and narrow 2.5°x1.9° field of view, optical magnification x6 and electronic magnification x2. Analog and HDMI outputs are available for video data output, because Sophie XF is capable of storing up to 1000 photos or up to 2 GB of video. There are also RS 422 and USB ports. The XF model is the same size and weight as the MF model, although the battery pack lasts just over six or seven hours.
The British company Instro Precision, specializing in goniometers and panoramic heads, has developed a modular reconnaissance and target designation system MG-TAS (Modular Gyro Target Acquisition System), based on a gyroscope, which allows high-precision determination of the true pole. Accuracy is less than 1 mil (not affected by magnetic interference) and the digital goniometer offers 9 mil accuracy depending on the magnetic field. The system also includes a lightweight tripod and a rugged handheld computer with a full set of targeting tools for calculating target data. The interface allows you to install one or two target designation sensors.
Vectronix has developed a light non-magnetic Sterna reconnaissance and target designation system with a range of 4 to 6 kilometers (installed on a Sagem Jim-LR in the photo)
The latest addition to the family of targeting devices is the Vectronix Moskito 77 model, which has two daylight and one thermal imaging channel.
The Sophie XF device from Thales allows you to determine the coordinates of the target, and for night vision there is a sensor operating in the mid-IR region of the spectrum
The Airbus DS Nestor system with a cooled thermal imaging matrix and a mass of 4.5 kg was developed for the German mountain infantry troops. It is in service with several armies
Airbus DS Optronics offers two Nestor and TLS-40 reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation devices, both manufactured in South Africa. The Nestor device, whose production began in 2004-2005, was originally developed for German mountain rifle units. The biocular system weighing 4.5 kg includes a day channel with x7 magnification and a 6.5° field of view with an increment of 5 mil reticle, as well as a thermal imaging channel based on a cooled matrix of 640x512 pixels with two fields of view, narrow 2.8°x2.3° and wide (11.4°x9.1°). The distance to the target is measured by a Class 1M laser range finder with a range of 20 km and an accuracy of ± 5 meters and adjustable strobing (pulse repetition frequency) in range. The direction and elevation of the target is provided by a digital magnetic compass with an accuracy of ±1° in azimuth and ±0.5° in elevation, while the measurable elevation angle is +45°. The Nestor has a built-in 12-channel GPS L1 C/A receiver (coarse definition), and external GPS modules can also be connected. There is a CCIR-PAL video output. The device is powered by lithium-ion batteries, but it is possible to connect to an external DC power source at 10-32 Volts. The cooled thermal imager increases the mass of the system, but at the same time increases the night vision capabilities. The system is in service with several European armies, including the Bundeswehr, several European border forces and unnamed buyers from the Middle and Far East. The company expects several large contracts for hundreds of systems in 2015, but new customers are not named there.
Using the experience gained from building the Nestor system, Airbus DS Optronics has developed more light system Opus-H with uncooled thermal imaging channel. Deliveries began in 2007. It has the same daylight channel, while the 640x480 microbolmetric array provides an 8.1°x6.1° field of view and the ability to save images in jpg format. Other components have been left unchanged, including the monopulse laser rangefinder, which not only extends measurement range without the need for tripod stabilization, but also detects and displays up to three targets at any range. The USB 2.0, RS232 and RS422 serial connectors are also retained from the previous model. Eight AA elements provide power supply. The Opus-H weighs about one kg less than the Nestor and is also smaller at 300x215x110mm compared to 360x250x155mm. Buyers of the Opus-H system from the military and paramilitary structures were not disclosed.
Airbus DS Optronics Opus-H system
Due to the growing need for lightweight and low-cost targeting systems, Airbus DS Optronics (Pty) has developed a series of TLS 40 devices that weigh less than 2 kg with batteries. Three models are available: TLS 40 with daylight only, TLS 40i with image enhancement, and TLS 40IR with uncooled thermal imaging sensor. Their laser rangefinder and GPS are the same as the Nestor. The digital magnetic compass operates over a range of ±45° vertical angles, ±30° cross-slope angles, and provides ±10 mil azimuth and ±4 mil elevation accuracy. Common with the previous two models, the biocular daytime optical channel with the same reticle as in the Nestor device has an x7 magnification and a field of view of 7°. The TLS 40i image enhancement variant has a monocular channel based on the Photonis XR5 tube with x7 magnification and a 6° field of view. The TLS 40 and TLS 40i models have the same physical characteristics, their dimensions are 187x173x91 mm. With the same weight as the other two models, the TLS 40IR is larger in size, 215x173x91 mm. It has a monocular day channel with the same magnification and a slightly narrower field of view of 6°. The 640x312 microbolometer array provides a 10.4°x8.3° field of view with x2 digital zoom. The image is displayed on a black and white OLED display. All TLS 40 models can optionally be equipped with a 0.89°x0.75° daytime camera for capturing images in jpg format and a voice recorder for recording voice comments in WAV format at 10 seconds per image. All three models are powered by three CR123 batteries or from an external 6-15 Volt power supply, have USB 1.0, RS232, RS422 and RS485 serial connectors, PAL and NTSC video outputs, and can also be equipped with an external GPS receiver. The TLS 40 series has already entered service with unnamed customers, including African ones.
Nyxus Bird Gyro differs from the previous Nyxus Bird model with a true pole gyroscope, which significantly improves the accuracy of determining the position of the target at long distances
The German company Jenoptik has developed the Nyxus Bird day-night reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation system, which is available in medium and long-range versions. The difference lies in the thermal imaging channel, which in the medium-range variant is equipped with a lens with a field of view of 11°x8°. The ranges of detection, recognition and identification of a standard NATO target are 5, 2 and 1 km, respectively. The long range variant with 7°x5° field of view optics provides longer ranges of 7, 2.8 and 1.4 km respectively. The matrix size for both options is 640x480 pixels. The daytime channel of the two variants has a field of view of 6.75° and a magnification of x7. The Class 1 laser rangefinder has a typical range of 3.5 km, the digital magnetic compass provides an accuracy of 0.5° in azimuth in the 360° sector and in elevation of 0.2° in the 65° sector. The Nyxus Bird features multiple measurement modes and can store up to 2000 infrared images. With built-in GPS, however, it can be connected to a PLGR/DAGR system to further improve accuracy. For transferring photos and videos, there is a USB 2.0 connector, wireless Bluetooth is optional. With a 3 Volt lithium battery, the device weighs 1.6 kg, without the eyecup, the length is 180 mm, the width is 150 mm and the height is 70 mm. The Nyxus Bird is part of the German Army's IdZ-ES modernization program. The addition of a Micro Pointer tactical computer with an integrated geographic information system significantly increases the ability to localize targets. The Micro Pointer is powered by internal and external power supplies, has RS232, RS422, RS485 and USB connectors and an optional Ethernet connector. This small computer (191x85x81 mm) weighs only 0.8 kg. Another optional system is the non-magnetic true-pole gyroscope, which provides very accurate heading and precise target position at all ultra-long distances. A gyro head with the same connectors as the Micro Pointer can be connected to an external PLGR/DAGR GPS system. Four CR123A elements provide 50 orientations and 500 measurements. The head weighs 2.9 kg, and the whole system with a tripod 4.5 kg.
The Finnish company Millog has developed a Lisa manual target designation system, which includes an uncooled thermal imager and an optical channel with detection, recognition and vehicle identification ranges of 4.8 km, 1.35 km and 1 km, respectively. The system weighs 2.4 kg with batteries that provide a runtime of 10 hours. After receiving the contract in May 2014, the system began to enter service with the Finnish army.
Developed several years ago for the Soldato Futuro Italian Army soldier modernization program by Selex-ES, the Linx multifunctional handheld day / night reconnaissance and target designation device has been improved and now has an uncooled 640x480 matrix. The thermal imaging channel has a field of view of 10°x7.5° with optical magnification x2.8 and electronic magnification x2 and x4. The day channel is a color camera with two magnifications (x3.65 and x11.75 with corresponding fields of view 8.6°x6.5° and 2.7°x2.2°). The programmable electronic reticle is built into the color VGA display. Range measurement is possible up to 3 km, location is determined using the built-in GPS receiver, while a digital magnetic compass provides bearing information. Images are exported via USB. Further refinement of the Linx instrument is expected during 2015 with the introduction of miniature cooled sensors and new features.
In Israel, the military is seeking to increase its ability to fire cooperation. To this end, each battalion will be assigned an air strike coordination and ground fire support group. The battalion is currently assigned one artillery liaison officer. The national industry is already working to provide tools for this task.
The device Lisa of the Finnish company Millog is equipped with uncooled thermal imaging and daylight channels; with a mass of only 2.4 kg, it has a detection range of just under 5 km
The Coral-CR device with a cooled thermal imaging channel is part of the line of target designation systems of the Israeli company Elbit
Elbit Systems is very active in both Israel and the United States. Its Coral-CR surveillance and reconnaissance device has a 640x512 cooled medium-wavelength indium antimonide detector with optical fields of view from 2.5°x2.0° to 12.5°x10° and x4 digital magnification. The black-and-white CCD camera with fields of view from 2.5°x1.9° to 10°x7.5° operates in the visible and near-IR spectral region. Images are displayed on a high-resolution color OLED display through adjustable binocular optics. An eye-safe Class 1 laser rangefinder, built-in GPS, and a digital magnetic compass with 0.7° accuracy in azimuth and elevation complete the sensor suite. Target coordinates are calculated in real time and can be transmitted to external devices, the device can store up to 40 images. CCIR or RS170 video outputs are available. The Coral-CR is 281mm long, 248mm wide, 95mm high, and weighs 3.4kg including the rechargeable ELI-2800E battery. The device is in service with many NATO countries (in America under the designation Emerald-Nav).
The uncooled Mars thermal imager is lighter and cheaper, based on a 384x288 vanadium oxide detector. In addition to the thermal imaging channel with two fields of view 6°x4.5° and 18°x13.5°, it has a built-in color day camera with fields of view 3°x2.5° and 12°x10°, a laser rangefinder, a GPS receiver and a magnetic compass. The Mars instrument is 200 mm long, 180 mm wide and 90 mm high, and weighs only 2 kg with battery.
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An optical rangefinder is an optical instrument used to measure distances to objects. According to the principle of operation, rangefinders are divided into two main groups, geometric and physical types. The first group consists of geometric rangefinders. The measurement of distances with a range finder of this type is based on determining the height h of an isosceles triangle ABC (diagram 10), for example, using the known side AB \u003d I (base) and the opposite acute angle .. One of the values, I or., is usually constant, and the other is variable ( measurable). On this basis, rangefinders with a constant angle and rangefinders with a constant base are distinguished. A fixed angle rangefinder is a telescope with two parallel filaments in the field of view, and a portable rail with equidistant divisions serves as the base. The distance to the base measured by the rangefinder is proportional to the number of divisions of the staff visible through the telescope between the threads. Many geodetic instruments (theodolites, levels, etc.) work according to this principle. Relative error thread rangefinder - 0.3-1%. More complex optical rangefinders with a fixed base are built on the principle of superimposing images of an object constructed by beams that have passed through various optical systems of the rangefinder. Alignment is performed using an optical compensator located in one of the optical systems, and the measurement result is read on a special scale. Monocular rangefinders with a base of 3-10 cm are widely used as photographic rangefinders. The error of optical rangefinders with a constant base is less than 0.1% of the measured distance. The principle of operation of a physical type rangefinder is to measure the time it takes the signal sent by the rangefinder to travel the distance to an object and back. The ability of electromagnetic radiation to propagate at a constant speed makes it possible to determine the distance to an object. Distinguish pulse and phase methods of distance measurement. With the pulse method, a probing pulse is sent to the object, which starts a time counter in the rangefinder. When the pulse reflected by the object returns to the rangefinder, it stops the counter. Based on the time interval (delay of the reflected pulse), using the built-in microprocessor, the distance to the object is determined: L= ct/2, where: L is the distance to the object, c is the speed of radiation propagation, t is the time it takes the pulse to reach the target and back.
10. The principle of operation of a geometric type rangefinder AB - base, h - measured distance In the phase method, the radiation is modulated according to a sinusoidal law using a modulator (an electro-optical crystal that changes its parameters under the influence of an electrical signal). The reflected radiation enters the photodetector, where the modulating signal is extracted. Depending on the distance to the object, the phase of the reflected signal changes relative to the phase of the signal in the modulator. By measuring the phase difference, the distance to the object is measured. The most common civilian electro-optical ranging devices are portable laser rangefinders, which can measure the distance to any object on the ground, which is in line of sight, with an error of about one meter. The maximum range for determining the distance is individual for each model, usually from several hundred to one and a half thousand meters and strongly depends on the type of object. It is best to measure the distance to large objects with high reflectivity, the worst of all - to small objects that intensely absorb laser radiation. The laser rangefinder can be made in the form of a monocular or binoculars with a magnification of 2 to 7 times. Some manufacturers integrate rangefinders into other optical instruments, such as scopes. In the field of view of the rangefinder is a special mark, which is combined with the object, after which the range is measured, usually by simply pressing a button. The result of the measurement is displayed on the indicator panel located on the body of the device, or reflected in the eyepiece, which allows you to get information about the range without taking your eyes off the rangefinder. Many models can display measurement results in different metric units (meters, feet, yards). 19
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Dear colleagues, since the main hero “is an artillery officer, your humble servant had to figure out a little about the issues of fire control in the period shortly before the start of WWI. As I suspected, the question turned out to be f-ski complicated, but still I managed to collect some information. This material does not in any way claim to be complete and comprehensive, it is only an attempt to bring together all the facts and conjectures that I now have.
Let's try "on the fingers" to understand the features of artillery fire. In order to aim the gun at the target, you need to set it with the correct sight (vertical pointing angle) and rear sight (horizontal pointing angle). In essence, the installation of the correct sight and rear sight comes down to all the artful science of artillery. However, it is easy to say, but difficult to do.
The simplest case is when our gun is stationary and stands on level ground and we need to hit the same stationary target. In this case, it would seem that it is enough to point the gun so that the barrel looks directly at the target (and we will have the correct rear sight), and find out the exact distance to the target. Then, using the artillery tables, we can calculate the elevation angle (sight), give it to the gun and boom! Let's hit the target.
In fact, this, of course, is not the case - if the target is far enough away, you need to take corrections for the wind, for air humidity, for the degree of gun wear, for gunpowder temperature, etc. etc. - and even after all this, if the target is not too large, you will have to gouge it properly from the cannon, since slight deviations in the shape and weight of the projectiles, as well as the weight and quality of the charges, will still lead to a known spread of hits (ellipse scattering). But if we fire a certain number of projectiles, then in the end, according to the law of statistics, we will definitely hit the target.
But we will put the problem of corrections aside for now, and consider the weapon and the target as such spherical horses in a vacuum. Suppose shooting is carried out on an absolutely flat surface, with always the same humidity, not a breeze, the gun is made of material that does not burn out in principle, etc. etc. In this case, when firing from a stationary gun at a stationary target, it will really be enough to know the distance to the target, which gives us the angle of vertical aiming (sight) and the direction to it (sight)
But what if the target or weapon is not stationary? For example, how is it in the navy? The gun is located on a ship that is moving somewhere at a certain speed. His goal, disgusting, also does not stand still, it can go at absolutely any angle to our course. And with absolutely any speed that only comes into her captain's head. What then?
Since the enemy is moving in space and taking into account the fact that we are shooting not from a turbolaser, which instantly hits the target, but from a gun, the projectile of which needs some time to reach the target, we need to take a lead, i.e. shoot not where the enemy ship is at the time of the shot, but where it will be in 20–30 seconds, by the time our projectile approaches.
It seems to be also easy - let's look at the diagram.
Our ship is at point O, the enemy ship is at point A. If, while at point O, our ship shoots at the enemy from a cannon, then while the projectile is flying, the enemy ship will move to point B. Accordingly, during the flight of the projectile, the following will change:
- Distance to the target ship (was OA, will become OB);
- Bearing to the target (there was an S angle, but it will become a D angle)
Accordingly, in order to determine the correction of the sight, it is enough to know the difference between the length of the segments OA and OB, i.e. the amount of distance change (hereinafter - VIR). And in order to determine the correction of the rear sight, it is enough to know the difference between the angles S and D, i.e. the value of the bearing change
- Distance to the target ship (OA);
- Target bearing (angle S);
- Target course;
- Target speed.
Now let's consider how the information needed to calculate the VIR and VIP was obtained.
1. Distance to the target ship - obviously, according to the rangefinder. And even better - several rangefinders, preferably at least three. Then the most deviant value can be discarded, and the arithmetic mean can be taken from the other two. Determining the distance using several rangefinders is obviously more efficient.
2. Target bearing (heading angle, if you like) - with the accuracy of "half-finger-ceiling" is determined by any goniometer, but for a more accurate measurement it is desirable to have a sighting device - a device with high-quality optics, capable of (including) very accurately determining the heading angle goals. For sights intended for central aiming, the position of the target ship was determined with an error of 1-2 divisions of the rear sight of an artillery gun (i.e. 1-2 thousandths of a distance, at a distance of 90 kbt, the position of the ship was determined with an accuracy of 30 meters)
3. Target course. For this, arithmetic calculations and special artillery binoculars, with divisions applied to it, were already required. It was done like this - first it was necessary to identify the target ship. Remember its length. Measure the distance to it. Convert the length of the ship to the number of divisions on the artillery binoculars for a given distance. Those. calculate: "Sooo, the length of this ship is 150 meters, for 70 kbt a ship 150 meters long should occupy 7 divisions of artillery binoculars." After that, look at the ship through artillery binoculars and determine how many divisions it actually occupies there. If, for example, the ship occupies 7 spaces, this means that it is turned to us with its entire side. And if it is less (let's say - 5 divisions) - this means that the ship is located towards us at some angle. Calculating, again, is not too difficult - if we know the length of the ship (i.e. the hypotenuse AB, in the example it is 7) and we determined the length of its projection with the help of artbinoculars (i.e. the leg AC in the example is length 5), then to calculate the angle S is a matter of life.
The only thing I would like to add is that the role of artillery binoculars could be performed by the same sight
4. Target speed. Now that was more difficult. In principle, the speed could be estimated “by eye” (with appropriate accuracy), but it can, of course, be more accurate - knowing the distance to the target and its course, you can observe the target and determine its angular displacement speed - i.e. how quickly the bearing to the target changes. Further, the distance traveled by the ship is determined (again, nothing more complicated right triangles you don’t have to count) and its speed.
Here, however, one can ask - why, for example, do we need to complicate everything so much, if we can simply measure the changes in VIP by observing the target ship in the sight? But here the thing is that the change in the VIP is non-linear, and therefore the data of current measurements quickly become obsolete.
The next question is what do we want from a fire control system (FCS)? But what.
The SLA should receive the following data:
- Distance to the enemy target ship and bearing to it;
- Course and speed of own ship.
At the same time, of course, the data must be constantly updated as quickly as possible.
- The course and speed of the enemy target ship;
- Convert the course/velocities into a model of the movement of ships (own and enemy), with the help of which you can predict the position of the ships;
- Firing lead taking into account VIR, VIP and projectile flight time;
- Sight and rear sight, taking into account lead (taking into account all kinds of corrections (gunpowder temperature, wind, humidity, etc.)).
The FCS must transfer the sight and rear sight from the giving device in the conning tower (central post) to the artillery pieces so that the functions of the gunners with the guns are minimal (ideally, the guns' own sights are not used at all).
The SLA must ensure salvo firing of the guns selected by the senior artilleryman at the time chosen by him.
Artillery fire control devices arr 1910 of N.K. Geisler & K
They were installed on Russian dreadnoughts (both Baltic and Black Sea) and included many mechanisms for various purposes. All devices can be divided into giving (into which data was entered) and receiving (which gave out some data). In addition to them, there were many auxiliary devices that ensured the operation of the rest, but we will not talk about them, we will list the main ones:
Instruments for transmitting rangefinder readings
Givers - located in the rangefinder cabin. They had a scale that allows you to set the distance from 30 to 50 kbt with an accuracy of half a cable, from 50 to 75 kbt - 1 cable, and from 75 to 150 kbt - 5 cables. The operator, having determined the range using a range finder, set the appropriate value manually
The receivers - located in the conning tower and the CPU, had exactly the same dial as the givers. As soon as the operator of the giving device set a certain value, it was immediately reflected on the dial of the receiving device.
Devices for transmitting the direction of targets and signals
Pretty funny devices, the task of which was to indicate the ship on which to fire (but by no means the bearing on this ship), and orders were given on the type of attack "shot / attack / zeroing / volley / quick fire"
The giving devices were located in the conning tower, the receiving ones were at each casemate gun and one for each tower. They worked similarly to instruments for transmitting rangefinder readings.
Entire devices (devices for transmitting a horizontal sight)
This is where the ambiguities begin. Everything is more or less clear with the giving devices - they were located in the conning tower and had a scale of 140 divisions corresponding to the divisions of the gun sights (i.e. 1 division - 1/1000 of the distance) The receiving devices were placed directly on the sights of the guns. The system worked like this - the operator of the giving device in the conning tower (CPU) set a certain value on the scale. Accordingly, the same value was shown on the receiving devices, after which the gunner's task was to turn the sighting mechanisms until the horizontal aiming of the gun coincided with the arrow on the device. Then - it seems to be openwork, the gun is pointed correctly
There is a suspicion that the device did not give out the angle of the horizontal sight, but only a correction for lead. Not verified.
Devices for transferring the height of the sight
The most complex unit
Giving devices were located in the conning tower (CPU). Data on the distance to the target and VIR (the amount of change in distance, if anyone forgot) was manually entered into the device, after which this device began to click something there and give out the distance to the target in the current time. Those. the device independently added / subtracted the VIR from the distance and transmitted this information to the receiving devices.
The receiving devices, as well as the receiving whole devices, were mounted on the sights of the guns. But it was not the distance that appeared on them, but the sight. Those. devices for transmitting the height of the sight independently converted the distance into the angle of the sight and gave it to the guns. The process was running continuously, i.e. at each moment of time, the arrow of the receiving device showed the current sight on this moment. Moreover, it was possible to make corrections in the receiving device of this system (by connecting several eccentrics). Those. if, for example, the gun was heavily shot and its firing range fell, say, by 3 kbt compared to the new one, it was enough to install the appropriate eccentric - now, to the angle of the sight transmitted from the giving device, specifically for this gun, an angle was added to compensate for the three-cable undershoot These were individual corrections for each gun.
Exactly on the same principle, it was possible to introduce adjustments for the temperature of gunpowder (it was taken the same as the temperature in the cellars), as well as adjustments for the type of charge / projectile "training / combat / practical"
But that's not all.
The fact is that the accuracy of the sight installation was “plus or minus a tram stop adjusted for the azimuth of the North Star.” It was easy to make a mistake both with the range to the target and with the size of the VIR. Special cynicism also consisted in the fact that the range from the rangefinders always came with a certain delay. The fact is that the rangefinder determined the distance to the object at the time the measurement began. But in order to determine this range, he had to perform a number of actions, including “combining the picture”, etc. All this took some time. It took some more time to report a certain range and set its value on the giving device to transmit the rangefinder readings. Thus, according to various sources, the senior artillery officer saw on the receiving device for transmitting rangefinder readings not the current range, but the one that was almost a minute ago.
So, the giving device for transmitting the height of the sight gave the senior artilleryman the widest opportunities for this. At any time during the operation of the device, it was possible to manually enter a correction for the range or for the size of the VIR, and the device continued to calculate from the moment the correction was entered, already taking it into account. It was possible to turn off the device altogether and set the sight values manually. And it was also possible to set the values \u200b\u200bin a “jerk” - i.e. if, for example, our device shows a sight of 15 degrees, then we can fire three volleys in a row - at 14, at 15 and at 16 degrees, without waiting for the shells to fall and without introducing range / VIR corrections, but the initial setting of the machine does not got lost.
And finally
Howlers and calls
Giving devices are located in the conning tower (CPU), and the howlers themselves - one for each gun. When the fire manager wants to fire a volley, he closes the corresponding circuits and the gunners fire shots at the guns.
Unfortunately, it is absolutely impossible to talk about the Geisler of the 1910 model as a full-fledged SLA. Why?
- Geisler's OMS did not have a device to determine the bearing to the target (there was no sight);
- There was no instrument that could calculate her course and the speed of the target ship. So having received the range (from the device for transmitting rangefinder readings) and determining the bearing to it with improvised means, everything else had to be calculated manually;
- There were also no instruments to determine the course and speed of their own ship - they also had to be obtained by "improvised means", that is, not included in the Geisler kit;
- There was no device for automatic calculation of VIR and VIP - i.e. having received and calculated the courses / speeds of their own ship and targets, it was necessary to calculate both the VIR and the VIP, again manually.
Thus, despite the presence of very advanced devices that automatically calculate the height of the sight, Geisler's OMS still required a very large amount of manual calculations - and this was not good.
Geisler's SLA did not exclude, and could not exclude, the use of gun sights by gunners. The fact is that the automatic sight height calculated the sight ... of course, for the moment when the ship is on an even keel. And the ship experiences both pitch and roll. And Geisler's SLA did not take it into account at all and in no way. Therefore, there is an assumption, very similar to the truth, that the task of the gunner of the gun included such a “twisting” of the tip, which would make it possible to compensate for the pitching of the ship. It is clear that it was necessary to "twist" constantly, although there are doubts that the 305-mm guns could be "stabilized" manually. Also, if I am right that Geisler's FCS did not transmit the horizontal aiming angle, but only the lead, then the gunner of each gun independently aimed his gun in the horizontal plane and only took the lead on orders from above.
Geisler's SLA allowed salvo fire. But the senior artilleryman could not give a simultaneous volley - he could give the signal to open fire, it is not the same. Those. imagine a picture - four towers of "Sevastopol", in each gunners "twist" the sights, compensating for pitching. Suddenly - howler! Someone has a normal sight, he shoots, and someone has not screwed it up yet, he twists it, fires a shot ... and a difference of 2-3 seconds greatly increases the dispersion of shells. Thus, giving a signal does not mean receiving a one-time salvo.
But here's what Geisler's OMS did really well - it was with the transfer of data from the giving devices in the conning tower to the receiving devices at the guns. There were no problems here, and the system turned out to be very reliable and fast.
In other words, the Geisler devices of the 1910 model were not so much an OMS, but a way of transmitting data from the glavart to the guns (although the presence of an automatic calculation of the height of the sight gives the right to attribute Geisler to the OMS).
A sighting device appeared in Erickson's MSA, while it was connected to an electromechanical device that gave out the horizontal aiming angle. Thus, apparently, the rotation of the sight led to the automatic displacement of the arrows on the sights of the guns.
There were 2 central gunners in Erickson's MSA, one of them was engaged in horizontal aiming, the second - vertical, and it was they (and not the gunners) who took into account the pitching angle - this angle was constantly measured and added to the aiming angle on an even keel. So the gunners had only to twist their guns so that the sight and rear sight corresponded to the values of the arrows on the sights. The gunner no longer needed to look into the gunsight.
Generally speaking, trying to “keep up” with the pitching by manually stabilizing the gun looks strange. It would be much easier to resolve the issue using a different principle - a device that would close the circuit and fire a shot when the ship was on an even keel. In Russia, there were pitching control devices based on the operation of the pendulum. But alas, they had a fair amount of error and could not be used for artillery fire. To tell the truth, the Germans had such a device only after Jutland, and Erickson still gave results that were not worse than "manual stabilization".
Volley fire was carried out according to a new principle - now, when the gunners in the tower were ready, they pressed a special pedal, and the senior gunner closed the circuit by pressing his own pedal in the conning tower (CPU) as the towers were ready. Those. volleys became really one-time.
Whether Erickson had devices for automatic calculation of VIR and VIP - I do not know. But what is known for certain - as of 1911-1912. Erickson's OMS was tragically unprepared. The transmission mechanisms from the giving devices to the receiving ones did not work well. The process took much longer than in Geisler's OMS, but mismatches constantly occurred. The roll control devices worked too slowly, so that the sight and rear sight of the central gunners "did not keep up" with the roll - with corresponding consequences for the accuracy of fire. What was to be done?
The Russian Imperial Navy followed a rather original path. The Geisler system, model 1910, was installed on the newest battleships. And since of the entire FCS there was only sight height calculation devices, it was apparently decided not to wait until Erickson's FCS was brought to mind, not to try to buy a new FCS (for example, from the British) entirely, but to acquire / bring to mind the missing devices and simply supplement the Geisler system with them.
An interesting sequence is given by Mr. Serg on Tsushima: http://tsushima.su/forums/viewtopic.php?id=6342&p=1
On January 11, MTK decided to install the Erickson system at Sevakh.
12 May Erickson is not ready, a contract is signed with Geisler.
On September 12, a contract was signed with Erickson for the installation of additional instruments.
September 13 Erickson completed the Pollen and AVP Geisler instrument.
January 14, installation of a set of Pollen's instruments on the PV.
June 14, tests of Pollen's devices on PV were completed
December 15th conclusion of a contract for the development and installation of a central heating system.
On 16th autumn, the installation of the central heating was completed.
17g shooting with CN.
As a result, the SLA of our "Sevastopol" has become that even a hodgepodge. The VIR and VIP calculation machines were supplied by English ones bought from Pollan. The sights are at Erickson. The machine for calculating the height of the sight was at first Geisler, then replaced by Erickson. To determine the courses, a gyroscope was installed (but not the fact that in WWI, maybe later ...) In general, around 1916, our Sevastopol received a completely first-class central aiming system for those times.
And what about our sworn friends?
It seems that the best way to Jutland was with the British. The guys from the island came up with the so-called "Dreyer Table", which automated the processes of developing vertical and horizontal sights as much as possible.
The British had to take the bearing and determine the distance to the target manually, but the course and speed of the enemy ship was automatically calculated by the Dumaresque device. Again, as far as I understood, the results of these calculations were automatically transmitted to the “Dreyer table”, which received data on its own course / speed from some analogue of a speedometer and gyrocompass, built a model of the movement of ships, calculated VIR and VIP. In our country, even after the appearance of the Pollan device, which calculated the VIR, the transfer of the VIR to the machine for calculating the height of the sight took place as follows - the operator read Pollan's readings, then entered them into the machine for calculating the height of the sight. With the British, everything happened automatically.
I tried to bring the data on the LMS into a single table, this is what happened:
Alas for me - probably the table sins with many errors, the data on the German LMS are extremely lapidary: http://navycollection.narod.ru/library/Haase/artillery.htm
And in English - in English, which I do not know: http://www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php/Dreyer_Fire_Control_Table
How the British solved the issue with compensation of longitudinal / transverse rolling - I do not know. But the Germans did not have any compensating devices (they appeared only after Jutland).
Generally speaking, it turns out that the SLA of the Baltic dreadnoughts was still inferior to the British, and was approximately on the same level with the Germans. True, with one exception.
On the German "Derflinger" there were 7 (in words - SEVEN) rangefinders. And they all measured the distance to the enemy, and the average value got into the machine for calculating the sight. At the domestic "Sevastopol" initially there were only two rangefinders (there were also the so-called Krylov rangefinders, but they were nothing more than improved Lujols-Myakishev micrometers and did not provide high-quality measurements at long distances).
On the one hand, it would seem that such rangefinders (of much better quality than those of the British) just provided the Germans with a quick sighting in Jutland, but is this so? The same "Derflinger" shot only from the 6th volley, and even then, in general, by accident (in theory, the sixth volley was supposed to give a flight, the leader of the "Derflinger" Hase tried to take the British into the fork, however, to his surprise, there was a cover ). "Goeben" in general also did not show brilliant results. But it must be taken into account that the Germans nevertheless shot much better than the British, probably there is some merit of the German rangefinders in this.
But I believe that the best accuracy of the German ships is by no means the result of superiority over the British in the material part, but a completely different system for training gunners.
Here I will allow myself to make some excerpts from the book Hector Charles Bywater and Hubert Cecil Ferraby Strange intelligence. Memoirs of Naval Secret Service. Constable, London, 1931: http://militera.lib.ru/h/bywater_ferraby/index.html
Under the influence of Admiral Thomsen, the German navy began experimenting with long-range shooting in 1895... ...The newly created navy can afford to be less conservative than navies with old traditions. And therefore, in Germany, all innovations capable of enhancing the combat power of the fleet were guaranteed official approval in advance ....
The Germans, having made sure that shooting at long distances was feasible in practice, immediately gave their side guns the largest possible aiming angle ...
... If the gun turrets of the Germans already in 1900 allowed the guns to raise their barrels by 30 degrees, then on the British ships the angle of elevation did not exceed 13.5 degrees, which gave the German ships significant advantages. If war had broken out at that time, the German fleet would have greatly, even decisively, surpassed us in accuracy and range of fire ....
... The centralized fire control system "Fire-director", installed, as already noted, on the ships of the British fleet, the Germans did not have for some time after the Battle of Jutland, but the effectiveness of their fire was confirmed by the results of this battle.
Of course, these results were the fruit of twenty years of intensive work, persistent and meticulous, which is generally characteristic of the Germans. For every hundred pounds that we allotted in those years for research in the field of artillery, Germany allocated a thousand. Let's take just one example. Secret Service agents learned in 1910 that the Germans allot a lot more shells for exercises than we do for large-caliber guns - 80 percent more shots. Live firing exercises against armored target ships were a constant practice among the Germans, while in the British Navy they were very rare or even not carried out at all ....
... In 1910, important exercises were held in the Baltic using the Richtungsweiser device installed on board the Nassau and Westfalen ships. A high percentage of hits on moving targets from distances up to 11,000 meters was demonstrated, and after certain improvements, new practical tests were organized.
But in March 1911, accurate and much explaining information was received. It dealt with the results of firing exercises carried out by a division of German warships equipped with 280-mm guns at a towed target at a distance of an average of 11,500 meters with fairly heavy seas and moderate visibility. 8 percent of the shells hit the target. This result was far superior to anything we had been told before. Therefore, the experts showed skepticism, but the evidence was quite reliable.
It was quite clear that the campaign was undertaken to test and compare the merits of target designation and guidance systems. One of them was already on the battleship Alsace, and the other, experimental, was installed on the Blucher. The shooting site was 30 miles southwest of the Faroe Islands, the target was a light cruiser that was part of the division. It is clear that they did not shoot at the cruiser itself. He, as they say in the British Navy, was a “shifted target”, that is, aiming was carried out at the target ship, while the guns themselves were shifted to a certain angle and fired. The check is very simple - if the instruments are working correctly, then the shells will fall exactly at the calculated distance from the stern of the target ship.
The fundamental advantage of this method, invented, according to their own statements, by the Germans, is that, without compromising the accuracy of the results obtained, it makes it possible to replace conventional targets in firing, which, due to heavy engines and mechanisms, can only be towed at low speed and usually in good weather.
The "shift" estimate could only be called approximate to a certain extent, because it lacks the final fact - holes in the target, but on the other hand, and the data obtained from it are accurate enough for all practical purposes.
During the first experiment, Alsace and Blucher fired from a distance of 10,000 meters at a target that was represented by a light cruiser traveling at a speed of 14 to 20 knots.
These conditions were unusually harsh for the era, and it is not surprising that the report of the results of these firings caused controversy, and even its veracity was refuted by some British naval artillery experts. However, these reports were true, and the test results were indeed incredibly successful.
From 10,000 meters, Alsace, armed with old 280-mm cannons, fired a three-gun volley in the wake of the target, that is, if the guns were not aimed “with a shift”, the shells would hit right on target. The battleship easily managed the same when firing from a distance of 12,000 meters.
"Blucher" was armed with 12 new 210 mm guns. He also easily managed to hit the target, most of the shells hit in the immediate vicinity or directly into the wake left by the target cruiser.
On the second day, the distance was increased to 13,000 meters. The weather was fine, and a little swell rocked the ships. Despite the increased distance, "Alsace" shot well, that before the "Blucher", he exceeded all expectations.
Moving at a speed of 21 knots, the armored cruiser "forked" the target ship, traveling at 18 knots, from the third salvo. Moreover, according to the estimates of experts who were on the target cruiser, one could confidently state the hit of one or more shells in each of the eleven volleys that followed. Given the relatively small caliber of the guns, the high speed with which both the “shooter” and the target, and the state of the sea, the result of firing at that time could be called phenomenal. All of these details, and much more, were contained in a report sent by our agent to the Secret Service.
When the report reached the Admiralty, some old officers considered it erroneous or false. The agent who wrote the report was called to London to discuss the matter. He was told that the information on the test results indicated by him in the report was “absolutely impossible”, that not a single ship would be able to hit a moving target on the move at a distance of more than 11,000 meters, in general, that all this was fiction or a mistake.
Quite by accident, these results of the German shooting became known a few weeks before the first test by the British Navy of Admiral Scott's fire control system, nicknamed "Fire-director". HMS Neptune was the first ship on which this system was installed. He conducted a firing practice in March 1911 with excellent results. But official conservatism slowed down the introduction of the device on other ships. This position lasted until November 1912, when comparative tests of the Director system installed on the Thunderer ship and the old system installed on the Orion were carried out.
Sir Percy Scott described the teachings in the following words:
“The distance was 8200 meters, the “shooter” ships were moving at a speed of 12 knots, the targets were towed at the same speed. Both ships simultaneously opened fire immediately after the signal. The Thunderer shot very well. Orion sent its shells in all directions. Three minutes later, the signal "Cease fire!" was given, and the target was checked. As a result, it turned out that the Thunderer made six more hits than the Orion.
As far as we know, the first combat firing in the British Navy at a distance of 13,000 meters took place in 1913, when the Neptune ship fired at a target from such a distance.
Those who followed the development of the tools and techniques of artillery fire in Germany knew what we should expect. And if anything turned out to be a surprise, it was only the fact that in the Battle of Jutland the ratio of the number of shells that hit the target to the total number of shells fired did not exceed 3.5%.
I will take the liberty of asserting that the quality of German shooting was in the artillery training system, which was much better than that of the British. As a result, the Germans compensated for some superiority of the British in the LMS with professionalism.
