The concept of abilities, types and levels of abilities. The concept of abilities High ability for a specific type of activity is called

The concept of ability is used in everyday life to explain cases when different people under the same conditions achieve different successes (especially if these successes differ very much from each other). In this regard, we can immediately point out the phenomenon that people generally very often tend to pass off their “I don’t want” as “I can’t.” This “I don’t want” may hide lack of will, laziness, low motivation and other personal characteristics. And behind this “I can’t” (low abilities) in many cases there is a psychological defense hidden. The blurriness of everyday understanding of the phenomenon of abilities also influenced theoretical psychology.

The word "ability" has a very wide application in a wide variety of areas of practice. Typically, abilities are closely tied to one or another type of activity performed: high abilities - high-quality and effective activity, low abilities - low-quality and ineffective activity.

The phenomenon of ability is usually explained on the basis of one of three concepts:

1) abilities are reduced to all kinds of mental processes and states, resulting from their characteristic features in a given person,

2) abilities are reduced to a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills and abilities (KUN), ensuring the successful performance of various types of activities by a person,

3) abilities are not knowledge, but what ensures their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice.

On the last point, a little clarification needs to be made. Indeed, one can often observe how two specialists with the same level of training, under other equal (similar) circumstances, achieve different successes. Of course, chance plays a big role in life. However, in order to implement their ZUNs in practice, there are also conditions: a person must have an active life position, be strong-willed, purposeful, rational, etc.

B. M. Teplov identified three main features of the concept “ability”:

Individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another (if some quality is not unique, like everyone else, it is not an ability),

Individual psychological characteristics that are related to the success of performing any activity or series of activities,

Abilities can exist without ZUNs.

A classic example: the famous artist V.I. Surikov was unable to enter the Academy of Arts. Although Surikov’s outstanding abilities appeared early, he had not yet developed the necessary skills in drawing. Academic teachers refused to allow Surikov to enter the academy. The inspector of the academy, having looked at the drawings presented by Surikov, said: “For such drawings you should be banned from even walking past the academy!”

Teachers often make mistakes and cannot distinguish the lack of knowledge from the lack of abilities. The opposite mistake is no less common: developed knowledge skills are perceived as developed abilities (although a young person may simply be “trained” by his parents and previous teachers).

However, in modern psychology and pedagogy there is an idea that learning skills and abilities are closely related. Namely: in mastering ZUNs, abilities are not only revealed, but also developed.

As B. M. Teplov believed, abilities can only exist in a constant process of development. Abilities that are not developed are lost over time. Examples of areas of human activity in which abilities are developed:

Technical creativity,

Artistic creativity,

Literature,

Mathematics,

Thesis about the need to develop abilities Maybe also have biological implications. Research shows that genes in humans and animals can be activated or not activated. Environmental conditions and lifestyle influence whether genes will be activated or not. This is another adaptation mechanism invented by nature for living beings.

The success of an activity usually depends not on any one ability, but on a combination of different abilities. Typically, different combinations of abilities can give similar results. In the absence of the necessary inclinations, their deficit can be compensated for by the higher development of other inclinations and abilities.

B. M. Teplov argued that “One of the most important features of the human psyche is the possibility of extremely broad compensation of some properties by others, as a result of which the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing even such activities that are most closely related to this ability "The missing ability can be compensated within very wide limits by others that are highly developed in a given person."

The proximity of abilities to each other, the ability to replace them, allows us to classify abilities. However, the heterogeneity of the problem of abilities has led to the fact that the classifications differ significantly from each other.

First basis of classification

One of the basis for classification is the degree of naturalness of abilities:

Natural (natural) abilities (that is, biologically determined),

Specific human abilities (having socio-historical origin.

Natural elementary abilities are:

Perception,

Basics of communication.

The makings of a person and the makings of an animal are not the same thing. A person's abilities are formed on the basis of his inclinations. The formation of ability occurs in the presence of elementary life experience, through learning mechanisms, etc.

Specifically human abilities:

Special abilities,

Higher intellectual abilities.

General abilities are characteristic of most people and determine a person’s success in various activities:

thinking abilities,

Subtlety and precision of manual movements,

Speech, etc.

Special abilities determine a person’s success in specific types of activities, the implementation of which requires inclinations of a special kind and their development:

musical abilities,

Mathematical abilities

Linguistic abilities

Technical abilities

Literary abilities

Artistic and creative abilities,

Sports ability, etc.

Intellectual abilities can be divided into:

Theoretical abilities,

Practical abilities

learning abilities,

Creative skills,

Subject abilities,

Interpersonal abilities.

These types of abilities are closely related to each other and intertwined. The presence of, say, general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special abilities, and vice versa. General, special and higher intellectual abilities do not conflict, but coexist, complement and enrich each other. In some cases, a high level of development of general abilities can act as special abilities in relation to certain types of activities.

Practical orientation

Another basis for classifying abilities is the degree of their practical orientation:

Theoretical abilities,

Practical abilities.

Theoretical abilities ensure the quality and effectiveness of abstract theoretical reflections, practical abilities ensure specific substantive actions. The development of one or another type of ability here is closely related to a person’s inclinations: what he likes, to theorize or act. Therefore, it can often be observed that some people have well-developed only theoretical abilities (various), while others have only practical ones.

All people are different, it’s hard not to notice. But they differ not only in appearance or character traits, but also in their abilities. And we all, to be honest, no, no, let’s sigh enviously - well, there are capable and talented people, and why don’t we have such talents? Abilities are one of the significant, valuable qualities, because success, fame, and material well-being are associated with them. What is this, maybe a gift from God, and someone has it, but someone is deprived? Let's figure out whether it's worth complaining and envying or whether it's better to gain these abilities and be proud of yourself.

We often use the word “ability” without delving into its essence. For example, the expressions “capable person” or “capable child” are not entirely correct. You cannot be capable in general; ability is always associated with a specific type of activity, in which it manifests itself and develops.

In psychology, ability is understood as a set of human qualities that provide him with the opportunity to engage in a certain activity and achieve success in it. That is, if we say that this child is capable, then we need to clarify why. You might be good at math, art, long-distance running, or surgery. There are, however, general abilities needed in different types of activities, but we will talk about them a little later.

It is safe to say that there are no incapable people, especially children. Without aptitude for mathematics, a person can achieve success in management or design, cooking or sports. And problems with spelling at school are not a reason to call a student incapable. Maybe he has the gift of a great artist?

Origin of abilities and their structure

The debate about the nature of abilities lasted for hundreds of years. Some scientists believed that a person is born like a blank sheet of paper, on which you can write anything. If you choose the right method of education, then, if desired, you can raise a child into a great artist, a brilliant mathematician or an outstanding political figure.

Other scientists disagreed with them, arguing that abilities are a gift from God, and education can only get in the way. And if you don’t have an ear for music, then you will never become a great composer. And in general, you won’t become any kind of composer.

As often happens, the truth lies in the middle between these two extreme points of view.

Inclinations are the natural basis of abilities

Abilities have a complex structure. Among the qualities and properties of a person, which are united by the concept of “ability,” there are natural ones (congenital or hereditary). This natural basis of abilities is called inclinations. These include primarily psychophysiological and anatomical-physiological features.

• For example, the type of higher nervous activity or temperament - in a number of professions people with a sanguine temperament are more successful, and in others - phlegmatic or choleric people. And the sensitivity of a melancholic person can make him a great artist or poet.
• The inclinations also include innate features of the sensory system. For example, a person with a high sensitivity to color discrimination can become a good colorist, and a person with an ear for music can become a musician.
• In order to become a long-distance runner, you need a large lung capacity and endurance, and to play basketball, you need to be tall.

But the key word “can” determines the role of inclinations in a person’s life. Inclinations do not predetermine a person’s life path and may not develop into abilities, but remain “ballast”. On the other hand, the ability to perform certain activities can be developed even with weak natural prerequisites, if there is a desire. It will just take more effort and time, and not everyone needs it. For example, it has now been proven that with due persistence, anyone can learn to draw.

Inclinations are prerequisites, a kind of potential that still needs to be developed to the level of ability. And in this development, the main role is played by the social factor - the environment in which the personality is formed, the social environment, incentives and motives.

Social factor

Along with inclinations, abilities include a set of skills, abilities and knowledge related to a specific activity. And only if they are present will the makings work. The formation of abilities includes a number of processes that are in one way or another related to the interaction of society and people.

• Development of potential, which is only possible through activity. That is, to become a musician, you need to learn to play at least one musical instrument. To become a writer, you must not only be able to write, but also know the laws of style, composition, etc. But most importantly, you must engage in the activity for which you want to develop abilities. They just won’t fall like manna from heaven.
• Any ability is a complex and, in addition to inclinations, includes many personal qualities. Thus, for abilities in the field of artistic creativity, the development of imaginative thinking, imagination, and intuition is important, and for success in the exact sciences, abstract-logical is required.
• Mastering an activity is a prerequisite for developing abilities. This involves training in techniques, methods, and techniques of activity. If a person with good abilities as a swimmer does not learn to swim, then these abilities will never manifest themselves.

Thus, abilities are the result of the development of all spheres of personality. Moreover, it is possible to develop abilities and transform potential inclinations into real mastery at any age. Although it is best, of course, to begin the development process in childhood, when the psyche is more flexible, and perception is lively and vivid, and any activity is mastered in a playful form.

Proper upbringing and sensitivity to the needs and interests of a child are a guarantee that he will grow up to be a capable person. And you need to pay close attention to the kids. The fact is that there is one interesting mental phenomenon that can suggest the presence of inclinations and the possibility of developing abilities for a certain type of activity. These are inclinations.

What are tendencies

We approach different types of activities differently - we categorically do not like something, we would like to do something, but there is not enough time, and we always find time for some activities even at the expense of our own rest or household chores.

• There are types of activities that a person has a penchant for, that is, a literally irresistible desire to engage in them. He strives for this, overcoming obstacles, making a lot of effort to master the activity he likes, enjoying the process itself. Psychologists believe that aptitudes are an indicator of a person’s potential abilities for an activity he or she likes. And if there are no inclinations, and the activities do not bring pleasure, and the result is uninteresting, then most likely it will not be possible to develop abilities.
• True, along with true inclinations there are also imaginary ones. They most often appear under the influence of a feeling of envy, when a person likes the result of the work of others so much that he also wants to learn the same thing, for example, to draw, or achieve success in sports, publish his own book, etc.

Imaginary inclinations can arise as a result of imitation. In childhood, it often happens that a child goes to a sports section or art school after his friend, without experiencing any interest in the activity itself. Or girls often want to become singers, imitating their favorite actress.

It is not difficult to distinguish imaginary inclinations from true ones. Mastering the activity in this case is not enjoyable, and the very first failures lead to loss of interest.

Types of abilities

In psychology, there are two main types of abilities: special and general.

• Special abilities are associated with specific activities. They manifest themselves in it and develop in it. If you have never picked up a pencil or brush and tried to draw anything, then you will never know if you have the ability to draw. More precisely, a predisposition to develop these abilities. Each special ability is a complex set of innate inclinations, qualities, and personality traits. While they play an important role in a given activity, they may have no significance for the development of another. For example, an ear for music will not help you learn to draw.
• General abilities matter in many areas of activity. These primarily include cognitive abilities: development of attention, memory, imagination, intelligence. Among general abilities, the volitional sphere plays a significant role - qualities such as perseverance, determination, perseverance, and independence.

A high level of development of general abilities is called giftedness. A gifted person can master different types of activities, even without pronounced inclinations, but relying on a high level of intelligence, using figurative or abstract logical thinking and showing persistence.

And talent is a combination of giftedness and a certain special ability. If, with a high level of talent, there are many special abilities for various types of activities, then the person who possesses them is called a genius.

General abilities also include those that are required not in all types of activities, but in many, for example, organizational skills, communication, pedagogical.

But creative abilities, which have been talked about a lot lately, are not a special type of ability. In fact, there are no such abilities. And that's why.

Levels of ability development

Abilities are the result of a complex and dynamic process of formation under the influence of a number of factors. And in their development, abilities pass through two levels or two steps.

1. The first level is reproductive (reproducing). On it, abilities are manifested within the framework of reproducing activities, that is, learning techniques, techniques, or when performing tasks according to a model. After going through the learning process, a person can remain at the reproductive level of his abilities, become a professional and even a master of his craft. But he will be distinguished by standard, stereotyped activities. He will masterfully, masterfully reproduce things, music or thoughts according to a given model, drawing, project, notes, etc. And most people remain at this level in developing their abilities. And only a few go further, rise to the next level.
2. The second level is creative. Those who deviate from generally accepted standards in their development find themselves there. They are not interested in performing a task according to someone else’s model, and they come up with something of their own: they change the methods of performing activities, introduce innovations in technology, create new things, discover new laws. This level of development of abilities presupposes that a person has a special type, unconventional, non-standard. Creative individuals are characterized by the activity of imaginative thinking, imagination and intuition. That is, the creative level is associated not only with special, but also with general abilities.

Consequently, abilities for any activity can become creative if a person desires to develop and has creative thinking, which, by the way, can also be formed.

The sphere of abilities is the area in which each person can show his individuality, show himself as a unique, inimitable person. You should not envy those who seem more capable and gifted to you. Better look around, and you will definitely discover an area where you can apply your own abilities, an area where you will achieve success, fame, and recognition. And such an area will definitely be found, because there are no incapable people.

Types of abilities are classified according to various criteria: sources of their origin, focus on activity, level of development, availability of conditions for development, level of development.

By origin criterion distinguish between natural and social abilities.

Natural abilities are biologically determined, formed on the basis of the innate special properties of the mental cognitive processes of perception, memory, thinking, etc. Thus, an individual with high taste sensitivity can perfectly perform the duties of a taster.

Social abilities are largely determined by the system of training and education and are manifested in specific types of activities. It is believed, for example, that abilities develop more intensively if the educational process is directed towards an independent search for the necessary information, towards humanization, “humanizing” the school process through increasing the proportion of artistic subjects, strengthening collective forms of communication, and the formation of value orientations. And vice versa, the imperative, “violent” teaching system, the desire to “saturate” students with knowledge by any means by increasing the volume of educational information “masks” abilities. The English historian of the 17th century warned against such chronic ills of education. G. Boyle, saying that true knowledge does not consist in acquaintance with facts, which make a person only a pedant, but in their use, which makes him a philosopher. It is useful to recall in this regard the classic of Belarusian literature Y. Kolas, who pointed out that only knowledge becomes our mature property when we come to it and obtain it on our own.

By focus on activity distinguish between general and special, theoretical, practical, educational, creative and communicative abilities.

Are common abilities serve the most important requirements of many activities and successful communication with people (for example, precision of movements, quality of speech, high intelligence are necessary in many activities).

Special abilities provide the requirements of certain types of activities due to special personality qualities related, for example, to music, mathematics, sports. Thus, a “pure” tenor provides its owner with the opportunity to work as a soloist in a choir and hold the main melody in polyphony. Similar examples can be given for the areas of pedagogical and organizational activities.

However, there are objections to dividing abilities by type of activity into general and special. The fact is that the same abilities can serve different types of activities. If, for example, an individual from birth has good memory and observation, then he may be able to engage in those types of activities that require the prompt storage of large volumes of initial information (economic and political analysts, mathematicians, professional intelligence officers).

In this regard, opponents (for example, B. M. Teplov) propose to take into account general and special aspects of abilities. The “general” is always built on the “special” (special) and cannot exist without it. Otherwise, the general turns into an amorphous and abstract “nothing” devoid of content. If we exclude the “general” from the “special”, then the content of the “special” is narrowed, so that it makes no sense to talk about abilities (“he washes the plates well after dinner” - it is unlikely that anyone will link this quality with ability).

The same considerations are expressed by opponents regarding other types of activity-oriented abilities.

Theoretical and practical abilities ensure the success of an individual’s activities either in the field of abstract logical thinking or in the field of concrete practical activities. In the first case, the individual manifests himself, for example, as a specialist in the field of theoretical physics, in the second - as an experimental physicist.

Educational and creative abilities indicate that an individual has qualities that provide him with either a high ability to assimilate existing knowledge in the world, or the creation of new original knowledge.

Communication abilities ensure successful interaction of a person with people through communication processes. High communication skills open the way for an individual, for example, in the field of diplomacy, personnel management, where the success of activities is largely determined by the strategy of interaction with interlocutors.

According to the availability of conditions for development The following types of abilities are distinguished:

• potential - abilities “delayed” in time, the manifestation of which requires appropriate conditions (for example, in the world there are many “Lomonosovs” and “Tsiolkovskys” who remained unknown to them due to various kinds of circumstances that did not allow them to fully demonstrate their gift);
• relevant, the need for which is manifested “now and here”, in a specific environment and activity.

Types of abilities by level of development are divided into giftedness, talent and genius.

Giftedness- this is a set of various abilities of an individual that provide the potential opportunity to work successfully in a certain field, subject to good knowledge, skills and abilities. Even the presence of practical thinking, communication skills, and orientation towards success does not guarantee a person to become a high-ranking leader with insufficient professional training in the chosen field and insignificant social experience. Speaking about a gifted person, they usually attribute to her such characteristics as innovation, curiosity, imagination, relaxed thinking, intuition, and self-confidence.

The concept of “gifted” is most often applied to children, adolescents, and young men. The “gift” part in this concept implies the hereditary nature of giftedness, but this point can only claim the status of a hypothesis. Otherwise, all children of gifted people would be gifted, which has not yet been recorded in history. For example, none of the descendants of Nobel laureates repeated the scientific achievements of their famous relatives.

Talent- a person’s talent, realized in the form of high or original achievements in a certain field of activity through a set of special abilities. This is the ability to do something that no one has ever taught a person. In contrast to giftedness, the concept of talent refers to established professionals who have gained fame for their specific activities (in the field of mathematics, music, military affairs, technology, etc.). Ivan Pavlov said that while studying at the theological seminary, talent was sought not among straight-A students, but among those who stood out sharply in terms of academic performance in one or two subjects, which indicated a creative personality and great interest in this field.

Genius(Latin genius - spirit) - the highest level of ability, when talent is expressed in results that have epochal, historical significance. These results are achieved through general and specialist abilities in a range of areas. For example, M. Lomonosov showed extraordinary abilities in the natural sciences, art and literature.

It is difficult to draw a clear line between talent and genius. But it is believed that genius requires extremely developed personality qualities, such as a penchant for self-improvement, determination, patience and even self-sacrifice. After all, a genius is focused on the future, on the future, he “shoots at a target that no one can yet see.” In momentary life, as A. Schopenhauer put it, it is of no more use than a telescope in the theater.

Comparing the concepts of talent and genius, we can say that talent is destined to work, and genius is destined to create. A person has talent, and genius owns a person.

English abilities, aptitudes, capabilities) - individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another, determining the success of an activity or a series of activities, not reducible to knowledge, abilities and skills, but determining the ease and speed of learning new ways and techniques of activity (B. M. Teploye). S. can also be defined as the properties of psychological functional systems that implement individual mental functions that have an individual degree of expression and are manifested in the success and originality of the assimilation and implementation of a particular activity. (V.D. Shadrikov.)

Teplov separated S. and the inclinations of S. - the innate, physiological characteristics of a person that serve as the basis for the development of S. However, data from modern psychogenetic studies indicate that S., measured by tests, have a greater coefficient of hereditary determination than their supposed psychophysiological inclinations - properties of n . With.

There are 2 options for classification C: 1) according to the types of mental functional systems (sensorimotor, perceptual, attentional, mnemonic, imaginative, mental, communicative); 2) by main types of activity (mathematical, musical, scientific, literary, artistic). In addition, a distinction is made between general and special S. General S. are characterized, firstly, by the fact that, in the case of normal development, they are present in the majority of people of a given age category; secondly, by the fact that they are “involved” in a wide range of activities. These include general intelligence, creativity (the general ability to create), and, less commonly, learning ability. Special skills are not widespread; their formation requires special training and often special talent (see Ability Tests, Special Abilities Tests).

The basic concepts of S. are directly related to the methods of their diagnosis. Factor-analytical concepts of general assessments are based on statistical processing of the results of mass testing of students and representatives of various professions. To date, the vast majority of empirical studies have identified common Cs, the level of development of which determines the success of a wide range of activities. The theory of the intellectual threshold (Perkins, Theremin) has gained popularity, according to which a certain level of intelligence is required to successfully master each activity; further success in work is determined not by intelligence, but by other individual psychological characteristics.

The results of psychogenetic studies indicate a high level of heritability of general intelligence and some special skills (in particular, mathematical ones). Meanwhile, creativity probably depends to a greater extent on the influence of the social microenvironment. There are theories based on the environmental approach to the development of S. (the theory of the “intellectual climate” of the family of O. Zajonc). A high level of development of general or special skills is characterized as general or special giftedness (see General giftedness).

Longitudinal studies (California Longitud, etc.) have shown that, based on early diagnosis of general mental S. m. a probabilistic forecast of the success of an individual’s social and professional career is given. In modern psychology, S. can be identified as follows. subject areas: 1) psychogenetics S., 2) psychophysiology S., 3) general psychology S., 4) differential psychology S. and psychodiagnostics S., 5) S. and activity, development S., 6) social psychology S., 7) “everyday psychology" S. ("implicit theories", folk psychology). The study of S. and the development of methods for their diagnosis and development are of utmost importance for the individualization of education and upbringing of children, vocational guidance and professional selection, forecasting and psychological support for personality development. (V.N. Druzhinin.)

ABILITY

are defined as such individual psychological characteristics of the subject, which express his readiness to master certain types of activities and their successful implementation, are a condition for their successful implementation. They mean a high level of integration and generalization of mental processes, properties, relationships, actions and their systems that meet the requirements of activity. They include both individual knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as readiness to learn new ways and techniques of activity.

Different criteria are used to classify abilities. Thus, we can distinguish sensorimotor, perceptual, mnemonic, imaginative, mental and communicative abilities. Another criterion may be a certain subject area, according to which abilities can be qualified as scientific (mathematical, linguistic, humanitarian), creative (musical, literary, artistic) and engineering.

Speaking about individual psychological characteristics, we distinguish abilities that are of a psychological nature and vary individually. By emphasizing the connection between abilities and the successful implementation of activities, the range of individually variable features is limited only to those that provide an effective result of the activity. So, the number of abilities does not include the properties of temperament and character. And the word readiness once again limits the range of properties discussed, leaving skills, abilities and knowledge outside of it.

Ability is revealed in the process of mastering an activity in the extent to which an individual, other things being equal, quickly and thoroughly, easily and firmly masters the methods of its organization and implementation. They are closely related to the general orientation of the individual, to the degree of stability of a person’s inclinations for a certain activity. The same achievements in performing an activity may be based on different abilities; at the same time, one ability can be a condition for the success of different types of activities. This provides opportunities for broad compensation of abilities.

One of the important points in the process of training and education is the question of sensitive periods, conducive to the development of certain abilities (-> age-related sensitivity). It is assumed that the formation of abilities occurs on the basis of inclinations. Qualitative analysis of abilities is aimed at identifying individual characteristics necessary for the effective performance of a particular type of activity. Quantitative measurements of abilities characterize the degree of their expression. The most common form of assessing the degree of expression of abilities is tests (-> achievement test; intelligence test; creativity test).

The study of specific psychological characteristics of various abilities allows us to highlight:

1) general qualities of an individual that meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activity (-> intelligence);

2) special qualities that meet the narrower requirements of a given activity (-> special ability).

The level and degree of development of abilities express the concepts of talent and genius.

When determining the structure of abilities as personality properties, it is always necessary to take into account genetic mechanisms and especially those properties of nervous processes that directly affect the dynamics of the development of mental processes and their properties. But it must be taken into account that abilities do not act in isolation from the development of all other systems that are included in the personality as components.

In the structure of abilities, the individual’s creative attitude to the activity performed, psychological readiness to learn and work, awareness of one’s abilities, criticality and independence in assessing them are very important.

The psychological capabilities that distinguish a particular person from others are based on individual characteristics: constitutional characteristics, neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of asymmetry of the interhemispheric brain, etc. It is this uniqueness of individual characteristics that acts as natural inclinations, but does not yet determine the development of abilities as individual psychological capabilities . The success of an activity depends on the interaction of three components: knowledge, skills and motivation. But knowledge and skills can be acquired through hard work in the absence of abilities in this area, so they cannot yet be called abilities. The essence of abilities is the qualities of mental processes that underlie the acquisition of knowledge and skills.

The structure of a specific ability is a set of mental qualities necessary for the successful performance of the corresponding activity. A personality as a bearer of certain qualities has the potential to develop abilities. These potentials turn into real abilities when, under the influence of the requirements of activity, they begin to form an interacting system of qualities, thanks to which the success of activity is achieved. Abilities are very dynamic, mobile; the interaction of different mental qualities when performing various types of activities can identify and form new abilities for a given individual.

The abilities of different people for the same activity may have a different structure due to the individual uniqueness of mental qualities and their combinations.

Often a person is forced to engage in certain activities without having the ability to do it. At the same time, he will consciously or unconsciously compensate for the lack of abilities, relying on the strengths of his personality. Compensation can be realized through acquired knowledge and skills, or through the formation of a typical style of activity, or through another, more developed ability.

How ability indicators can be considered:

1) rate of progress in mastering the activity;

2) the breadth of transfer of emerging mental qualities;

3) the ratio of neuropsychic costs and the final result of the activity.

Ability

Qualities or skills that allow a person to engage in a particular activity. For example, we may have athletic, intellectual, mathematical abilities, and so on.

Capabilities

Specificity. They include both individual knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as readiness to learn new ways and techniques of activity. Different criteria are used to classify abilities. Thus, sensorimotor, perceptual, mnemonic, imaginative, mental, and communicative abilities can be distinguished.

Another criterion may be one or another subject area, according to which abilities can be qualified as scientific (mathematical, linguistic, humanitarian); creative (musical, literary, artistic); engineering.

ABILITY

Qualities, opportunity, skill, experience, skill, talent, etc., which allow you to perform certain actions at a given time. The point is that a person must complete the task now, no further exercises are needed. Thus, a distinction is made between ability and suitability. Ability is an individual’s readiness to perform an action; suitability is the existing potential to perform any activity or the ability to achieve a certain level of development of ability. An example of aptitude tests are intelligence tests.

Capabilities

the property of a psychological functional system to ensure the achievement of activity goals. The main criteria of abilities that distinguish them from other psychological formations are the success of the activity, the speed and ease of mastering it. General abilities include intelligence, learning ability, and creativity.

CAPABILITIES

individual psychological characteristics that determine the success of an activity or a series of activities, which are not reducible to knowledge and skills and determine the speed and ease of their acquisition.

CAPABILITIES

1. Mental properties of an individual that regulate his behavior and serve as a condition for his life. Potentially, S. are represented by the organization of morphological structures adapted to perform certain tasks. activities. The most common human S. is sensitivity. 2. In a special sense, S. is understood as a complex of mental properties of a person that makes him suitable for a certain historically established type of professional activity. The formation of socialism presupposes the individual’s assimilation of methods of activity developed by humanity in the process of socio-historical development. That is, a person’s personality traits are determined not only by the activity of his brain, the inherited anatomical and physiological characteristics of the individual, inclinations, abilities, and skills, but, above all, by the degree of historical development achieved by humanity. For conflictology, S. are important not so much in themselves, but in their correspondence to the level of a person’s aspirations and the adequacy of their representation in a person’s self-concept. A person’s behavior is directly influenced by his ability to understand the interests of his opponent, the often hidden essence of the conflict, its delayed negative consequences, to sacrifice something for the sake of another person or the interests of the cause, etc.

Ability

1. natural talent. It is assumed that giftedness cannot be acquired even through skillful training. In testing, giftedness is considered to be a JQ indicator that invariably, that is, in regular testing over many years, exceeds 120%; 2. the ability to do something (as opposed to readiness, which represents the potential, the ability to do it); 3. in cognitive science - the amount of information that a given system can process;

Capabilities

Abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure success in activity, communication and ease of mastering them. Abilities cannot be reduced to the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person has, but abilities ensure their rapid acquisition, fixation and effective practical application. Abilities can be classified into: 1. natural (or natural) abilities, basically biologically determined, associated with innate inclinations, formed on their basis, in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections); 2. specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin and ensure life and development in the social environment. Specific human abilities are in turn divided into: a. general ones, which determine a person’s success in a wide variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements, etc.), and special ones, which determine a person’s success in certain types of activity and communication, where special types of inclinations and their development (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative abilities, sports, etc.); b. theoretical, which determine a person’s inclination to abstract logical thinking, and practical, which underlie the inclination to concrete practical actions. The combination of these abilities is characteristic only of multi-talented people; c. educational, which influence the success of pedagogical influence, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of personal qualities, and creative, associated with success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions. The highest degree of creative manifestations of a personality is called genius, and the highest degree of a person’s abilities in a certain activity (communication) is called talent; d. abilities to communicate, interact with people and subject-related abilities related to the interaction of people with nature, technology, sign information, artistic images, etc. A person who is capable of many and different types of activities and communication has a general talent, i.e. the unity of general abilities that determine the range of his intellectual capabilities, the level and originality of activity and communication. Makings are some genetic determined (innate) anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system, which constitute the individual natural basis (prerequisite) for the formation and development of abilities. Individual (individual psychological) differences are features of mental phenomena (processes, states and properties) that distinguish people from each other. Individual differences, the natural prerequisite for which are the characteristics of the nervous system and brain, are created and developed in the course of life, in activity and communication, under the influence of upbringing and training, in the process of human interaction with the outside world in the broadest sense of the word. Individual differences are the subject of study in differential psychology. Abilities are not static, but dynamic formations; their formation and development occurs in the process of a certain way of organized activity and communication. The development of abilities occurs in stages. An important point in the development of children's abilities is complexity - the simultaneous improvement of several complementary abilities. The following levels of abilities are distinguished: reproductive, which ensures a high ability to assimilate ready-made knowledge, master existing patterns of activity and communication, and creative, which ensures the creation of new, original ones. But it should be borne in mind that the reproductive level includes elements of the creative, and vice versa.

Capabilities- these are the properties, or qualities, of a person that make him suitable for the successful performance of a certain activity.

The concept of “ability” includes three main features:

Firstly, Abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. These are features of sensations and perception, memory, thinking, imagination, emotions and will, relationships and motor reactions, etc.

Secondly, Abilities do not refer to individual characteristics in general, but only to those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities.

Third, Abilities mean such individual characteristics that cannot be reduced to a person’s existing skills, abilities or knowledge, but which can explain the ease and speed of acquiring this knowledge and skills.

Capabilities- these are such individual psychological characteristics of a person that meet the requirements of this activity and are a condition for its successful implementation.

A person is not born with the ability to perform one activity or another. Can only be congenital makings, constituting the natural basis for the development of abilities.

Makings of- these are the structural features of the brain and nervous system, sensory organs and movements, functional characteristics of the body, given to everyone from birth.

The makings include some innate features of the visual and auditory analyzers, typological properties of the nervous system, on which the speed of formation of temporary nerve connections, their strength, the power of concentrated attention, the endurance of the nervous system, and mental performance depend. The level of development and correlation of the first and second signaling systems should also be considered as inclinations. I.P. Pavlov distinguished three specifically human types of higher nervous activity: artistic type with relative predominance of the first signaling system, thinking type with relative predominance of the second signaling system, third type - with relative balance of signaling systems. People of the artistic type are characterized by the brightness of immediate impressions, imagery of perception and memory, richness and vividness of imagination, and emotionality. People of the thinking type are prone to analysis and systematization, to generalized, abstract thinking.

Individual characteristics of the structure of individual areas of the cerebral cortex may also be the inclinations. But inclinations are only prerequisites for the development of abilities; they are one, albeit very important, of the conditions for the development and formation of abilities. If a person, even with the best inclinations, does not engage in appropriate activities, his abilities will not develop.

The inclinations are multi-valued and can be realized in different types of abilities; on their basis, different abilities can be developed depending on how a person’s life goes, what he learns, and what he has an inclination towards. Inclinations can, to a greater or lesser extent, determine the uniqueness of a person’s development, the style of his intellectual or other activities.

It is impossible to indicate in advance the exact boundaries in the development of certain abilities, to determine the “ceiling”, the limit of their development. This is due to the fact that any activity requires not one, but several abilities for its implementation, and they can, to a certain extent, compensate and replace each other.

There are two levels of development of abilities: reproductive and creative. A person who is at the first level of development of abilities reveals a high ability to master a skill, assimilate knowledge, master an activity and carry it out according to the proposed model, in accordance with the proposed idea. At the second level of development of abilities, a person creates something new and original.

In the process of mastering knowledge and skills, in the process of activity, a person “moves” from one level to another. The structure of his abilities changes accordingly.

Scientists have established that it is not individual abilities as such that directly determine the possibility of successfully performing any activity, but only that peculiar combination of these abilities that characterizes a given person.

A peculiar combination of abilities that provides a person with the opportunity to successfully perform any activity is called giftedness.

A high level of development of abilities is called talent.

Genius- this is the highest degree of manifestation of human creative powers. This is the creation of qualitatively new creations, opening a new era in the development of culture, science, and practice. So, A.S. Pushkin created works, with the appearance of which a new era begins in the development of Russian literature and the Russian literary language.

General and special abilities. Distinguish between abilities are common, which appear everywhere or in many areas of knowledge and activity, and special, which manifest themselves in one particular area.

Quite a high level of development general abilities - features of thinking, attention, memory, perception, speech, mental activity, curiosity, creative imagination, etc. - allows you to achieve significant results in a variety of areas of human activity with intensive, interested work.

Special abilities are abilities for a certain activity that help a person achieve high results in it. General and special abilities are inextricably linked with each other. Special abilities are classified in accordance with various areas of human activity: literary abilities, mathematical, structural and technical, musical, artistic, linguistic, stage, pedagogical, sports, abilities for theoretical and practical activities, spiritual abilities, etc.

The development of each person's special abilities is an expression of his individual development path.

Different special abilities are characterized by different times for their identification. Talents in the arts, and above all in music, manifest themselves earlier than others. It has been established that at the age of up to 5 years, the development of musical abilities occurs most favorably, since it is at this time that the child’s ear for music and musical memory are formed.

Technical abilities are usually revealed later than abilities in the arts. This is explained by the fact that technical activity and technical invention require a very high development of higher mental functions, primarily thinking, which is formed at a later age - adolescence.

In the field of scientific creativity, abilities are revealed much later than in other areas of activity, usually after 20 years. At the same time, mathematical abilities are revealed earlier than others.

15. Social and psychological characteristics of a small group

G. M. Andreeva defines a small group as a small group whose members are united by common activities and are in direct personal contact, which is the basis for the emergence of group norms, processes and interpersonal relationships.

A.I. Dontsov, developing this definition, identifies 8 signs, characterizing interaction of people in a small group:

1. Regular and long-term contact face to face, without intermediaries;

2. They have a common goal, the implementation of which allows them to satisfy their significant needs and interests;

3. Participate in the general system of distribution of functions and roles in intragroup interaction;

4. Share general norms and rules of interaction within the group and intergroup situations;

5. Satisfied with membership in the group and therefore feel a sense of solidarity and gratitude to the group;

6. Have a clear and differentiated understanding of each other;

7. Connected by stable emotional relationships;

8. Present themselves as members of the same group and are perceived similarly by others

The following types of small groups are distinguished:

b) by the nature of the structure:

¾ formal(official) - these are groups in which all positions of the group members are clearly and officially defined; they are created on the basis of a charter, an order; the group is dominated by business relationships; a manager has been officially appointed to organize the activities,

¾ informal(informal) - a group arises spontaneously on the basis of a single direction of psychological motivation (interests, needs, inclinations), sympathies; personal relationships prevail; the structure develops spontaneously; The activity is organized by a person with certain qualities - a leader.

In an official group there can also be informal groups and, as a rule, there is a leader in addition to the leader.

V) by the nature of the individual’s attitude to the norms and values ​​of the group:

¾ membership groups(the person actually enters it),

¾ reference groups(a group whose norms and values ​​coincide with the norms and values ​​of the individual, a person may not actually belong to it, but strives to get into it; the reference group for each individual is determined using referentometry);

G) according to the degree of closeness of relations between group members:

¾ primary(family, close friends),

¾ secondary(educational, industrial contacts);

d) depending on the rights granted to participants by the group:

¾ parity(all group members have equal rights),

¾ non-parity(there is a certain hierarchy of rights and responsibilities);

e) by the nature of the goals of joint activity:

¾ diffuse(conglomerate) – a random gathering of people (on the street, excursion),

¾ cooperation- a group united by a common goal of joint activity that does not go beyond the scope of this group and does not coincide with the goals of society, i.e. working for oneself (for example, private enterprises),

¾ corporation– characterized by the presence of strict discipline, clear organization, a single common goal that does not coincide with the goals of society and conflicts with the criminal code,

¾ team– a group with socially significant goals, where interpersonal interactions are mediated by socially valuable and personally significant content; This is the highest stage of development of an organized community of people.

A.V. Petrovsky identified three criteria for assessing the group as a collective:

1. The team’s performance of the main social function (successful participation in the social division of labor).

2. Group compliance with social norms.

3. The ability of the group to provide each of its members with opportunities for full harmonious development.