ATP molecule in biology: composition, functions and role in the body. ATP and its role in metabolism What are ATP molecules

To live, you have to work. This everyday truth is quite applicable to any living beings. All organisms: from single-celled microbes to higher animals and humans - continuously perform various types of work. These are movement, that is, mechanical work during the contraction of the muscles of an animal or the rotation of the flagellum of a bacterium; syntheses of complex chemical compounds in cells, that is, chemical work; the creation of a potential difference between protoplasm and the external environment, that is, electrical work; the transfer of substances from the external environment, where there are few of them, into the cell, where there are more of the same substances, that is, osmotic work. In addition to the four main types of work listed, we can mention the production of heat by warm-blooded animals in response to a decrease in ambient temperature, as well as the production of light by luminous organisms.

All this requires the expenditure of energy, which is drawn from certain external energy resources. The primary source of energy for the biosphere is sunlight, assimilated by photosynthetic living beings: green plants and some bacteria. The biopolymers created by these organisms (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) can then be used as “fuel” by all other - heterotrophic - forms of life, which include animals, fungi and most types of bacteria.

Food biopolymers can be very diverse: there are hundreds of different proteins, fats and polysaccharides. This “fuel” breaks down in the body. First of all, polymer molecules break down into their constituent monomers: proteins are broken down into amino acids, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, polysaccharides into monosaccharides. The total number of different types of monomers is no longer measured in hundreds, but in dozens.

Subsequently, the monomers are converted into small mono-, di- and tricarboxylic acids with the number of carbon atoms from 2 to 6. There are only ten of these acids. Their transformation is closed in a cycle called the Krebs cycle in honor of its discoverer.

In the Krebs cycle, carboxylic acids are oxidized with oxygen to carbon dioxide and water. It is the formation of water as a result of the reaction of molecular oxygen with hydrogen separated from carboxylic acids that is accompanied by the greatest release of energy, while the previous processes serve mainly only as preparation of “fuel”. The oxidation of hydrogen by oxygen, that is, the reaction of detonating gas (O 2 + 2H 2 = 2H 2 O), in the cell is divided into several stages, so that the energy released in this case is not released immediately, but in portions.

The same thing happens in portions; release of energy arriving in the form of a light quantum in the cells of photosynthetic organisms.

So, in the same cell there are, firstly, several reactions of energy release and, secondly, many processes that occur with the absorption of energy. The mediator of these two systems, the totality of which is called energy metabolism, is a special substance - adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP).

For the energy metabolism of the cell, the so-called coupled chemical reactions are very important. In each such reaction, two different processes are linked together: one, accompanied by the release of energy, and the other, requiring its expenditure. As a result, it turns out that the first (energy-consuming) process becomes the driving force for the second process, which consumes energy.

In the early 40s, the famous biochemist F. Lipman hypothesized that various reactions of energy release in the cell are always associated with the same reaction, namely the synthesis of ATP from its precursors - adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) and inorganic orthophosphoric acid (H 3 RO 4). On the other hand, the reactions of splitting (hydrolysis) of ATP to ADP and H 3 PO 4 are associated, according to Lipman, with the performance of various types of useful work. In other words, ATP formation serves as a universal energy store, and ATP breakdown serves as a universal energy supplier.

Even before the publication of Lipman's hypothesis, Soviet scientists V. Engelhardt and V. Belitser established that intracellular respiration, that is, the oxidation of hydrogen of carboxylic acids with oxygen, is associated with the synthesis of ATP. The formation of ATP has also been shown during glycolysis (the breakdown of carbohydrates into lactic acid in the absence of oxygen). In the 50s, the American biochemist D. Arnon demonstrated the synthesis of ATP in plants using light energy.

At the same time, numerous cases of energy supply to cell functioning due to ATP hydrolysis have been described. It turned out that the synthesis of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids from the corresponding monomers is “paid for” by ATP energy. V. Engelhardt and M. Lyubimova discovered the breakdown of ATP by contractile muscle protein. This discovery made it possible to understand how muscle work is provided with energy. By now, the involvement of ATP in many other processes that consume energy is undeniable.

So the cell uses energy resources to make ATP, and then uses that ATP to pay for various jobs.

Where and how is ATP formed?

The first system for which the mechanism of ATP formation was discovered was glycolysis, an auxiliary type of energy supply that turns on under conditions of oxygen deficiency. During glycolysis, the glucose molecule is split in half and the resulting fragments are oxidized to lactic acid.

Such oxidation is associated with the addition of phosphoric acid to each of the fragments of the glucose molecule, that is, with their phosphorylation. The subsequent transfer of phosphate residues from glucose moieties to ADP produces ATP.

The mechanism of ATP formation during intracellular respiration and photosynthesis remained completely unclear for a long time. It was only known that the enzymes that catalyze these processes are built into biological membranes - thin films (about one millionth of a centimeter thick) consisting of proteins and phosphorylated fat-like substances - phospholipids.

Membranes are the most important structural component of any living cell. The outer membrane of the cell separates the protoplasm from the environment surrounding the cell. The cell nucleus is surrounded by two membranes that form the nuclear envelope - a barrier between the internal contents of the nucleus (nucleoplasm) and the rest of the cell (cytoplasm). In addition to the nucleus, several other structures surrounded by membranes are found in animal and plant cells. This is the endoplasmic reticulum - a system of tiny tubes and flat cisterns, the walls of which are formed by membranes. These are, finally, mitochondria - spherical or elongated vesicles smaller than the nucleus, but larger than the components of the endoplasmic reticulum. The diameter of a mitochondrion is usually about a micron, although sometimes mitochondria form branching and network structures tens of microns in length.

In the cells of green plants, in addition to the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, chloroplasts are also found - membrane vesicles larger than mitochondria.

Each of these structures performs its own specific biological function. So, the nucleus is the seat of DNA. Here, the processes underlying the genetic function of the cell occur, and a complex chain of processes begins, ultimately leading to protein synthesis. This synthesis is completed in the smallest granules - ribosomes, most of which are associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. Oxidative reactions occur in mitochondria, the totality of which is called intracellular respiration. Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis.

Bacterial cells are simpler. Usually they have only two membranes - outer and inner. A bacterium is like a bag within a bag, or rather, a very small bubble with a double wall. There is no nucleus, no mitochondria, no chloroplasts.

There is a hypothesis that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria captured by the cell of a larger and more highly organized creature. Indeed, the biochemistry of mitochondria and chloroplasts is in many ways similar to that of bacteria. Morphologically, mitochondria and chloroplasts are also in a certain sense similar to bacteria: they are surrounded by two membranes.

In all three cases: bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts, ATP synthesis occurs in the inner membrane.

For a long time it was believed that the formation of ATP during respiration and photosynthesis proceeds similarly to the already known energy conversion during glycolysis (phosphorylation of the substance being broken down, its oxidation and the transfer of a phosphoric acid residue to ADP). However, all attempts to experimentally prove this scheme ended in failure.

Stories about bioenergy HISTORY OF NEW SCIENCE Chapter 1. WHAT DO BIOENERGISTS DO? The birth of bioenergy Chapter 2. WHAT IS ENERGY METABOLISM? How does a cell receive and use energy? ATP is the cell's currency. Where and how is ATP formed? Chapter 3. FROM MYRMICOLOGY TO BIOENERGY Ant tongue Mitochondria produce ATP in vitro Chapter 4. TWO WAYS Fact or artifact? Sheared pigeons Brown fat Chapter 5. DIE HARD Victim of "Parkinson's law" False analogy Paradox of uncoupling substances Chapter 6. MITCHELL AND HIS GUESS The beginning of the journey Purely speculative construction Chemiosmotic hypothesis

The phosphorylation process is the reaction of transfer of a phosphoryl group from one compound to another with the participation of the kinase enzyme. ATP is synthesized by oxidative and substrate phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP by adding inorganic phosphate to ADP using the energy released during the oxidation of bioorganic substances.

ADP + ~P → ATP

Substrate phosphorylation is the direct transfer of a phosphoryl group with a high-energy ADP bond for the synthesis of ATP.

Examples of substrate phosphorylation:

1. An intermediate product of carbohydrate metabolism is phosphoenolpyruvic acid, which transfers the ADP phosphoryl group with a high-energy bond:

Interaction of the intermediate product of the Krebs cycle - high-energy succinyl-Co-A - with ADP to form one molecule of ATP.

Let's look at the three main stages of energy release and ATP synthesis in the body.

The first stage (preparatory) includes digestion and absorption. At this stage, 0.1% of the energy of food compounds is released.

Second phase. After transportation, monomers (decomposition products of bioorganic compounds) enter cells, where they undergo oxidation. As a result of the oxidation of fuel molecules (amino acids, glucose, fats), the compound acetyl-Co-A is formed. During this stage, about 30% of the energy of food substances is released.

The third stage - the Krebs cycle - is a closed system of biochemical redox reactions. The cycle is named after the English biochemist Hans Krebs, who postulated and experimentally confirmed the basic reactions of aerobic oxidation. For his research, Krebs received the Nobel Prize (1953). The cycle has two more names:

The tricarboxylic acid cycle, since it includes reactions of transformation of tricarboxylic acids (acids containing three carboxyl groups);

Citric acid cycle, since the first reaction of the cycle is the formation of citric acid.

The Krebs cycle includes 10 reactions, four of which are redox. During the reactions, 70% of the energy is released.

The biological role of this cycle is extremely important, since it is the common end point of the oxidative breakdown of all major foods. This is the main mechanism of oxidation in the cell; it is figuratively called the metabolic “cauldron”. During the oxidation of fuel molecules (carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids), the body is provided with energy in the form of ATP. Fuel molecules enter the Krebs cycle after being converted into acetyl-Co-A.

In addition, the tricarboxylic acid cycle supplies intermediate products for biosynthetic processes. This cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

Consider the reactions of the Krebs cycle:

The cycle begins with the condensation of the four-carbon component oxaloacetate and the two-carbon component acetyl-Co-A. The reaction is catalyzed by citrate synthase and involves aldol condensation followed by hydrolysis. The intermediate is citril-Co-A, which is hydrolyzed into citrate and CoA:

IV. This is the first redox reaction.
The reaction is catalyzed by an α-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex consisting of three enzymes:
VII.

Succinyl contains a bond that is rich in energy. Cleavage of the thioester bond of succinyl-CoA is associated with phosphorylation of guanosine diphosphate (GDP):

Succinyl-CoA + ~ F +GDP Succinate + GTP +CoA

The phosphoryl group of GTP is easily transferred to ADP to form ATP:

GTP + ADP ATP + GDP

This is the only reaction in the cycle that is a substrate phosphorylation reaction.

VIII. This is the third redox reaction:

The Krebs cycle produces carbon dioxide, protons, and electrons. The four reactions of the cycle are redox, catalyzed by enzymes - dehydrogenases containing the coenzymes NAD and FAD. Coenzymes capture the resulting H + and ē and transfer them to the respiratory chain (biological oxidation chain). Elements of the respiratory chain are located on the inner membrane of mitochondria.
The respiratory chain is a system of redox reactions, during which there is a gradual transfer of H + and ē to O 2, which enters the body as a result of respiration. ATP is formed in the respiratory chain. The main carriers ē in the chain are iron- and copper-containing proteins (cytochromes), coenzyme Q (ubiquinone). There are 5 cytochromes in the chain (b 1, c 1, c, a, a 3).

The prosthetic group of cytochromes b 1, c 1, c is iron-containing heme. The mechanism of action of these cytochromes is that they contain an iron atom with variable valence, which can be in both an oxidized and reduced state as a result of the transfer of ē and H +.

EVERYONE SHOULD KNOW ABOUT THE ESSENCE OF GEORGE PETRAKOVICH’S WORK! THERMONUCLEAR IN A CELL I will cite the full interview with Georgiy Petrakovich, published in the magazine “Miracles and Adventures” No. 12, 1996, pp. 6-9. Special correspondent for the magazine Vl. Ivanov met with a full member of the Russian Physical Society, surgeon Georgiy Nikolaevich Petrakovich, who published sensational works on thermonuclear reactions occurring in living organisms and the transformation of chemical elements in them. This is much more fantastic than the most daring experiments of alchemists. The conversation is dedicated to the true miracle of evolution, the main miracle of living nature. We do not agree with the author of the bold hypothesis on everything. In particular, being a materialist, it seems to us that he excludes the spiritual principle from those processes where it, apparently, should be present. But still, G. Petrakovich’s hypothesis interested us because it intersects with the works of Academician V. Kaznacheev about "cold thermonuclear" in a living cell. At the same time, the hypothesis builds a bridge to the concept noosphere. V. Vernadsky, pointing to the source that continuously feeds the noosphere with energy. The hypothesis is also interesting because it paves scientific paths to explain a number of mysterious phenomena, such as clairvoyance, levitation, iridology and others. We ask you to forgive us for some scientific complexity of the conversation for the unprepared reader. The material itself, unfortunately, by its nature cannot be subject to significant simplification. CORRESPONDENT. First, the essence, the salt of a miracle, seemingly incompatible with ideas about living organisms... What kind of strange force operates in us, in the cells of our body? Everything resembles a detective story. This power was known, so to speak, in a different capacity. She acted incognito, as if under a mask. They talked and wrote about it like this: hydrogen ions. You understood and called it differently: protons. These are the same hydrogen ions, the bare nuclei of its atoms, positively charged, but they are also elementary particles. Biophysicists did not notice that Janus is two-faced. Is not it? Can you tell us more about this? G.N. PETRAKOVICH. A living cell obtains energy as a result of ordinary chemical reactions. This is what the science of cellular bioenergy believed. As always, electrons take part in reactions; it is their transitions that provide a chemical bond. In the smallest "bubbles" of irregular shape - the mitochondria of the cell - oxidation occurs with the participation of electrons. This is a postulate of bioenergy. This is how the country's leading bioenergetics specialist, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.P., presents this postulate. Skulachev: “In order to conduct an experiment on the use of nuclear energy, nature had to create a person. As for the intracellular mechanisms of energy, they extract energy exclusively from electronic transformations, although the energy effect here is immeasurably small compared to thermonuclear processes.” "Exclusively from electronic transformations..." This is a fallacy! Electronic transformations are chemistry, and nothing more. It is thermonuclear reactions that underlie cellular bioenergy, and it is the proton, also known as the hydrogen ion - a heavy charged elementary particle - that is the main participant in all these reactions. Although, of course, the electron also takes a certain, and even important, part in this process, but in a different role, completely different from the role prescribed for it by scientific specialists. And what is most surprising: to prove all this, it turns out, there is no need to conduct any complex research or research. Everything lies on the surface, everything is presented in the same indisputable facts and observations that the scientists themselves obtained with their hard work. You just need to reflect unbiasedly and deeply on these facts. Here is an indisputable fact: it is known that protons are “thrown out” from mitochondria (a term widely used by specialists, and it sounds disdainful of these hard-working particles, as if we are talking about waste, “garbage”) into the space of the cell (cytoplasm). Protons move unidirectionally in it, that is, they never return, unlike the Brownian motion in the cell of all other ions. And they move in the cytoplasm at a tremendous speed, exceeding the speed of movement of any other ions by many thousands of times. Scientists do not comment on this observation in any way, but they should think about it seriously. If protons, these charged elementary particles, move in the space of a cell with such enormous speed and “purposefully,” it means that the cell has some kind of acceleration mechanism. Undoubtedly, the acceleration mechanism is located in the mitochondria, from where protons are initially “ejected” at enormous speed, but this is what its nature is. .. Heavy charged elementary particles, protons, can only be accelerated in a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field - in a synchrophasotron, for example. So, molecular synchrophasotron into mitochondria? No matter how strange it may seem, yes: the subminiature natural synchrophasotron is located precisely in a tiny intracellular formation, in the mitochondria! Protons, once in a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field, lose the properties of the chemical element hydrogen for the entire time they remain in this field, but instead exhibit the properties of heavy charged elementary particles." For this reason, in a test tube it is impossible to fully repeat those processes that constantly occur in living things. cell. For example, in a researcher's test tube, protons participate in oxidation, but in a cell, although free radical oxidation occurs in it, peroxides are not formed. The cellular electromagnetic field "removes" protons from a living cell, preventing them from reacting with oxygen . Meanwhile, scientists are guided precisely by “test tube” experience when they study processes in a living cell. Protons accelerated in the field easily ionize atoms and molecules, “knocking out” electrons from them. At the same time, the molecules, becoming free radicals, acquire high activity, and ionized atoms (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and other elements) form electrical and osmotic potentials in cell membranes (but of a secondary, proton-dependent order). CORRESPONDENT. It's time to draw the attention of our readers to the fact that a living cell invisible to the eye is more complex than any gigantic installation, and what happens in it cannot yet be even approximately reproduced. Perhaps galaxies - on a different scale, of course - are the simplest objects of the Universe, just as cells are the elementary objects of a plant or animal. Perhaps our levels of knowledge about cells and galaxies are roughly equivalent. But the most striking thing is that the thermonuclear fusion of the Sun and other stars corresponds to the cold thermonuclear fusion of a living cell, or, more precisely, its individual sections. The analogy is complete. Everyone knows about the hot thermonuclear fusion of stars. But only you can tell us about the cold thermonuclear reaction of living cells. G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Let's try to imagine the most important events at this level. Being a heavy charged elementary particle whose mass exceeds the mass of an electron by 1840 times, the proton is part of all atomic nuclei without exception. Being accelerated in a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field and being in the same field with these nuclei, it is able to transfer its kinetic energy to them, being the best transmitter of energy from the accelerator to the consumer - the atom. Interacting in the cell with the nuclei of target atoms, it transfers to them in parts - through elastic collisions - the kinetic energy it acquired during acceleration. And having lost this energy, it is eventually captured by the nucleus of the nearest atom (inelastic collision) and becomes an integral part of this nucleus. And this is the path to the transformation of elements. In response to the energy obtained during an elastic collision with a proton, an energy quantum is ejected from the excited nucleus of the target atom, characteristic only of the nucleus of this particular atom, with its own wavelength and frequency. If such interactions of protons occur with many nuclei of atoms that make up, for example, a molecule; then a whole group of such specific quanta is released in a certain frequency spectrum. Immunologists believe that tissue incompatibility in a living organism manifests itself at the molecular level. Apparently, in a living organism, the difference between “one’s own” protein molecule and a “foreign” one, despite their absolute chemical identity, occurs in these very specific frequencies and spectra, to which the “sentinel” cells of the body - leukocytes - react differently. CORRESPONDENT. An interesting side result of your proton-nuclear theory! Even more interesting is the process that alchemists dreamed of. Physicists have pointed to the possibility of producing new elements in reactors, but this is very difficult and expensive for most substances. A few words about the same thing at the cellular level... G.N. PETRAKOVICH. The capture of a proton that has lost kinetic energy by the nucleus of a target atom changes the atomic number of this atom, i.e. the “invader” atom is capable of changing its nuclear structure and becoming not only an isotope of a given chemical element, but also in general, taking into account the possibility of repeated “capture” of protons, taking a different place than before in the periodic table: and in some cases even not the closest to the old one. Essentially we are talking about nuclear fusion in a living cell. It must be said that such ideas have already excited the minds of people: there have already been publications about the work of the French scientist L. Kervran, who discovered such a nuclear transformation while studying laying hens. True, L. Kervran believed that this nuclear synthesis of potassium with a proton, followed by the production of calcium, is carried out using enzymatic reactions. But, based on the above, it is easier to imagine this process as a consequence of internuclear interactions. To be fair, it should be said that M.V. Wolkenstein generally considers L. Kervran’s experiments an April Fool’s joke among cheerful American scientific colleagues. The first idea about the possibility of nuclear fusion in a living organism was expressed in one of Isaac Asimov’s science fiction stories. One way or another, giving due credit to both, and the third, we can conclude that, according to the hypothesis presented, internuclear interactions in a living cell are quite possible. And the Coulomb barrier will not be a hindrance: nature has managed to bypass this barrier without high energies and temperatures, softly and gently, CORRESPONDENT. You believe that a vortex electromagnetic field arises in a living cell. It holds protons, as it were, in its grid and disperses them, accelerates them. This field is emitted and generated by the electrons of iron atoms. There are groups of four such atoms. Experts call them gems. The iron in them is di- and trivalent. And both of these forms exchange electrons, the jumps of which generate a field. Its frequency is incredibly high, according to your estimate 1028 hertz. It far exceeds the frequency of visible light, which is usually also generated by electron jumps from one atomic level to another. Don't you think that this estimate of the frequency of the field in the cell is very overestimated? G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Not at all. CORRESPONDENT. Your answer is clear to me. After all, it is very high frequencies and the corresponding short wavelengths that are associated with high quantum energy. Thus, ultraviolet with its short waves is stronger than ordinary light rays. To accelerate protons, very short waves are needed. Is it possible to check the proton acceleration scheme itself and the frequency of the intracellular field? G.N. PETRAKOVICH. So, the discovery: in the mitochondria of cells, an ultra-high-frequency, ultra-short-wave alternating electric current is generated and, according to the laws of physics, accordingly, an ultra-short-wave and ultra-high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field. The shortest wavelength and highest frequency of all variable electromagnetic fields in nature. Instruments have not yet been created that could measure such a high frequency and such a short wave, so such fields do not yet exist for us at all. And the discovery does not yet exist... Nevertheless, let us again turn to the laws of physics. According to these laws, point variable electromagnetic fields do not exist independently; they instantly, at the speed of light, merge with each other through synchronization and resonance, which significantly increases the voltage of such a field. Point electromagnetic fields formed in electromagnets by moving electrons merge, then all the fields of mitochondria merge. A combined ultra-high-frequency, ultra-short-wave alternating field is formed for the entire mitochondrion. Protons are held in this field. But there are not two or three mitochondria in one cell - in each cell there are tens, hundreds, and in some - even thousands, and in each of them this ultra-short-wave field is formed; and these fields rush to merge with each other, all with the same synchronization and resonance effect, but in the entire space of the cell - in the cytoplasm. This desire of the alternating electromagnetic field of the mitochondrion to merge with other similar fields in the cytoplasm is the very “draft force”, the energy that accelerates “throws” protons out of the mitochondrion into the space of the cell. This is how the intramitochondrial “synchrophasotron” works. It should be remembered that protons move to the nuclei of target atoms in a cell in a significantly enhanced field - so short-wavelength that it can easily pass between nearby atoms, even in a metal lattice, as if along a waveguide. This field will easily “carry” with it a proton, the size of which is a hundred thousand times smaller than any atom, and is so high-frequency that it will not lose any of its energy. Such a superpermeable field will also excite those protons that are part of the nucleus of the target atom. And most importantly, this field will bring the “incoming” proton closer to them so much that it will allow this “incoming” to give the nucleus part of its kinetic energy. The largest amount of energy is released during alpha decay. At the same time, alpha particles, which are tightly bound two protons and two neutrons (that is, the nuclei of helium atoms), are ejected from the nucleus at enormous speed. Unlike a nuclear explosion, with a “cold thermonuclear” there is no accumulation of critical mass in the reaction zone. Decay or synthesis may cease immediately. No radiation is observed because alpha particles outside the electromagnetic field are immediately converted into helium atoms, and protons into molecular hydrogen, water or peroxides. At the same time, the body is capable of creating the chemical elements it needs from other chemical elements using “cold thermonuclear” and neutralizing substances harmful to it. In the zone where the “cold thermonuclear reaction” occurs, holograms are formed that reflect the interactions of protons with the nuclei of target atoms. Ultimately, these holograms are carried undistorted by electromagnetic fields into the noosphere and become the basis of the energy-information field of the noosphere. A person is capable of arbitrarily, with the help of electromagnetic lenses, the role of which in a living organism is performed by piezocrystal molecules, to focus the energy of protons, and especially alpha particles, into powerful beams. At the same time, demonstrating amazing phenomena: lifting and moving incredible weights, walking on hot stones and coals, levitation, teleportation, telekinesis and much more. It cannot be that everything in the world disappears without a trace; on the contrary, one should think that there is a kind of global “bank”, a global biofield, with which the fields of everyone who lived and are merging on Earth merged and are merging. This biofield can be represented by a super-powerful, super-high-frequency, super-short-wave and super-penetrating alternating electromagnetic field around the Earth (and thereby around and through us). This field holds in perfect order the nuclear charges of proton holographic “films” about each of us - about people, about bacteria and elephants, about worms, about grass, plankton, saxaul, who once lived and are living now. Those living today support this biofield with the energy of their field. But only a rare few have access to its information treasures. This is the memory of the planet, its biosphere. The still unknown global biofield has colossal, if not limitless, energy, we all swim in the ocean of this energy, but we don’t feel it, just as we don’t feel the air around us, and therefore we don’t feel that it is around us... Its role will increase . This is our reserve, our support. CORRESPONDENT. This field of the planet in itself, however, will not replace working hands and a creative mind. It only creates the preconditions for the manifestation of human abilities. G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Another aspect of the topic. Our eyes, if not the mirror of the soul, then their transparent environments - the pupil and the iris - are still screens for the topographical “cinema” constantly emanating from us. “Integral” holograms fly through the pupils, and in the irises protons, carrying a significant charge of kinetic energy, continuously excite the molecules in the pigment clumps. They will excite them until everything is in order in the cells that “sent” their protons to these molecules. The cells will die, something else will happen to them, to the organ - the structure in the pigment clumps will immediately change. This will be clearly recorded by experienced iridodiagnosticians: they already know exactly - from the projections in the iris - which organ is sick and even with what. Early and accurate diagnosis! Some doctors do not have a very favorable attitude towards their colleagues-iridodiagnosticians, considering them almost charlatans. In vain! Iridodiagnosis, as a simple, publicly available, cheap, easily translated into mathematical language, and most importantly, an accurate and early method for diagnosing various diseases, will be given the green light in the near future. The only drawback of the method was the lack of a theoretical basis. Its foundation is outlined above. CORRESPONDENT. I think that for our readers it would be necessary to explain the process of formation of holograms of each individual. You can do it better than me. G.N. PETRAKOVICH. Let us imagine the interactions of accelerated protons with any large bulk (three-dimensional) molecule in a cell, occurring very quickly. Such interactions with the nuclei of the target atoms that make up this large molecule will consume many protons, which, in turn, will leave a voluminous, but “negative” trace in the proton beam in the form of a vacuum, “holes.” This trace will be a real hologram, embodying and preserving part of the structure of the molecule itself that reacted with protons. A series of holograms (which happens “in nature”) will display and preserve not only the physical “appearance” of the molecule, but also the order of physical and chemical transformations of its individual parts and the entire molecule as a whole over a certain period of time. Such holograms, merging into larger three-dimensional images, can display the life cycle of an entire cell, many neighboring cells, organs and parts of the body - the entire body. There is one more consequence. Here it is. In living nature, regardless of consciousness, we communicate primarily through fields. With such communication, having entered into resonance with other fields, we risk losing, partially or completely, our individual frequency (as well as purity), and if in communication with green nature this means “dissolving in nature,” then in communication with people, especially with those who have a strong field, this means partially or completely losing their individuality - becoming a “zombie” (according to Todor Dichev). There are no technical “zombie” devices under the program and it is unlikely that they will ever be created, but the influence of one person on another in this regard is quite possible, although, from a moral point of view, it is unacceptable. When protecting yourself, you should think about this, especially when it comes to noisy collective actions, in which it is not reason or even true feeling that always prevails, but fanaticism - the sad child of malicious resonance. The flow of protons can only increase due to merging with other flows, but in no way, as opposed to, for example, an electron flow, does not mix - and then it can carry complete information about entire organs and tissues, including about such a specific organ like the brain. Apparently, we think in programs, and these holograms are capable of transmitting a stream of protons through our gaze - this is proven not only by the “expressiveness” of our gaze, but also by the fact that animals are able to assimilate our holograms. To confirm this, we can refer to the experiments of the famous trainer V.L. Durov, in which Academician V. took part. M. Bekhterev. In these experiments, a special commission instantly came up with any tasks feasible for the dogs, V.L. Durov immediately handed over these tasks to the dogs with a “hypnotic gaze” (at the same time, as he said, he himself seemed to become a “dog” and mentally carried out the tasks with them), and the dogs exactly followed all the instructions of the commission. By the way, photographing hallucinations can be associated with holographic thinking and the transmission of images by a stream of protons through the gaze. A very important point: the information-carrying protons “tag” the protein molecules of their body with their energy, and each “labeled” molecule acquires its own spectrum, and by this spectrum it differs from a molecule with exactly the same chemical composition, but belonging to a “foreign” body. The principle of mismatch (or coincidence) in the spectrum of protein molecules underlies the body’s immune reactions, inflammation, as well as tissue incompatibility, which we have already mentioned. The mechanism of smell is also built on the principle of spectral analysis of molecules excited by protons. But in this case, all molecules of a substance in the air inhaled through the nose are irradiated with protons, with an instant analysis of their spectrum (the mechanism is very close to the mechanism of color perception). But there is “work” that is performed only by a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field - this is the work of the “second” or “peripheral” heart, about which much was written at one time, but whose mechanism no one has yet discovered. This is a special topic for conversation. To be continued...

ATP is the abbreviation for Adenosine Tri-Phosphoric Acid. You can also find the name Adenosine triphosphate. This is a nucleoid that plays a huge role in energy exchange in the body. Adenosine Tri-Phosphoric acid is a universal source of energy involved in all biochemical processes of the body. This molecule was discovered in 1929 by the scientist Karl Lohmann. And its significance was confirmed by Fritz Lipmann in 1941.

Structure and formula of ATP

If we talk about ATP in more detail, then this is a molecule that provides energy to all processes occurring in the body, including the energy for movement. When the ATP molecule is broken down, the muscle fiber contracts, resulting in the release of energy that allows contraction to occur. Adenosine triphosphate is synthesized from inosine in a living organism.

In order to give the body energy, adenosine triphosphate must go through several stages. First, one of the phosphates is separated using a special coenzyme. Each phosphate provides ten calories. The process produces energy and produces ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

If the body needs more energy to function, then another phosphate is separated. Then AMP (adenosine monophosphate) is formed. The main source for the production of Adenosine Triphosphate is glucose; in the cell it is broken down into pyruvate and cytosol. Adenosine triphosphate energizes long fibers that contain the protein myosin. It is what forms muscle cells.

At moments when the body is resting, the chain goes in the opposite direction, i.e. Adenosine Tri-Phosphoric acid is formed. Again, glucose is used for these purposes. The created Adenosine Triphosphate molecules will be reused as soon as necessary. When energy is not needed, it is stored in the body and released as soon as it is needed.

The ATP molecule consists of several, or rather, three components:

1. Ribose is a five-carbon sugar that forms the basis of DNA.
2. Adenine is the combined atoms of nitrogen and carbon.
3. Triphosphate.

At the very center of the adenosine triphosphate molecule is a ribose molecule, and its edge is the main one for adenosine. On the other side of ribose is a chain of three phosphates.

ATP systems

At the same time, you need to understand that ATP reserves will be sufficient only for the first two or three seconds of physical activity, after which its level decreases. But at the same time, muscle work can only be carried out with the help of ATP. Thanks to special systems in the body, new ATP molecules are constantly synthesized. The inclusion of new molecules occurs depending on the duration of the load.

ATP molecules synthesize three main biochemical systems:

1. Phosphagen system (creatine phosphate).
2. Glycogen and lactic acid system.
3. Aerobic respiration.

Let's consider each of them separately.

Phosphagen system- if the muscles work for a short time, but extremely intensely (about 10 seconds), the phosphagen system will be used. In this case, ADP binds to creatine phosphate. Thanks to this system, a small amount of Adenosine Triphosphate is constantly circulated in muscle cells. Since the muscle cells themselves also contain creatine phosphate, it is used to restore ATP levels after high-intensity short work. But within ten seconds the level of creatine phosphate begins to decrease - this energy is enough for a short race or intense strength training in bodybuilding.

Glycogen and lactic acid- supplies energy to the body more slowly than the previous one. It synthesizes ATP, which can be enough for one and a half minutes of intense work. In the process, glucose in muscle cells is formed into lactic acid through anaerobic metabolism.

Since in the anaerobic state oxygen is not used by the body, this system provides energy in the same way as in the aerobic system, but time is saved. In anaerobic mode, muscles contract extremely powerfully and quickly. Such a system can allow you to run a four hundred meter sprint or a longer intense workout in the gym. But working in this way for a long time will not allow muscle soreness, which appears due to an excess of lactic acid.

Aerobic respiration- this system turns on if the workout lasts more than two minutes. Then the muscles begin to receive adenosine triphosphate from carbohydrates, fats and proteins. In this case, ATP is synthesized slowly, but the energy lasts for a long time - physical activity can last for several hours. This happens due to the fact that glucose breaks down without obstacles, it does not have any counteractions from outside - as lactic acid interferes with the anaerobic process.

The role of ATP in the body

From the previous description it is clear that the main role of adenosine triphosphate in the body is to provide energy for all the numerous biochemical processes and reactions in the body. Most energy-consuming processes in living beings occur thanks to ATP.

But in addition to this main function, adenosine triphosphate also performs others:

The role of ATP in the human body and life is well known not only to scientists, but also to many athletes and bodybuilders, since its understanding helps make training more effective and correctly calculate loads. For people who do strength training in the gym, sprinting and other sports, it is very important to understand what exercises need to be performed at one time or another. Thanks to this, you can form the desired body structure, work out the muscle structure, reduce excess weight and achieve other desired results.

Adenosine triphosphoric acid-ATP- an essential energy component of any living cell. ATP is also a nucleotide consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine, the sugar ribose and three phosphoric acid molecule residues. This is an unstable structure. In metabolic processes, phosphoric acid residues are sequentially split off from it by breaking the energy-rich but fragile bond between the second and third phosphoric acid residues. The detachment of one molecule of phosphoric acid is accompanied by the release of about 40 kJ of energy. In this case, ATP is converted into adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP), and with further cleavage of the phosphoric acid residue from ADP, adenosine monophosphoric acid (AMP) is formed.

Scheme of the structure of ATP and its conversion to ADP ( T.A. Kozlova, V.S. Kuchmenko. Biology in tables. M., 2000 )

Consequently, ATP is a kind of energy accumulator in the cell, which is “discharged” when it is broken down. The breakdown of ATP occurs during the reactions of synthesis of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and any other vital functions of cells. These reactions occur with the absorption of energy, which is extracted during the breakdown of substances.

ATP is synthesized in mitochondria in several stages. The first one is preparatory - proceeds in stages, with the involvement of specific enzymes at each stage. In this case, complex organic compounds are broken down into monomers: proteins into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose, nucleic acids into nucleotides, etc. The breaking of bonds in these substances is accompanied by the release of a small amount of energy. The resulting monomers, under the influence of other enzymes, can undergo further decomposition to form simpler substances, up to carbon dioxide and water.

Scheme ATP synthesis in cell mtochondria

EXPLANATIONS FOR THE DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION OF SUBSTANCES AND ENERGY IN THE PROCESS OF DISSIMILIATION

Stage I - preparatory: complex organic substances, under the influence of digestive enzymes, break down into simple ones, and only thermal energy is released.
Proteins ->amino acids
Fats- > glycerol and fatty acids
Starch ->glucose

Stage II - glycolysis (oxygen-free): carried out in the hyaloplasm, not associated with membranes; it involves enzymes; Glucose is broken down:

In yeast fungi, a glucose molecule without the participation of oxygen is converted into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide (alcoholic fermentation):

In other microorganisms, glycolysis can result in the formation of acetone, acetic acid, etc. In all cases, the breakdown of one glucose molecule is accompanied by the formation of two ATP molecules. During the oxygen-free breakdown of glucose in the form of a chemical bond in the ATP molecule, 40% of the anergy is retained, and the rest is dissipated as heat.

Stage III - hydrolysis (oxygen): carried out in mitochondria, associated with the mitochondrial matrix and the inner membrane, enzymes participate in it, lactic acid undergoes breakdown: C3H6O3 + 3H20 --> 3CO2+ 12H. CO2 (carbon dioxide) is released from mitochondria into the environment. The hydrogen atom is included in a chain of reactions, the final result of which is the synthesis of ATP. These reactions occur in the following sequence:

1. The hydrogen atom H, with the help of carrier enzymes, enters the inner membrane of mitochondria, forming cristae, where it is oxidized: H-e--> H+

2. Hydrogen proton H+(cation) is carried by carriers to the outer surface of the cristae membrane. This membrane is impermeable to protons, so they accumulate in the intermembrane space, forming a proton reservoir.

3. Hydrogen electrons e are transferred to the inner surface of the cristae membrane and immediately attach to oxygen using the enzyme oxidase, forming negatively charged active oxygen (anion): O2 + e--> O2-

4. Cations and anions on both sides of the membrane create an oppositely charged electric field, and when the potential difference reaches 200 mV, the proton channel begins to operate. It occurs in the molecules of ATP synthetase enzymes, which are embedded in the inner membrane that forms the cristae.

5. Hydrogen protons pass through the proton channel H+ rush inside the mitochondria, creating a high level of energy, most of which goes to the synthesis of ATP from ADP and P (ADP+P-->ATP), and protons H+ interact with active oxygen, forming water and molecular 02:
(4Н++202- -->2Н20+02)

Thus, O2, which enters the mitochondria during the body’s respiration process, is necessary for the addition of hydrogen protons H. In its absence, the entire process in the mitochondria stops, since the electron transport chain ceases to function. General reaction of stage III:

(2C3NbOz + 6Oz + 36ADP + 36F ---> 6C02 + 36ATP + +42H20)

As a result of the breakdown of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed: at stage II - 2 ATP and at stage III - 36 ATP. The resulting ATP molecules go beyond the mitochondria and participate in all cellular processes where energy is needed. When splitting, ATP releases energy (one phosphate bond contains 40 kJ) and returns to the mitochondria in the form of ADP and P (phosphate).