Significant impact on development. Factors influencing the development of abilities

If appropriate conditions for the development of abilities are not created, children are not provided with appropriate activities, sensitive periods for the development of certain abilities are missed, and other equally important factors are not taken into account, the abilities will not develop, and an irreversible loss of abilities may occur. For the development of abilities, a combination of various factors is important, here are some of them:

I. Psychological:

sensitive periods of function formation: every child in his development goes through periods of increased sensitivity to certain influences, to mastering one or another type of activity; for example, it is known that a child from 0 to 3 years old develops oral speech and thinking intensively, and at 5-7 years old he is most ready to master reading, music, mathematics, sports, etc.;

appropriate activity with the help of an adult (zone of proximal development, according to L. S. Vygotsky),

increased motivation and interest.

II. Material:

balanced diet (eggs, meat, milk, cottage cheese, cheese, vegetables, fruits);

the presence of complex toys, instruments (including musical ones), paints, albums, a computer, etc.

III. Social:

parents (mother);

educators;

• teaching methods.

3. About the physiological basis of abilities. What is the physiological basis of abilities? There are many conflicting points of view, many hypotheses.

I will introduce you to the discoveries of Professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences Vladimir Pavlovich Efroimson (1908 – 1989), who belonged to the group of the oldest Soviet “geneticists-first conscripts” of the famous Moscow school of N.K. Koltsov. His great work (doctoral dissertation) is called “Biosocial factors of increased mental activity.”

It is dedicated to genius - one of the most amazing phenomena characteristic of the human race. This is an attempt by a great natural scientist, biologist, geneticist to find an approach to a natural scientific explanation of the riddle of genius.

Who is a genius?

Genius does what it must, talent does what it can.

Goethe wrote: “And if you don’t have this in you - “Die, but become!” - then you are only a mournful guest on a dark earth.”

The frequency of the birth of potential geniuses and remarkable talents is practically the same at all times, among all nationalities and peoples: one genius per 2 - 3 thousand, maybe per 10 thousand people. But this is the frequency of birth of potential geniuses. There are much fewer people who have developed and realized themselves enough to receive at least a high assessment. O'Henry, for example, has a story about how God was asked to point out the most brilliant commander of all times. And he pointed to a poor English shoemaker who was poring over old shoes. In this shoemaker, the greatest military genius died without showing himself.

In life, the frequency of those who have realized themselves to the level of recognition of their creations and deeds as genius is 1 person in 5 - 10 million people.

This is the topic of a separate lecture, because many questions need to be answered here: are geniuses needed? What prevents brilliant people from embodying their natural inclinations?

Diderot wrote: “Genius falls from the sky, and for one time when he meets the gates of the palace, there are 100 thousand times when he falls past.”

The very first point is that geniuses are born; first of all, innate talents and abilities are needed to become a genius, that is, inclinations (their combinations are endless).

Efroimson identifies 5 “stigmas” of genius, but prefaces their listing with the following thesis: “A good mother is a masterpiece of nature.”

It is the mother and maternal love that are the decisive factor in the development of a genius (For example, the fate of George Washington).

The childhood and youth of geniuses is a story of restraint, discipline and organization, shaped by maternal attention.

The role of the mother is also great in the formation of value systems.

Efroimson considers flexibility, resilience and energy to be innate qualities.

Curiosity, curiousity, and the investigative instinct disappear by themselves as highly age-related phenomena, so how much flexibility, perseverance must be shown, how much energy must be expended by the child in order to preserve those traits that are associated with creative curiosity.

Efroimson “selected” internationally recognized geniuses. There were 400 of them. Among them there is also their own “table of ranks”. He noticed that among the greats of this world, certain hereditary diseases occur quite often (more often than among other people).

1. In geniuses, tens of times more often than in the normal population, there is a hereditary increased level of uric acid in the blood. Elevated levels of urate (uric acid salts) lead to gout. Gout is noticeably different from all arthritis and rheumatism: the deposition of accumulations of crystals of uric acid salts in the tissues is determined by touch, inflammation occurs around these deposits and the earliest and most frequent occurrence of acute pain in the big toe, which is almost absent with the deposition of other salts.

E. Orovan established in 1956 that uric acid, an excess amount of which in the blood leads to gout, is very close in its chemical nature (structural formula) to such well-known mental stimulants as caffeine and theobromine (found in coffee and tea) . The accumulation of uric acid in the blood serves to stimulate brain activity.

The body normally contains about 1 gram of uric acid. The gout body contains 20–30 grams of it.

If the increased level of urate in the blood is not accompanied by gout, then this condition is usually called hyperuricemia. Efroimson's list includes several gouty geniuses: Giovanni Medici, Cosimo the Elder, Lorenzo the Magnificent, Thomas More, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Mazarin, Churchill, Benjamin Franklin, Ivan III, Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, I.S. Turgenev, Beethoven - throughout his life a typical gouty trait manifested itself - a complete disregard for everything that was not related to business, to music, to creativity, even the sublimation of love with creativity; Michelangelo, Bernard Baruch, Rubens, Rembrandt, Renoir, Fielding, Stendhal, Maupassant, Pushkin, etc. Of course, gout alone is not enough. Giftedness required.

2. A hereditary form of disproportionate gigantism – Marfan syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by very long, thin limbs with a short, thin body, large hands and feet, subluxation of the lens, aortic aneurysm and increased release of catecholamines - natural substances, some of which are adrenal hormones (adrenaline, norepinephrine and some others). A particularly powerful release of catecholamines occurs during stress (strong mental and physical stress, which allows the body to overcome enormous levels of physical and mental stress).

But under stress, there is a sudden release of adrenaline into the blood, while with Marfan syndrome, the amount of catecholamines in the blood is constantly increased. Talented, gifted owners of Marfan syndrome are distinguished by enormous energy and the ability for intense and long-term intellectual work.

Marfan syndrome is the rarest. It occurs 1 time in 100 thousand births. Among 400 geniuses with this syndrome there are 9 people: ichthyologist Nikolsky, Chukovsky, de Gaulle, Liddell Hart, Andersen, Lincoln, Tesla, Abbe, Kuchelbecker.

3. Androgenic (also hormonal) mechanism of stimulation of mental activity - Morris syndrome. This is “testicular feminization” - a very rare hereditary syndrome (one case in 20 - 50 thousand births). It is caused by the presence of a male set of chromosomes, causing the formation of testes, usually easily palpable as a mild inguinal hernia in women. But with a male set of chromosomes, there is a hereditary immunity of somatic tissues to male sex hormones, which should normally affect these tissues. The result is a slender, strong, beautiful woman, but without monthly ailments and infertile. Those with Morris syndrome have mental energy, physical endurance and strength (for example, Joan of Arc - by the end of the 19th century, 2,117 major works were dedicated to her, in particular, 600 long poems, 200 dramas, 16 operas).

Consequently, an increased amount of androgens in the blood can have a tonic, doping effect. In men this phenomenon is called hyperandrogenism. Hyperandrogenism was noted in Peter I, Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov, Alfred de Musset, Balzac, Heine, Leo Tolstoy. Many of them had increased sexual tone until old age (Goethe). And if the biographies of many remarkable figures testify to their complete renunciation of sex, then in these cases we most often need to talk about the obvious sublimation of sexual attraction and its translation into creative energy (Kant, Beethoven).

Abstinence with high sexual strength is associated with creative inspiration. There is a well-known saying: “Of a prophet who knows a woman, God does not speak for 77 days.”

4. On the basis of manic-depressive psychosis, cyclothymic accentuation of character. Cyclothymics (unlike schizothymics) are characterized by a more or less regular alternation of different phases of mood, physical and mental tone. Phases of recovery, energetic activity, optimism and self-confidence are replaced by phases of decreased overall tone, decreased activity, relaxation, worsening mood, pessimism, even suicide: Van Gogh, Diesel, Roosevelt, Churchill, Goethe, Linnaeus, Coldridge, Pushkin, Gogol , L. Tolstoy (descendant of Pushkin), Schumann, Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, Garshin, Dickens, Hemingway, Luther. It is known that hypomania and depression usually occur in 4 people per 1 thousand. In Efroimson's list of geniuses, this figure is at least 10 times higher - 4 people out of 100. Their biographies indicate melancholy, periods of despair, and suicide attempts.

A. S. Pushkin immediately noted the presence of 3 “stigmas” of genius: gout, hyperandrogenism, cyclothymic accentuation of character.

Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol was also a hypomanic cyclothymic. Everything he wrote is from 20 to 32 years old, and every spring and summer he was in a state of severe depression. Pushkin did not like spring and summer, since, in contrast to most people, cyclothymics have a sharp drop in mood and performance in the spring and summer, clearly rising in the fall. This seasonality is very characteristic of Pushkin and Gogol. L. Tolstoy experienced depression from 2 to 7 years.

5. The fifth “stigma” of genius is the size of the forehead, the height of the forehead.

Of course, a large forehead in itself does not guarantee the presence of high intelligence, but there is no doubt that the predominant development of the brain and especially its frontal regions completely legitimizes the formulation of the problem of the existence of some connection between a disproportionately large forehead and a large head with the level of intelligence, with genius, and talent. (no need to be embarrassed by the existence of giant-faced hydrocephalic idiots). These are Marx, Lenin, Engels, Beethoven, Liszt, Napoleon, Shakespeare, Voltaire, Goethe, Anton Rubinstein, Kant, Darwin, Lomonosov, Mendel.

Thus, some conclusions can be drawn. At the moment, science does not yet have accurate data on what abilities and inclinations are, what they consist of. Perhaps the inclinations are some properties of the nervous system - the degree of general activity, increased sensitivity of the nervous structures, etc. Perhaps this is some kind of special predisposition, for example, to the perception of sounds, colors, spatial forms, etc. The extent to which Whether the inclination will manifest itself and take shape depends on the conditions of individual development. Based on the results of this development, i.e., based on the available ability, it is impossible to say what the “contribution” of the deposit was. There are no ways yet to determine the extent of the participation of the genotypic factor in the development of abilities.

The formation and development of abilities is associated with the child’s passage through various sensitive periods with possible learning during these periods of the “imprinting” type. In gifted children, it is possible to synchronize several sensitive periods, usually replacing each other, then the opportunities for developing their abilities increase many times over.

An integral component of abilities is increased motivation. It provides intensive and, at the same time, naturally organized activity necessary for the development of abilities.

Review questions

What approaches to studying abilities do you know?

Define abilities and inclinations. How do you think they differ?

What types of abilities do you know? Define them.

Tell us about the biosocial factors of genius.

Name the factors influencing the development of abilities. Give examples.

What abilities do you have? What do you think contributed to the development of your abilities?

Rice. 36. Abilities (student G. Kasatkin, E&U-428)

Rice. 37. Abilities (student Yu. Goglidze, EiU-428)

Control questions

1. Clinical psychology has a significant impact on the development of
other branches of medicine, except:

About psychiatry;

© traumatology;

© neurology;

About neurosurgery.

2. Theoretical and practical problems of which specialty cannot be solved
work without clinical psychology:

About herbal medicine;

© physiotherapy;

© psychotherapy;

About radiation therapy.

3. Who proposed the term “bioethics”?

© Heidegger; © Potter;

About Yudin.

4. Clinical psychology has a significant impact on the development of
current general theoretical issues of psychology, except:

About the analysis of the components that make up mental processes;

© studying the relationship between development and decay of the psyche;

© development of philosophical and psychological problems;

On establishing the role of the personal component in the structure of various forms of mental activity.

5. Which ethical model in clinical psychology received the most
development in the last quarter of the 20th century?

O Hippocratic model;

© bioethics;

Chapter 11. Theoretical and methodological foundations of clinical psychology ■ 317

© deontological model;

O model of Paracelsus.

6. What principle in clinical psychology can be specified as
etiology and pathogenesis of psychopathological disorders?

About the principle of unity of consciousness and activity;

© development principle;

© principle of personal approach;

© principle of structure.

7. Who coined the term “deontology”?

About Descartes;

© Spinoza;

© Bentham;

Chapter 12 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

Basic Concepts

The significance of the problem of full human development in the context of the localization of mental functions is determined by the fact that the doctrine of the systemic organization of brain activity is the basis for solving the most important issues of pedagogy, medicine and psychology. The complexity and versatility of this problem requires that its development be carried out in many directions, synthesizing the achievements of all related sciences, taking into account both the specific methodological and general theoretical specifics of the study of mental phenomena. Therefore, the subject area of ​​research into the connection between the material organic substrate and the ideal mental contains concepts traditionally used in the anatomy of the central nervous system and the physiology of higher nervous activity, information theory and systems theory, general and experimental psychology, psychophysiology and pathology of the analytical apparatus, general pathopsychology, special pedagogy, philosophy and a number of other areas. From a general theoretical point of view, the relationship between the brain as a material source of the psyche and mental processes that are ideal in content can be explained using four categories.

Function category. The psyche is a function, an activity of the brain, aimed at maintaining the continuous adaptive process of the body to the external natural and physical environment, and of a person as an individual to life in a social environment, and the regulatory and creative components of this activity are only fragments of a more general process of life support. The morphophysiological unity of the brain is a form of spatio-temporal organization of the system, which itself, having the general functional goal of adaptation, is an organic element of a more general system - the whole organism.

Chapter 12. Neuropsychology ■ 319

objects and phenomena of the external or internal “physiological” world, objectively possessing certain quantitative and qualitative characteristics and their representation in the psyche from a concrete image to an abstract idea, undergo a multi-stage process of reproduction in material media (from the peripheral receptor apparatus to the evolutionarily and ontogenetically later layers of the cortex of large hemispheres) features of objects interacting with the body in the form of multiple recoding of their information equivalents.

Category of information. All mental processes are informative in nature, and the receipt of information (afferentation) and its processing by the brain (from an elementary sensory effect to conceptual thinking with its pragmatic and axiological aspects) leads to an increase in the orderliness of mental activity, and motor and behavioral activity realized through information efferent flows, actively reorganizes the environment or adapts the organism to it. Mental processes perform a control function, reducing entropy, and the assimilation of information and its channeling outward through behavior is accompanied by multi-stage transformations. These processes affect both operational information and information stored in long-term memory. Actually, the human and highest aspect of information relations is the sign mediation of the entire external environment, which presupposes the presence of meaning and value for the individual of this or that stimulation, as well as its inclusion in the semantic outline of objectified behavior.

The category of information in neuropsychology has one more aspect. It represents a certain organization of the states of its carrier - the brain, which provides the ability to regulate the functions of the organs of the system (organism) in which information processes occur.

Activity category. Any mental process is uniquely active, which leads to its explicit or indirect embodiment in real action or in a behavioral act. Phenomenologically, it is what “animates” the organism and can be externally or introspectively observed. In itself, this mental activity does not exist without a cerebral physiological basis, originating from general metabolic processes. Their energy component, in turn, comes from the external environment, is transformed and distributed in the performing part itself into flows serving the somatic and mental functions of the body.

It is obvious that none of the above categories separately, as well as their mechanical integration, can connect the psyche with its material carrier. They are different sides of a dialectically multifaceted

320 ■ Part 3. Clinical psychology

a long, evolutionarily changing, but holistic process of higher forms of life in the space-time continuum.

Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that studies the brain basis of mental processes and their connection with individual brain systems. In neuropsychology, there are several relatively independent areas, united by common theoretical concepts, but differing in the specificity of methods and tactical tasks.

Clinical neuropsychology - is the main direction, the task of which is to study neuropsychological syndromes that arise when a particular part of the brain is damaged. The object of research in it is the brain of a sick or injured person, and the subject of research is the cause-and-effect relationship between damage (tumor, hemorrhage, trauma - their location, volume) and the changes that have occurred in mental processes at various levels. For a qualitative assessment of certain mental losses, Luria developed a set of methods for clinical neuropsychological examination. Recent years have been marked by a new step in the development of theoretical and experimental research on the development and modification of methods for topical diagnosis of focal brain lesions (Wasserman).

Experimental neuropsychology sets as its goal an experimental, including instrumental study of various forms of disturbances in mental processes in local brain lesions, and also studies the distribution of mental functions in their evolutionary context (on the animal brain). It is often necessary to resort to traumatic methods of analyzing the connection between brain tissue and mental functions, as well as to draw acceptable analogies between the changes that occur in an experimental animal after the shutdown (destruction) of individual brain structures and the supposed changes in a person with a similar form of pathology. In addition, in experimental neuropsychology and neurophysiology they use the method of direct stimulation with electric current and bloodless methods - cooling, lubricating areas of the cortex and brain with aluminum paste and other chemicals that temporarily disable the functioning of certain areas.

Rehabilitation neuropsychology. Rehabilitation in general is a set of measures to restore lost or weakened body functions resulting from illness, injury or functional disorder.

The rehabilitation direction in neuropsychology deals with the restoration of lost higher mental functions, training and restructuring of impaired functional systems for the development of new psychological

Chapter 12. Neuropsychology ■ 321

ical means that presuppose the normal functioning of a person in the everyday, professional and general social spheres. This area includes an extensive set of methods and techniques with the help of which, based on the principles of the dynamic organization of higher mental functions, they carry out targeted effects on functional systems weakened or lost as a result of illness or injury, through which vital perceptual, cognitive-intellectual, emotional- motivational, motor and behavioral mechanisms.

Responding to the demands of practice about the need to consider the function in its present state, in the processes of its development and decay, rehabilitation neuropsychology has accumulated extensive experience in restorative work in the consequences of traumatic brain injuries, with various speech disorders, in the field of defectology, dealing with problems of education and training, as well as correction of the deficiencies of mentally retarded children and their social adaptation. Rehabilitation measures also play a significant role in cases of congenital or acquired defects of vision and hearing.

The range of techniques used by rehabilitation neuropsychology includes various systems of education, training and activation of weakened mental or motor functions, training for the formation or strengthening of sensory-perceptual apparatuses, attention, motor skills, development of modes of gaming, educational or work activities, selection of stimulus material, development methods of psychological diagnostics and monitoring the effectiveness of restoring function or compensating for a defect that has arisen in connection with brain disorders.

Psychophysiological neuropsychology - is responsible for the study of mental processes using objective methods using physiological indicators for analysis. These are mechanogram, myogram, plethysmogram, electroencephalography (EEG), which allows, as a result of modern computer processing, to obtain an idea of ​​​​its “map”.

In addition to the traditional ones, in clinical settings such methods as magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, etc. are used to clarify the localization of the lesion. Special techniques include the method of natural stimulation-induced potentials and stereotactic experiments with targeted immersion of the thinnest electrodes into individual neurons. In the clinic, this makes it possible, with the help of injected radioactive substances, to destroy pathological foci deep in the brain or to functionally “retrain” groups of neurons.

There are no clear boundaries between these directions, and new methodological arsenal and theoretical conclusions born within the framework of one of them become the property of others.

OPTION 1.

1. Who owns the term “clinical psychology”? 3) Whitmer;

2.Who was the first to open an experimental psychological laboratory in Russia? 2) Bekhterev;

4. Name the founder of scientific psychology: 1) Wundt;

5. Indicate the psychologist who made the greatest contribution to the development of pathopsychology in Russia: 3) Zeigarnik;

6. The founder of the neuropsychological school in Russia is: 4) Luria.

7. Who is the founder of behaviorism? 3) Watson;

8. Name the founder of depth psychology: 2) Freud;

9. Who developed the psychology of relationships? 3) Myasishchev;

10. Who owns the development of activity psychology? 3) Leontiev;

OPTION 2. e

1. Clinical psychology has a significant influence on the development of the following branches of medicine, except: 2) traumatology;

2. Theoretical and practical problems of which specialty cannot be developed without clinical psychology: 3) psychotherapy;

3. Who proposed the term “bioethics”? 3) Potter;

4. Clinical psychology has a significant influence on the development of the following general theoretical issues of psychology, except:

3) development of philosophical and psychological problems;

5. Which ethical model in clinical psychology received the greatest development in the last quarter of the 20th century? 2) bioethics;

6. What principle in clinical psychology can be specified as the etiology and pathogenesis of psychopathological disorders? 2) the principle of development;

7. Who coined the term “deontology”? 3) Bentham;

OPTION 3.

1. Among the first attempts to localize HMF in the cerebral cortex are the following works: 2) Gallya;

2. The main subject of rehabilitation neuropsychology is:

3) restoration of higher mental functions lost due to injury or illness;

4. The zone of proximal development is: 2) what a child can do with the help of an adult;

5. The system-forming factor for all types of functional associations in accordance with Anokhin’s concept is: 4) goal.

6. The term “heterochronicity” in neuropsychology means:

2) non-simultaneous development of functions;

7. Variability in the brain organization of functions is a reflection of:

2) the principle of dynamic localization of functions;

8. The rigidity of the organization of brain functions is due to:

4) the last two circumstances.

9. The main thesis of equipotentialism is:

4) the equivalence of the role of all areas of the brain in the implementation of mental activity.

10. According to Luria’s classification, the mediobasal regions of the brain include:

1) to the energy nonspecific block;

11. The tool for isolating the neuropsychological factor is:

3) syndrome analysis;

12. The difference between asynchrony and heterochrony in the development of a child’s psyche is: 1) that heterochrony is a natural development factor;

13. Violation of control over the execution of one’s own behavior is mainly associated with: 1) pathology of the frontal lobes;

14. Problems solved using neuropsychological diagnostic methods do not include: 4) choice of forms of neurosurgical intervention.

15. Disorders of various types of sensations are called:

3) sensory disorders;

16. Common signs of visual agnosia are:

4) loss of recognition ability.

17. The inability to identify a flat object by touch with eyes closed is called: 2) tactile agnosia;

18. Autotopagnosia - sign: 2) superior parietal lesion;

19. The principle of sensory corrections of complex movements was developed:

4) Bernstein.

20. Replacing the necessary movements with template ones is a sign of:

4) regulatory apraxia.

21. Acquired speech disorder due to damage to the left hemisphere is called: 4) aphasia.

22. Damage to the parieto-occipital zone of the left hemisphere often leads to:

3) semantic aphasia;

23. The main defect in verbal alexia is:

2) violations of simultaneous recognition;

24. Agraphia is: 4) impaired ability to write correctly in form and meaning.

25. Acalculia is often combined with: 1) semantic aphasia;

26. Nonspecific memory disorders are mainly related to work:

1) the first block of the brain;

27. “Field behavior” is the result of defeat: 1) frontal lobes;

28. An experimental method for detecting modality-specific attention disorders is:

2) simultaneous presentation of two stimuli to paired analyzers;

29. Thinking defects associated with the mediation of speech connections are caused by: 2) left temporal lesions;

30. The “Papes Circle” basically describes the circulation of emotional processes: 3) inside the limbic system;

31. Damage to the convexital parts of the frontal lobes of the brain will most likely lead to such an emotional state as: 1) indifferent complacency;

32. The process of identification from general to specific is more represented:

1) in the left hemisphere;

33. Left-handedness is:

2) joint predominance of left-located paired organs over the right ones;

34. A feature of focal brain lesions in children is:

1) mild symptoms;

OPTION 4.

1. The basic principles of pathopsychological research according to Zeigarnik include all of the following, except:

2) standardization of the experimental procedure and data analysis;

2. Essential characteristics of attention are all of the following, except:

2) diversity;

3. A letter proof test for studying attention was proposed by:

3) Bourdon;

4. The founder of the domestic school of pathopsychology is: 4) Zeigarnik.

5. Typical thinking disorders in schizophrenia include all of the following, except: 4) a penchant for detail.

6. To study thinking, all of the above methods are used, except:

4) “10 words.”

7. Memory can be characterized by all of the specified types, except:

2) cognitive;

8. Typical thinking disorders in epilepsy are all of the following, except: 3) updating of insignificant “latent” signs;

OPTION 5.

1. In classical psychosomatics, there are three groups of disorders, except:

4) vegetoses.

2. A representative of the anthropological direction in psychosomatics is:

4) Weisecker.

3. The term “psychosomatics” was introduced into medicine by: 3) Heinroth;

4. The creator of cortico-visceral pathology, as one of the areas of psychosomatics, is: 3) Bykov;

5. The modern biopsychosocial model of the disease has been developed: 3) Engel;

7. Behavioral type A “is a risk factor”:

4) cardiovascular diseases.

8. Conversion disorders, which laid the foundation for the psychoanalytic direction in psychosomatics, were described by: 3) Freud;

9. The term “alexithymia” was introduced by: 3) Sifneos;

10. The concept of “organ neuroses” was developed by: 4) Deutsch.

OPTION 6.

1. A type of mental dysontogenesis, in which there is a return of function to an earlier age level, both temporary and persistent:

2) regression;

2. A type of mental dysontogenesis, in which gross disorganization or loss of function is observed: 1) decay;

3. A type of mental dysontogenesis, in which there is a delay or suspension of mental development: 3) retardation;

4. A form of mental dysontogenesis, in which there is a pronounced advance in the development of some mental functions and properties of the emerging personality and a significant lag in the rate and timing of maturation of other functions and properties: 1) asynchrony;

5. Socially determined type of non-pathological deviations in mental development: 3) pedagogical neglect;

6. Socially determined types of pathological disorders of ontogenesis include: 2) pathocharacterological formation of personality;

7. General mental underdevelopment is: 2) mental retardation;

8. A distinctive feature of the thinking of mentally retarded people: 2) non-criticality;

9. Emotions of mentally retarded people: 1) undifferentiated;

10. The totality of damage to mental functions is characteristic of: 1) oligophrenia;

11. Syndromes of temporary lag in the development of the psyche as a whole or its individual functions are designated by the term: 3) mental retardation;

12. An anomaly of character, incorrect, pathological development, characterized by disharmony in the emotional and volitional spheres, is:

3) psychopathy;

OPTION 7.

1. Reactive states, which are manifested primarily by behavioral disorders and lead to socio-psychological maladjustment, are called:

1) pathocharacterological reactions;

2. Non-pathological behavioral disorders that appear only in certain situations, do not lead to personality maladjustment and are not accompanied by somato-vegetative disorders, are called: 2) characterological reactions;

3. The formation of an immature personality in children and adolescents in a pathological, abnormal direction under the influence of chronic pathogenic influences of negative socio-psychological factors is:

3) psychogenic pathological formation of personality;

4. Pathological conditions characterized by disharmony of the mental make-up of the individual, the totality and severity of disorders, preventing the full social adaptation of the subject, are: 2) psychopathy;

5. Violations of behavior that are qualified on the basis of legal norms are designated as: 3) criminal behavior;

6. Violations of behavior that are qualified on the basis of moral and ethical standards are designated as: 1) delinquent behavior;

7. A form of deviant behavior, characterized by a desire to escape reality by artificially changing one’s mental state by taking certain substances or fixating on certain types of activities, this is: 2) addictive behavior;

OPTION 8.

1. The communicative competence of a doctor increases with the development of such qualities as: 3) the ability to empathize;

2. Affiliation is: 2) a person’s desire to be in the company of other people;

3. Empathy is: 1) the ability to sympathize, empathize, compassion;

4. The communicative competence of a doctor is reduced under the influence of the following properties: 2) increased anxiety;

5. A communication barrier in a relationship may be associated with a high level of: 4) depression.

6. Anxiety is an emotion:

7. Emotional burnout syndrome is a consequence:

1) self-doubt and increased responsibility;

8. Professional adaptation consists of:

4) improving professionalism, establishing an adequate emotional distance with patients, forming an individual medical “image”.

9. Reducing the psychological distance with the patient is acceptable:

3) in situations where the patient’s life is threatened;

10. The patient’s first impression of the doctor:

1) develops in the first 18 seconds of acquaintance;

11. The feeling of psychological contact is provided by an element of non-verbal communication:

1) look into the eyes;

12. In professional communication between a doctor and patients, the preferred postures are:

4) natural asymmetrical open.

13. Active gestures of the patient are most often associated with:

2) high level of anxiety;

14. It is typical for a depressed patient to: 4) facial expressions of grief.

15. Accelerated speech most often characterizes: 3) an anxious patient;

16. Loud speech is more often observed in: 4) patients in a hypomanic state.

17. During the orientation phase, the doctor:

3) formulates a number of hypotheses (determines the search area);

18. During the argumentation phase, the doctor has grounds for:

2) making a preliminary diagnosis;

19. Projection is: 3) transfer of past experience of relationships with significant people to the doctor by the patient;

20. As a result of the combination of positive transference and positive countertransference in the doctor-patient relationship:

1) the likelihood of informal relationships between them increases;

21. The main task of the doctor in the adjustment phase:

2) providing emotional support to the patient;

22. The patient’s adaptation to hospital conditions lasts approximately:

1) about 5 days;

23. Medicines prescribed by a doctor remain unused:

1) by at least 20%;

24. The “placebo” effect is:

1) the effectiveness of pharmacologically neutral “medicinal forms”;

25. Aggravation behavior is characterized by: 3) exaggeration of symptoms of the disease;

26. In the structure of the internal picture of the disease, the following main components are distinguished: 4) sensitive, emotional, rational and motivational.

27. Adaptive mechanisms aimed at reducing pathogenic emotional stress, protecting against painful feelings and memories, as well as against the further development of psychological and physiological disorders, are called: 2) psychological defense mechanisms;

28. A return to an earlier stage of development or to more primitive forms of behavior and thinking is called: 4) regression.

29. Protection from a threatening object by identifying with it is called:

3) identification;

30. The most productive coping strategies of patients are:

1) cooperation and active search for support;

31. Dissimulation is: 2) deliberate concealment of symptoms of the disease;

32. Anosognosia is: 2) unconscious reaction: unawareness of the disease;

33. Hypochondria is: 1) painfully exaggerated concern for one’s health;

34. Simulation is:

1) conscious depiction of symptoms of a non-existent disease;

35. “Difficult” patients include:

2) depressive traits with suicidal tendencies;

36. A doctor as a patient is: 3) the most “difficult” and “atypical” patient;

1) manuals;

38. The partnership model of doctor-patient relationships is widely used in: 4) psychotherapy.

OPTION 9.

1. Psychological assistance in general somatic treatment and preventive institutions is provided by a clinical psychologist:

4) together with a psychiatrist and psychotherapist.

2. The standard for providing an inpatient psychotherapy department is the position of a clinical psychologist: 1) for 20 beds;

3. The standard for staffing positions of clinical psychologists in a psychotherapy room is:

4) the position of a clinical psychologist for one psychotherapy room.

4. When conducting psychotherapy for a patient with a neurotic condition, the psychotherapist and clinical psychologist interact as follows:

4) a psychotherapist and a clinical psychologist jointly conduct psychotherapy, taking into account its different focus and goals.

5. The main content of postgraduate training of clinical psychologists in clinical psychology is:

3) psychodiagnostics, psychocorrection in various clinical groups, trainings, supervision;

OPTION 10.

Question 1. Research methods in clinical psychology include all except one: e) amytal-caffeine disinhibition

Question 2. The principles of clinical interviewing include all except one: d) stereotyping

Question 3. Clinical interviewing consists of: d) 4 stages

Question 4. The duration of the first interview should be: d) 50 minutes

Question 5. A guarantee of confidentiality is provided to the client for:

a) Stage I interview

Question 6. Anticipatory training is carried out on: d) stage 4 interview

Question 1. The concept of historical and cultural base according to J. Lacan includes everything except one: c) profession

Question 8. The pictogram method is used to study: a) memory

Question 9. The Munsterberg technique is used to study: b) attention

Question 10. The set of behavioral, motivational and cognitive characteristics of the mental activity of patients, expressed in psychological concepts, is called: c) pathopsychological syndrome

Question 11. Emotional-volitional disorders, violations of the structure and hierarchy of motives, inadequacy of self-esteem and level of aspirations, impaired thinking in the form of “relative affective dementia,” impaired forecasting and reliance on past experience are included in the structure:

c) psychopathic symptom complex

Question 12. Reliance in thinking on latent signs, identified during the “pictogram” technique, indicates the presence of:

a) schizophrenic symptom complex

Question 13. The Luscher test is used to evaluate: d) emotional experiences

Question 14. A study aimed at assessing the state of higher mental functions and the functioning of hemispheric asymmetry is called: a) neuropsychological

Question 15. The ability to recognize presented objects by touch is called: b) stereognosis

Question 16: The Minnesota Multidisciplinary Personality Inventory measures: c) personality profile

Question 17. Assessment of affective rigidity according to the MMPI test is made by: d) 6 scale

Question 18. Methods for studying attention include all methods except one: d) Raven's test

Question 19. Assessing the effectiveness of psychological methods of influencing a person includes all of the following criteria with the exception of one:

d) criterion for the degree of improvement in partner (sexual) relationships

Question 20. Analysis of visual contact during clinical interviewing allows you to assess:

b) individual psychological characteristics

OPTION 11.

Question 1. An individual holistic mental experience in the process of diagnosing mental disorders is called: c) a phenomenon

Vonros 2. “In connection with the possibility of complete phenomenological similarity to a mental illness (psychopathological symptoms), only what can be proven as such is recognized” - says the principle of: a) Kurt Schneider

Question 3. Along with the criterion of evidence, Kurt Schneider’s principle also includes the following criterion: e) probabilities

Question 4. The diagnostic principle, which requires “refraining from premature judgments,” is indicated by the principle: b) era

Question 5. Assessing the state of an individual like: “The patient has a mournful expression on his face” does not take into account one of the following diagnostic principles:

a) contextuality

Question 6. For a convincing diagnosis of psychopathological symptoms, the following laws are fundamentally important: e) logical

Question 7. The phenomenological approach to the diagnostic process uses the principles: b) understanding psychology

Question 8. The concept of “nosos”, as opposed to “pathos”, includes all except one: a) stable psychopathological states

Question 9. To diagnose a mental reaction, it should be taken into account that its duration should not exceed: d) 6 months

Question 10. A mental state characterized by severe impairment of mental functions, contact with reality, disorganization of activities usually leading to antisocial behavior and a gross violation of criticism is called: b) psychosis

Question 11. One of the most significant diagnostic criteria for distinguishing psychotic from non-psychotic mental disorders is the criterion; c) non-criticality towards disorders

Question 12. Mental reactions, conditions and developments caused by hereditary and constitutional causes belong to one of the following types of mental response: b) endogenous

Question 13. Hysterical and hypochondriacal non-psychotic symptoms are signs of one of the following types of mental reaction:

d) personal

Question 14. The phenomenon of “already seen” is a sign of one of the following types of mental response a) exogenous

Question 15. A long-term and irreversible impairment of any mental function, the general development of mental abilities or the characteristic way of thinking, feeling and behavior that makes up an individual personality is called: c) a defect

Question 16. Abulia belongs to one of the following groups of mental disorders; b) negative disorders

Question 17. The state of full or partial compensation (replacement) of mental functions impaired due to illness is called: b) compensation

Question 18. The appearance in an individual of such behavioral characteristics as foolishness, absurdity, impulsiveness in combination with lack of purposefulness of behavior is called: b) hebephrenia

Question 19. Fruitless, aimless philosophizing based on impaired thinking is called: d) reasoning

Question 20. With introversion, unlike autism, as a rule, the following is noted:

a) criticality towards one’s own isolation

OPTION 12

Question 1. The Zeigarnik effect refers to the psychological process:

b) memory

Question 2. The minimum amount of stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called:

b) the absolute lower threshold of sensations (threshold of sensitivity)

Question 3. Sensations associated with signals arising from irritation of receptors located in muscles, tendons or joints are called: c) proprioceptive

Question 4. The Weber-Fechner psychophysical law describes:

e) the dependence of the strength of sensation on the magnitude of the acting stimulus.

Question 5. As a result of perception, all of the following properties of the image are formed except: d) uniqueness

Question b. The process of perception in which elements that appear as parts of familiar figures, contours and shapes are more likely to be combined into precisely these figures, shapes, contours is called the principle of: d) “natural continuation”

Question 7. A perceptual disorder in which the formation and perception of bizarre visual images occurs based on the fusion of elementary features of an object is called: b) pareidolic illusions

Question 8. A disorder of recognizing parts of one’s own body is called:

a) somatoagnosia

Question 9. Attention has all of the following properties except: d) duration

Question 10. The average human attention span is:

c) 5-7 pieces of information

Question 11. The process of better remembering unfinished actions compared to completed ones is called: b) the Zeigarnik effect

Question 12, A memory disorder characterized by a violation of the imprinting of information received by a person and a sharply accelerated process of forgetting is called: c) fixation amnesia

Question 13. A violation of chronology in memory, in which individual events that took place in the past are transferred to the present, is called:

c) pseudoreminiscence

Question 14. Mental operations include all of the following except: a) judgments

Question 15. Inference refers to: b) thought processes

Question 16. Reducing the level of generalizations and distorting the generalization process refers to: b) violations of the operational side of thinking

Question 17. A thinking disorder in which the formation of new associations is significantly (maximum) difficult due to the long-term dominance of one thought or idea is called: c) perseveration

Question 18. The process of self-knowledge by the subject of internal mental acts and states, as well as the creation of an idea of ​​​​the true attitude towards the subject on the part of others is called: e) reflection

Question 19. Anticipation is:

b) a person’s ability to anticipate the course of events, predict the likely outcomes of various actions

Question 20. Particularly pronounced emotional states of a person, accompanied by significant changes in behavior, are called:

d) affects

Question 21. The most significant differential diagnostic criterion for pathological affect is: b) the presence of disorders of consciousness

Question 22. Alexithymia is called:

e) inability to accurately describe one's emotional state

Question 23. Cancerophobia is: a) obsessive fear of getting cancer

Question 24. Parabulia includes all of the following disorders except: b) autism

Question 25. The pathological irresistible attraction to vagrancy is called: b) dromomania

Question 26. The following types of automatisms are distinguished with the exception of:

d) hallucinatory

Question 27. A dream-like disturbance of consciousness, accompanied by states of “fascination” or euphoria, is called: a) oneiroid

Question 28. Among patients with neuroses, there is a tendency towards an increase in people with:

d) low and high intelligence

Question 29. The lack of differentiation of real and ideal goals, the inability to objectively assess the emerging situation, to see it not only in the actual moment is more common when:

b) personality (psychopathic) disorders

Question 30. Pathological polysemanticism, in which words begin to acquire multiple meanings and often the semantic structure of the word becomes loose, is more common in: c) schizophrenic disorders

OPTION 13

Question I. All the following scientific platforms are identified that evaluate the etiopathogenesis of neurotic disorders with the exception of: e) astrological

Question 2. A life event that affects significant aspects of a person’s existence and leads to deep psychological experiences is called: b) psychotrauma

Question 3. The most important characteristic of a life event that can cause neurotic disorders is its: e) significance

Question 4. Quantitative assessment of the pathology of life events is called a scale: a) Holmes-Ray

Question 5. Neurotic conflict, which is characterized by excessively inflated claims of the individual, combined with underestimation or complete ignorance of objective real conditions or the demands of others, is designated: a) hysterical

Question 6. Conditional-pathogenic mental injuries are associated primarily with: c) a system of personal relationships

Question 7. The anticipatory concept of neurogenesis notes the fundamental importance of: d) unpredictable mental trauma

Question 8. The greatest role in the emergence and formation of neurotic disorders is played by the following properties: d) personalities

Question 9: Post-traumatic stress disorder is primarily associated with: b) events that go beyond ordinary life experience

Question 10. Disorders that arise as a result of the current socio-economic and political situation that is psychogenic and relevant for a large number of people are designated:

a) social stress mental disorders

Question 11. Identity crisis options include all of the following except: b) mystical

Question 12: Disorders characterized by partial or complete loss of normal integration between memory of the past, impaired awareness of identity and immediate sensations, and impaired control of body movements are called:

e) conversion (dissociative).

Question 13. Dissociative stupor is characterized by:

b) state of immobility

Question 14. Human behavior following acute psychotrauma, characterized by childishness, occurs when: d) puerile syndrome

Question 15. K. Jaspers described the principle for diagnosing neurotic disorders: a) triad

Question 16. Obsessions are included in the structure: d) anankastic syndrome

Question 17. Agoraphobia is d) obsessive fear of open spaces

Question 18. All of the following stages of the formation of neurotic disorders are distinguished, with the exception of: d) psychocorrectional

Question 19. In patients with neurotic disorders, as a rule, the following occurs: c) monovariant type of probabilistic forecasting

Question 20. The reluctance of patients during an unresolved conflict to take any actions leading to its clarification or the disappearance of symptoms, as well as to use methods of psychological compensation, is indicated by: e) attitudinal psychocorrection

Question 21. A neurotic conflict receives a secondary somatic response and processing when: b) conversion symptoms

Question 22. Psychosomatic diseases are formed, as a rule, as a result of: d) intrapersonal conflict

Question 23. To classical psychosomatic diseases included in the so-called. The “holy seven” includes all of the following except:

a) myocardial infarction

Question 24. The main intrapersonal conflict in hypertension is the conflict:

b) between aggressive impulses and feelings of dependence

Question 25. Coronary personality type A predisposes to:

e) myocardial infarction

Question 26. Personality type B does not predispose to: e) myocardial infarction

Question 27. Qualities such as a high level of aspirations, a pronounced desire to achieve a goal, a desire to compete are included in the structure of: a) personality type A

Question 28. Pain that occurs in a woman’s genitals only during coital contact and makes it difficult or eliminates them is called:

c) dyspareunia

Question 29, Agrypnic syndrome is

c) neurotic disorder in the form of insomnia

Question 30. Pale and dry skin, coldness of the extremities, shiny eyes and slight exophthalmos, temperature instability, tendency to tachycardia, tachypnea, tendency to increase blood pressure, muscle tremors, paresthesia, chilliness, discomfort in the heart area occurs with:

b) sympathicotonic form of vegetative-vascular dystonia

OPTION 14.

Question 1. The concept of “zone of proximal development” assumes that:

a) training must come before development

Question 2. The process of formation in the structure of the old new types of activity, characteristic of the next age period, accompanied by the maturation or restructuring of private processes and the main “psychological changes of the personality, is called: d) leading activity

Question 3. Mental and social changes that first arise at a given age level and determine the child’s consciousness, his attitude to the environment, internal and external life are called: e) neoplasms

Voshchin. 4. Age-related psychological crises are called:

b) periods of ontogenesis, characterized by sharp psychological changes

Question 5. The period of maturity occurs at the age of: d) 35-60 years

Question 6. “Revival complex” is typical for: a) neonatal period

Question 7. The absence of a “revival complex” is considered a characteristic feature: a) early childhood autism syndrome

Question 8. The crisis of the first year of life is characterized by:

e) the development of walking and speech

Question 9. Hyperdynamic syndrome is typical for:

c) children aged 3-5 years

Question 10. The leading activity of children of preschool and primary school age is: d) game

Question 11. Gaming activity, during which for a long period a person is able to “reincarnate” into an animal, a fictional image or an inanimate object, is called: b) pathological fantasy

Question 12. The reaction expressed by a teenager’s persistent desire to achieve success in an area in which he is weak is called:

b) overcompensation reaction

Question 13. Guiding a person by selfish considerations of mutual benefit when performing certain actions refers to the manifestations of:

c) pre-moral level of morality

Question 14. The “middle-age crisis” usually occurs at the age of:

b) ZO±2 years

Question 15. Typical psychological characteristics of older people are all of the following except: b) altruism

Question 16. A family pattern in which a family member develops an ignorance of the presence of problems or diseases is called: e) anosognosic

Question 17. The development of schizophrenia in a child occurs as a result of family upbringing of the following type: e) none of the answers are correct

Question 18. The conflict between family traditions, for example, in choosing a profession or occupation, and desires that run counter to them, is called (according to N. Pezeshkian): d) uniqueness-identity

Question 19. The family develops sanogenic thinking among its members in order to:

b) reducing internal conflict, tension, and preventing diseases

Question 20. The emancipation reaction is typical for: d) teenagers

HELL. Gradovsky emphasized the political meaning of the concept of “self-government”. He was convinced that the state, transferring some of its functions to local governments, is obliged to provide them with the opportunity to carry out an “act of power” (that is, act as state power). He advocated granting zemstvos, within the limits determined by law, independence and power1.

V.P. Bezobrazov interpreted bureaucratic and self-government institutions as “dual bodies of the same state organism, different forms of the same power.” He saw the main drawback of the Regulations of 1864 in the fact that zemstvo institutions were not introduced into the general system of public administration, but were placed “next to it...” According to V.P. Bezobrazov, zemstvo bodies were given “a lot of will and no power " He explained their weakness by their lack of “government” rights2.

B.N. Chicherin interpreted zemstvos as legal entities that the state established to meet general needs. He recognized for them the significance of public unions, which are governed by “laws issued by the state and are under the control of state power, but exist to satisfy the special interests of certain persons or localities.” B.N. Chicherin pursued the idea that the state benefits by acquiring an assistant in the person of local government. It “relieves him of unnecessary burdens, fulfilling what without his help would fall on his own organs.” In case of insufficient efficiency of the activities of zemstvo institutions, “the state can, without taking matters into its own hands, come to the rescue... or fill the gaps with its own institutions, not in the form of a replacement, but in the form of completing and improving the public initiative”3.

Certain influence in the 19th century. used a legal theory that arose on the basis of the state theory of local government. Its supporters reduced the essence of local self-government to one main feature - self-governing units are public legal entities separate from the state. They believed that the rights of local government bodies are inalienable and inviolable for the state. Self-government bodies, in their opinion, implement the will not of the state, but of local communities. Communities have special goals and interests that differ from the goals and interests of the state. However, this theory had a number of weaknesses:

Þ the inviolability of the rights of local self-government bodies exists only for specific administrative bodies, but not for the state itself, which has the right to legislatively change them or take them away altogether;

Þ self-governing units, being subjects of the rights granted to them, just like public administration bodies, are subject to government control;

Þ it is impossible to determine criteria for establishing which functions performed by self-government bodies correspond to their own interests and which correspond to the interests of the state (the social theory of self-government also sought to distinguish between these two spheres).

The famous Russian lawyer N.I. Lazarevsky believed that each of the theories discussed above was correct “in the sense that it indicates a feature that is found in self-governing units and has significant significance for them, but each of these theories was incorrect in that it elevated the feature indicated by it to the main and exceptional". Based on these considerations, he formulated comprehensive definition of the essence of local government as such a form of decentralized government, in which “in one way or another, both real independence from the crown administration and the connection of these bodies with the local population are ensured”1.

The dual nature of municipal activities (independence in local affairs and the implementation of certain government functions at the local level) is reflected in theories of dualism of municipal government. According to this theory, municipal authorities, in carrying out relevant management functions, go beyond local interests and, therefore, must act as an instrument of public administration.

At the core social service theories The emphasis is placed on municipalities fulfilling one of their main tasks: offering services to their residents, organizing services for the population. This theory calls the welfare of the residents of the commune the main goal of all municipal activities.

Most modern scientists interpret local self-government as a relatively decentralized form of local government. In legal theory, local government is viewed, as a rule, through the prism of concepts such as deconcentration and decentralization.

Thus, the famous French jurist J. Wedel understands deconcentration as an organizational technique that consists of transferring important decision-making rights to representatives of the central government placed at the head of various administrative districts or public services.

There are vertical and horizontal deconcentration. Within the first, all powers to represent the interests of the central authorities at the local level are transferred to only one government official (as a result, deconcentration in the center is sometimes accompanied by a concentration of power at the local level), and within the second, several “centers of power” are formed at the local level with the distribution of responsibilities according to sectoral principle.

Decentralization, notes J. Wedel, consists of transferring decision-making rights not just to representatives of the central government, but to bodies that are not hierarchically subordinate to the central government bodies and are often elected by interested citizens1.

Thus, deconcentration and decentralization, being two types of transfer of power from the center to the localities, have significant differences. Deconcentration- this is only a management technique, which in itself is not equivalent to democracy, since it retains the entire administration at the disposal of the central government or its representatives. Deconcentration reforms, G. Braban points out, have a managerial, not a political meaning: geographically, the administrative apparatus is closer to the citizens, but they themselves are not endowed with any power2.

At decentralization there is a direct alienation of the powers of the state as a legal entity in favor of another legal entity, which is the local management team.

He wrote about the advantages of a decentralized state over a centralized one back in the first half of the 19th century. A. de Tocqueville in his essay “Democracy in America”3. He argued that the government, acting as the only guarantor and arbiter of people's happiness, creates only the illusion of its own

omnipotence in solving all problems. He has no choice but to take on the burden of thinking for everyone and overcoming all difficulties himself.

The position about the greater efficiency of decentralized public administration systems is confirmed by the findings of modern science, in particular the general theory of systems by L. von Bertalanffy and the evolutionary theory of J. Piaget. The latter substantiated the thesis that any systems - physical, biological and social - are self-regulating. Self-regulation acts as a set of actions of the system aimed at its self-preservation and development. The more complex and dynamic the processes in which any system is included, the greater the degree of freedom it must have in order to respond and adapt in a timely manner to ongoing changes and maintain sustainability. There is only one effective solution to this problem - expanding the independence of subsystems within the viability of the system as a whole. For socio-political systems, this means a weakening of the dictates “from above”, the development of self-government, primarily regional and local, while simultaneously democratizing governance.

Thus, local government is responsible two main social needs: firstly, the realization of the right of citizens to participate in the management of public affairs, and secondly, the creation of effective local authorities capable of satisfying both the vital needs of the population and the interests of national development. In this regard, the ideas of A. de Tocqueville are extremely important that the original source of power is not the state or even the people, but voluntarily uniting individuals who manage their own affairs. It is in such conditions that people develop genuine civic consciousness, a sense of duty and responsibility, and the ability to balance their needs with the needs of their neighbors and harmonize their interests. A. de Tocqueville’s ideal was a society functioning as a collection of many free and self-governing associations and communities.

In his essay “Democracy in America,” he wrote: “Communal institutions ... open the way to freedom for the people and teach them to use this freedom, to enjoy its peaceful character. Without communal institutions, a nation may form a free government, but it will never acquire the true spirit of freedom. Passing passions, momentary interests, random circumstances can only create the appearance of independence, but despotism, driven inside the social organism, will sooner or later reappear on the surface.”

How relevant is this warning for the young Russian democracy! Totalitarianism, driven inside the social organism, has manifested itself in such exaggerated forms that in practice little remains of the constitutional principle of local self-government.

By independently solving local problems under their own responsibility, local governments expect from state authorities the “rules of the game”, assistance in replenishing local resources if they are not enough to organize life in accordance with minimum social standards. The legal space in which local self-government would function normally, and its material and financial support, have been formed in Western countries for many decades, creating favorable legal conditions for the life of the local community. This is a long evolutionary path of development of local self-government, and their experience requires careful study.

Analyzing the past and present of local self-government, we can conclude that gradually, taking into account historical, geographical, political and cultural traditions, three models were most often used: Anglo-Saxon (English), continental (French) and mixed (hybrid). What is the vision and theoretical understanding of these models based on and what are the methodological prerequisites for justifying the Russian model?

In Great Britain, the birthplace of classic municipal forms, a a type of local government called Anglo-Saxon. One of the characteristic features of this system is the absence of authorized government representatives on the ground who look after local elected bodies. Municipalities are regarded as autonomous entities exercising the powers vested in them by Parliament. In the 19th century In Great Britain, the principle has been established that municipal authorities can only perform those functions that are expressly permitted to them by law. This predetermined the role of the British Parliament in the formation of municipal law. The legal framework for municipal government was created by private and local statutes, which were adopted by Parliament, defining the powers of municipal bodies and the basis of their relationship with the central authorities. From 1689 to 1832 Parliament passed more than 200 such acts, creating the basis for the passage of the Poor Relief Act in 1834, which is considered the act that laid the foundation for the modern system of local government. This act provided for the creation of a management system that constantly worked with a paid staff and became the main activity of all local authorities. Municipalities received the right to appoint officials and carry out various activities related to the eradication of poverty. In 1835 the Municipal Corporations Act largely established the legal status of 178 towns in England and Wales. This act provided for the election of municipal councilors, publicity of meetings, etc. This and subsequent acts created the modern system of British municipal bodies1.

Along with the Anglo-Saxon system of local self-government, a number of foreign countries have a municipal system, which is based on a continental (French) model of local government. The special principles of the organization of self-government in France, laid down at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, differed significantly from the principles underlying the organization of local government in England. France has always been characterized by a high degree of centralization of local government and self-government. This was manifested in the development of a system of administrative control of the central government over local authorities, bureaucratic subordination in relations between the center and localities, that is, the continental model represents a hierarchical pyramid through which various directives and information are transmitted and within which a whole network of agents actively works for the central authorities places.

Along with the Anglo-Saxon and French models of local self-government, an independent municipal system is usually distinguished as local (municipal) self-government in Germany (mixed model). Self-government, according to modern German doctrine, means that state tasks are solved by legal entities of public law. In other words, the state delegates part of its functions to self-government bodies. The Federation and the Länder, therefore, are not the only subjects of government: communities and districts perform the functions assigned to them either as institutions of self-government or on behalf of the state by order of a state body within the framework of the functions delegated to them. In Germany there is no federal law on local authorities: the fundamental principles and principles of self-government are set out in Article 28 of the Basic Law. The status of communities in Germany is characterized by the following provisions: the community performs all administrative functions on its territory under its own responsibility, except in cases where the law entrusts the performance of these functions to other management structures; the community regulates the scope of its activities through a charter, which must not contradict the law; the community has the right to independently solve problems at the local level under its own responsibility, but in accordance with the laws.

Countries such as Italy and Japan also differ in certain specific qualities of the municipal organization: the governor of the Japanese prefecture, elected by the local

by the population and considered the head of the local administration, performs a number of national functions1.

A comparative legal analysis of the differences in the models of local government organization discussed above in developed countries allows us to conclude that these differences are not fundamental. There has even been a certain rapprochement between them, taking into account the experience of implementing municipal reforms in France and Great Britain, begun in the 80s.

In addition, the historical experience of mankind shows that the most sustainable model is a self-governing society, where “each individual is primarily responsible for solving his own problems, voluntarily uniting with other individuals, as well as participating in organizations and relationships within the limits and on the conditions established by constitutions.” and other mutual agreements of people and adopted by the relevant governing bodies"2. This resolves the main essential contradiction between the objective need for interaction of people within the state in the implementation of public interests, on the one hand, and self-realization of their personal potential, their abilities, on the other, for the purposes of creating favorable living conditions in the eco-dialogue between man and nature.

State administration and local self-government are two sides of the social contradiction between the need for centralization and decentralization of power, where the leading party is local self-government. And the proof of this is a well-known fact of the emergence of the state and public administration on the basis of community management.

So, tribal community management in Russian lands in the 7th-10th centuries. was carried out at tribal gatherings, which gradually transformed in village gatherings, as well as in city councils.

For example, out of 50 princes who occupied the Kiev throne, 14 were invited to the evening1, for the period from 1126 to 1400. The Novgorod Council elected 275 mayors from among the most powerful boyar families and more than 80 princes. A council of gentlemen was elected in Novgorod, as well as a council of thousand. At meetings of districts (ends) and streets of the city, Konchansky and Ulychansky elders were elected. Citing the Novgorod Council as a naturally developing element of self-government, the author is far from idealizing it as one of the most democratic institutions in the history of society, since an appeal to the masses has always been an additional instrument of power, a decoration for the appearance of citizen participation in decision-making. The first known legal codes “Russkaya Pravda”, “Pravda Yaroslavichi”, “Long-Russian Truth”, as well as the chronicles “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Belozersky Charter” and others bear the stamp of community governance.

With the beginning of the unification of Russian lands in the 15th century. State power, strictly regulated from above, is formed. Under these conditions, elements of self-government remained almost unchanged in rural communities and units, and in the streets of cities (posads). In large settlements and cities, governors are gradually replaced by a system of local government institutions (provincial bodies) and officials (city clerks). In the middle of the 16th century. As a result of the zemstvo reform, in counties where landownership still did not exist, the peasants of the Black Hundred and palace lands, as well as the townspeople, received the right to choose from their midst elders (“favorite heads”) and kissers, zemstvo judges and clerks (“best people”). The peasant community continued to elect sotskys and fiftieths, on whom the elders and tselovniks relied in their activities. Gradually, elected local bodies, falling under the supervision of governors, turned into state employees.

The reforms of Peter I bore the imprint of the influence of Western Europe. In 1699, the townspeople received the right to elect burgomasters from among themselves. In 1718 Peter I ordered the restoration of the right of local urban estate administration, and in 1723-1724. City magistrates and town halls were created. However, these bodies, unlike Western European ones, were strictly controlled by government officials and soon after the death of Peter I “grew” into the structure of the Russian state.

In 1775, the government introduced a new reform of local government based on the decentralization of power, as a result of which local government institutions received greater powers. Almost simultaneously, the reform of city government began in accordance with the “charter of rights and benefits for the cities of the Russian Empire.” This reform divided the city population into 6 class categories; the primary body of class self-government in the city was the city assembly. Granting the right to vote and be elected was regulated by age and property qualifications.

“The city assembly elected the city mayor, burgomasters and ratmans to the magistrate, elders, judges of verbal courts, assessors from the city estate to general and verbal institutions”1. The meeting also elected the administrative body of class self-government - the General City Duma. These innovations were then used during the zemstvo reform of 1864, since as amended by the government of Catherine II, the reform did not work for long - until 1798, when the city estate administration was combined with police departments.

In the first half of the 19th century. self-government in cities was experiencing a crisis associated with the tightening of the police and supervisory functions of the state. Representative bodies such as city parliamentary assemblies and general councils ceased to exist. Their members were used for individual assignments by the Six-Party Duma, whose functions included supervision of trade in the bazaars and improvement of the city under the supervision of the governor. “The diminished importance of city self-government bodies caused indifference of the urban estates to service in estate institutions and evasion from it”2.

The heaviness and slowness of the state machine, the manifestation of the most inert features of bureaucracy, the evasion of the nobility and merchants from the civil service, as well as noticeable democratic changes and their results in Western Europe forced the Russian government to look for ways to reform the public administration system.

After the peasant reform of 1861, the need arose to revive rural community self-government. Peasant class institutions were created for peasants. At the meeting, the rural society elected the village headman, tax collector, sotsky, ten (the latter performed supervisory and police functions). The volost assembly elected the volost elder, the volost court, as well as representatives to the preliminary congress for the election of councilors to the district village assembly, and resolved the economic problems of the volost. The volost government existed as a representative body.

Thus, the zemstvo and city reforms of 1864-1870. were based on the historical experience of community and city self-government in Russia, and also relied on borrowings from Western European experience. Moreover, its relative success is explained by the fact that the reformers did not blindly copy Western models, but introduced structures that were understandable to the people and “suitable for work in specific socio-economic and political conditions”3.

The current champions of the revival of zemstvo traditions in the organization of local self-government in the Russian Federation, along with positive aspects - the desire to rely on domestic roots, the desire to provide residents of towns, villages, villages, cities with broad powers to take initiative, simplicity and accessibility of presentation of projects

normative documents - there are also shortcomings: the idealization of zemstvos, reliance on outdated, questionably democratic institutions and an attempt to transfer them to the modern soil of Russia, which is closer to the experience of recent times, the experience of the Soviets.

Also at odds with the spirit of the times are attempts to justify the formation of representative bodies on an estate basis, reluctance to take into account the national and cultural characteristics of the regions of the Russian Federation, etc. At the same time, it is overlooked that the conditions for the formation of zemstvo institutions, the procedure for the appointment and approval of officials, the approval of normative acts strictly regulated and controlled by the state in the person of governors and presences1.

It is surprising to hear the statement of the chairman of the Russian Zemstvo Movement, E. Panina, that “the zemstvos were never built on a national or party principle, but were all-class bodies of representation”2. As an example casting doubt on the statement, let us turn to the documents: in the Regulations on the provincial and district zemstvo administration in Art. 16, note 3, we read: “Jews henceforth, until the current instructions regarding them are revised, are not allowed to participate in zemstvo election meetings and congresses”3.

Further, in the Nominal Highest Decree of March 14, 1911 “On the extension of the Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions to Volyn, Kiev, Vitebsk, Minsk, Mogilev and Polish provinces”, paragraph 10 reads: “In Dvinsky, Lyutsinsky and Riga districts, Vitebsk province in the first branches of the zemstvo electoral assembly and zemstvo electoral congresses include persons of Russian origin, the second - other persons; in the remaining districts of the Vitebsk province and in the districts of the Volyn, Kiev, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces, the first branches include persons who have the right to participate in meetings or congresses, by affiliation, with the exception of persons of Polish origin, and the second - persons of Polish origin"4 .

The same is in the note to paragraph 10, and to paragraph 11 in relation to congresses elected by the volost assembly5.

Similar legislation is available in the Regulations on the Public Administration of Cities. L.E. also speaks about this. Laptev: “At the request of the governor, persons recognized as unreliable were to be removed from office”1.

In conclusion, the attention of all zemstvo idealists should be drawn to the Temporary Regulations on the Volost Zemstvo Administration of 1917, which is built on much more democratic principles.

Another extreme point of view on the use of world historical experience is manifested in the views of modern “Westerners”, who tend to take the Anglo-American, German or French experience as the basis for organizing the system of local self-government in the Russian Federation and demonstrate a desire to see in our laws a mirror repetition of the European Charter of Local Self-Government .

Meanwhile, Russian local government has quite a large and contradictory experience. From the moment of the emergence of statehood in Rus', it remained unchanged for a long time only in rural communities in certain regions of the country and experienced constant oppression from the central government bodies.

The inclusion of local government bodies in the system of state bodies during the Soviet period did not at all deprive local government of the foundations of historical experience, nor did it destroy, as some jurists, historians and politicians are trying to prove, the principles of organizing local self-government, limiting them to the ability of citizens to independently resolve local issues. The dependence of local self-government on the desire or unwillingness of state bodies to “give it free rein” is present today in the same way as it was 500, 200 or 70 years ago. Only the importance of local self-government and the dependence of the political and economic power of the state on the integrity, development and organization of its forms have increased.

However, the experience of the development of civilization convinces us that the Frenchman A. de Tocqueville was right when he said more than 100 years ago that “communal institutions do for freedom what elementary school does for science; they make it accessible to the people, allow them to taste its fruits and get used to using it. A nation can introduce free government even without communal institutions, but it will not have the spirit of freedom.”2

Noting the need to achieve economic and political freedom as the basis for the prosperity of society - including through the development of local self-government - one should keep in mind: a) Russia is a unique country; b) Russia has its own historical experience of self-government in the form of rural communities, city (posad) public administration, zemstvo institutions and Soviets; c) the existing system of local government cannot be ignored; d) the process of reforming the local self-government system cannot be completed by command from above or within a set time frame, since it is the result of a certain evolution, an indicator of the state’s departure from the administrative-command management system and, undoubtedly, evidence of the maturity of citizens who are ready to assume full power and responsibility for solving local affairs;

e) a lot of useful things can be learned from the experience of other peoples, if you show the ability to learn and critically perceive it in relation to the conditions of the Russian Federation.

It would seem that the traditions of local self-government of pre-revolutionary Russia should have been developed in the practice of state building in Soviet Russia. After all, the socialist revolution, according to K. Marx, marks the process of the reverse absorption of state power by society. And in the organization of local self-government the problem of bringing power closer to the people is most clearly expressed.

However, the idea of ​​local self-government, which presupposes a certain decentralization of power and the independence of self-government bodies, came into conflict with the practical tasks of the state of the proletarian dictatorship, which by its very nature is a centralized state.

The basis for the organization of local power was the principle of the unity of the system of Soviets as bodies of state power with strict subordination of lower bodies to higher ones. All Soviets (including local ones) acted as parts of a single system, the highest organizational principle of which was democratic centralism, which formally allowed for the independence of localities, but in reality manifested itself in the centralization and concentration of power in the highest echelons of the system of government bodies. Municipalism was rejected as a bourgeois principle unacceptable for the Soviet state.

So, the study of the genesis and conceptual models of local communities allows us to more clearly present the content of municipal science, formulate its modern theory and methodology, clarify the scientific foundations of municipal science and the modern system of training personnel for municipal management. These issues are becoming particularly relevant, but require additional efforts and innovative approaches, without which there can be no effective municipal governance.

1

The development goals of industry and the economy as a whole should be focused on the formation and development of effective, flexible and sustainable market production structures capable of ensuring a progressive increase in the competitiveness of products in the context of intensifying processes of formation of a post-industrial society and economy. To overcome negative long-term trends, it is necessary to develop new integrated approaches to the development of industrial enterprises, based on the principles and elements of the knowledge economy, as well as the formation of organizational and economic tools that make it possible to more effectively create and use the existing resource potential. Features of the development of industrial enterprises made it possible to identify factors influencing the sustainable development of the enterprise, such as: those independent of the activity of the enterprise - general economic, market, and those dependent on the activity of the enterprise - financial, marketing, production, innovation, allowing to assess the state of the enterprise, identify the causes of unsustainable development and which are the basis for the selection of strategic management alternatives.

sustainability

factors of internal and external environment

sustainable development of an industrial enterprise

1. Van Horn J.K. Fundamentals of financial management. – M.: Finance and Statistics, 1995.

2. Kaplan R.S., Norton D.P. Strategic cards. Transformation of intangible assets into material results / trans. from English – M.: ZAO “Olymp-Business”, 2005. – 512 p.

3. Porter M. Competitive strategy: methodology for analyzing industries and competitors / trans. from English – M.: Alpina Business Books, 2007. – 453 p.

4. Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B. Modern economic dictionary. – 2nd ed., corrected. – M.: INFRA-M, 1998.

5. Tatarskikh B.Ya. Main trends in the dynamics of the structure of the production and technological potential of mechanical engineering in Russia. – Samara: Samar Publishing House. state econ. University, 2005.

Resilience is formed under the influence of a complex of internal and external environmental factors.

A factor (from the Latin factor - doing, producing) is the reason, the driving force of any process, determining its character or its individual features. Factors are specific events and trends grouped by the area of ​​required information, that is, by the main sections of market research.

Thus, stability factors are reasons that can cause its violation (increase or decrease), classified depending on the environment of occurrence, the nature and direction of the impact, the object of impact, etc.

Factors can be divided according to methods into: economic and non-economic (political, legal, environmental); by methods: factors of direct and indirect impact.

Their relationship, interaction, and interconnection are extremely important and relevant not only for individual subjects, but also for the entire economic system. In certain historical periods, the impact of some increases, while others weaken.

The ability of an enterprise to overcome crises, win competition, and maintain economic stability largely depends on the action of an internal group of factors - on the state of its internal environment.

The internal group of factors includes goals, objectives, structure, technology, and personnel of the enterprise. In countries with stable economies, the ratio of external and internal factors is in favor of the latter. Thus, an analysis of the bankruptcy of enterprises in developed countries shows that 1/3 external and 2/3 internal factors are involved in bankruptcy. There is no particular need to prove that in a stable economy, the main obstacles hindering the development of an enterprise, as a rule, lie in the sphere of its own activities and contain internal discrepancies and contradictions regarding the goals of the enterprise, the means to achieve them, resources, methods of organizing activities and management to achieve goals

Environmental factors have different levels and directions of influence. They can be divided into three levels: regional, national and international. By their orientation, factors are stabilizing or destabilizing.

In the last decade, the impact of external factors, especially international destabilizing factors, has increased. The impact of environmental factors significantly makes the balance and stability of economic entities and industries less stable, leading to an increase in the dependence of the national economy as a whole on them.

External environmental factors at the national and regional level can be divided into two main groups: direct and indirect influence.

Let's try to classify the factors influencing the economic sustainability of an enterprise.

Previously, the enterprise was considered as a closed production system, and the influence of the environment on its development was practically not taken into account. It was believed that the external environment has practically no effect on the enterprise, and scientific research was mainly aimed at studying and improving the internal environment of the enterprise. In the days of the administrative-command system, a centralized planned economy, one could agree with this. In a market economy, enterprises can no longer ignore the influence of the external environment. Ignoring the external environment today means bankruptcy of the enterprise tomorrow.

The external environment, which directly determines the sustainability of the enterprise, influences the enterprise through objective and subjective factors. The effect of each factor can manifest itself differently on the efficiency of the enterprise. In addition to external factors, the sustainability of an enterprise is influenced by factors in the internal environment of the enterprise. The diagram of the effect of factors of the external and internal environment of an enterprise on its sustainable development is presented in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. External and internal environmental factors influencing the sustainable development of an industrial enterprise

Objective external factors are a set of environmental factors that have a direct impact on the functioning and development of the enterprise. This group of factors includes suppliers of labor, financial, information, material, etc. resources, consumers, competitors, etc.

1. National legislation is one of the main objective external factors that influences the development of an enterprise. All legal acts can be divided into three groups: Federal legal acts, legal acts of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, legal acts of local self-government. Enterprises are required to strictly comply with regulations at all levels. But as practice shows, sometimes legislative acts not only at different levels contradict each other, causing uncertainty for the manufacturer, but sometimes even legislation at the Federal level gives contradictory interpretations.

2. Resource support - a set of material, labor and financial resources necessary for the activities of the enterprise. Each enterprise must keep strict records of the resources used and required, which will allow the enterprise to use them most effectively.

Material resources include raw materials, materials, equipment, energy, components, without which it is impossible to produce products.

The population represents the main contingent of the enterprise's labor resources. One of the characteristics of the population as a producer of material goods is labor potential. It includes a set of various qualities that determine the working capacity of the population. These qualities are related:

• with a person’s ability and inclination to work, his state of health, endurance, type of nervous system;
• with the volume of general and special knowledge, labor skills and abilities that determine the ability to work at a certain qualification;
• with the level of consciousness and responsibility, social maturity, interests and needs.

Financial resources are the most significant type of resource. Credit institutions have a great influence on the existence and development of enterprises. Most enterprises today experience an acute shortage of working capital and are forced to raise borrowed funds by taking out loans. For the development of industry as a whole in Russia and the regions, it is necessary to develop a policy of preferential lending to industrial enterprises.

3. Partners - partner enterprises have a significant impact on the functioning and sustainable development of the enterprise. In a planned economy, strong ties were established between enterprises for the supply of components. With the collapse of the former USSR, in a market economy, many connections between enterprises were destroyed and therefore a distinctive feature of the post-privatization period was the crisis in supplies between enterprises, the breakdown of established stable connections, as a result of which many enterprises either ceased to exist or were forced to master the production of components from yourself and look for new business partners.

4. Competing enterprises are one of the driving forces of enterprise development. It is competition that allows an enterprise to develop, producing competitive products and providing staff with the best working conditions. Currently, competition is increasing not only in product markets, but also in the markets of material and labor resources. Competition significantly affects the internal environment of the enterprise, especially the organization of production. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly analyze and improve the competitiveness of products, which will allow the enterprise not only to exist, but also to develop.

5. Consumers of products have recently been considered as one of the most significant elements of the external environment influencing the development of an enterprise. During the time of the planned economy, the main task of the enterprise was to produce products in the required volumes; the further fate of the manufacturer’s goods was of concern to the extent that. In a market economy, the welfare of the enterprise depends on the consumer. The external environment, through consumers, influences the enterprise and determines its strategy.

6. Government bodies have a significant impact on the functioning and development of the enterprise. State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial. Central and local authorities, which include a combination of legislative and executive authorities, centrally regulate the main socio-economic relations in society. The functions of government include: adoption of laws and control over their implementation, development and implementation of policies and recommendations in the field of social and labor relations in the country, covering issues of remuneration and labor motivation, regulation of employment and migration, labor legislation, living standards and working conditions, labor organization, etc.

In conditions of market relations, state regulation of socio-economic relations is limited and, as evidenced by the experience of developed countries, should concern issues of labor legislation, employment, and assessment of living standards.

Recently, the influence of the judiciary on the functioning of the enterprise has increased significantly. With the existing concept of our country’s transition to a rule-of-law state, the number of issues that an enterprise has to resolve in a civilized manner by turning to an arbitration court is increasing.

A positive aspect of the changes taking place in Russia is the transfer of part of the powers of state authorities to the local authorities, which allows legislative work to be carried out at the local level in the field of taxation, economic development programs and to influence the development of industrial enterprises. The development of local self-government opens up new opportunities for enterprises to have mutually beneficial relationships with local authorities. As practice shows, many enterprises were not ready for market relations. It is paradoxical that the growing role of local authorities, coupled with the richest natural resources, has practically no effect on the current state of Russia.

An enterprise can react to changes in direct impact factors in two ways: it can rebuild its internal environment and pursue a policy of both adaptation and a policy of active or passive resistance.

Subjective external factors are a set of environmental factors that have an indirect impact on the functioning and development of the enterprise. Indirect impact factors play the role of background factors that increase or decrease economic sustainability. This group of factors includes the state of the economy, natural, socio-political factors, etc. .

1. Political situation - significantly influences the development of the enterprise; the influence of this factor is especially strong for Russia. The influx of investment from foreign countries and the opening of foreign markets for domestic goods depend on the current political situation in the country. In a country, political stability is, first of all, determined by the relationship between the state and its citizens and is manifested by the state’s attitude towards property and entrepreneurship.

2. The economic situation is one of the serious factors influencing the development of an enterprise. Quotations of shares of domestic enterprises on the stock market, energy prices, national currency exchange rates, inflation rates, and interest rates on loans are indicators that reflect the state of the national economy. The development of an enterprise is greatly influenced by the stage of economic development in the country. Economic recovery has a beneficial effect on increasing business activity and enterprise development; recession has a negative effect.

3. Scientific and technological progress significantly influences such a complex system as an enterprise. Discoveries in the field of “high” technologies, electronics, computer technology, and the creation of new materials have made it possible, in almost a matter of decades, to radically change production at enterprises, allowing the production of high-quality products while significantly reducing the costs of material and human resources. The rapid development of scientific and technological progress poses the problem of employment to modern society, but it will be solved through the development of new areas of application of human activity.

4. Information support - must be identified as a separate factor, because The importance of information in recent times in connection with the development of modern communication systems is, without exaggeration, enormous. Modern enterprises are literally permeated by information flows. This factor can relate to both the external environment and the internal environment of the enterprise (forming the information environment of the enterprise). Its further development depends on how effective the internal flows of information in an enterprise are, and how capable it is of receiving and analyzing information from the external environment.

The enterprise is forced to adapt its goals, objectives, structure, technology, and personnel to the factors of indirect impact.

Recognizing the deep and inextricable connection between the factors of direct and indirect impact, their interdependence, it should be noted that in certain periods of the development of society, especially during the period of transformation of socio-economic relations, the determining role often belongs to the factors of indirect impact (political, legal, environmental). Cardinal changes in the economic course and the introduction of capitalist economic relations in society were the result, first of all, of the influence of political factors. The introduction of private property, privatization is both the form and the result of this impact.

Internal factors are factors of the internal environment of an enterprise that affect its functioning and development. Let's list them:

1. Production is a complex process characterized by the equipment, technologies, and personnel qualifications used. The quality of the products and, consequently, their competitiveness depend on how advanced the equipment and technologies used are. Production is the main internal factor determining the economic sustainability of an enterprise.

2. A special role in ensuring the economic sustainability of enterprises is played by the strategic management system. Strategic management allows an enterprise to increase management efficiency, lay the foundations for stable business development and, having provided for possible negative impacts of the external environment, develop countermeasures. Strategy is the determination of the main long-term goals and objectives of the enterprise and the approval of a course of action, and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals.

3. Finance - the attraction of investments, replenishment of working capital, use of profits and the overall development of the enterprise depend on how financial planning occurs at the enterprise.

4 The organizational structure should be considered as a system that allows for the rational use of people, finances, equipment, labor items, and enterprise space.

5. Personnel - is considered as one of the main types of resources, without which the functioning of an enterprise is impossible. The sustainability of the enterprise and its sustainable development directly depend on the qualifications of personnel and motivational incentives.

6. R&D - scientific research and organization of design development have a significant impact on the development of the enterprise, allowing the enterprise to keep up with the times, improving technology, increasing competitiveness.

Rice. 2. Classification of factors for sustainable development of an enterprise

During the research, key factors influencing the sustainable development of the enterprise were identified.

Factors independent of the activities of the enterprise include:

• general economic ones, such as a decrease in national income, rising inflation, a slowdown in payment turnover, instability of the tax system and regulatory legislation, a decrease in the level of real income of the population, and rising unemployment;
• market ones, such as a decrease in the capacity of the domestic market, increased monopoly in the market, a significant decrease in demand, an increase in the supply of substitute goods, a decrease in the activity of the stock market, instability of the foreign exchange market;
• others, such as political instability, negative demographic trends, natural disasters, worsening crime situation.

The ability of an enterprise to overcome crises, win competition, and maintain sustainable development largely depends on the action of an internal group of factors.

Factors that depend on the activities of the enterprise and influence its sustainable development are presented in Figure 2.

Thus, the proposed classification of internal environmental factors influencing the sustainable development of an industrial enterprise allows us to assess the state of the enterprise and identify the causes of unsustainable development for the further selection of strategic management alternatives.

Reviewers:

Bakhteev Yu.D., Doctor of Economics, Professor of the Department of Management, Penza State University, Penza;

Yurasov I.A., Doctor of Social Sciences, Professor, Director of the Center for Applied Research, State Autonomous Educational Institution of Further Professional Education, Institute of Regional Development of the Penza Region, Penza.

Bibliographic link

Zinger O.A., Ilyasova A.V. FACTORS AFFECTING THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES // Modern problems of science and education. – 2015. – No. 1-1.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=18044 (access date: 10/19/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"