A series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between Kievan Rus and the Polovtsian tribes. It was another clash of interests between the ancient Russian state and the nomads of the Black Sea steppes. Another side of this war was the strengthening of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, whose rulers often made the Polovtsians their allies.

As a rule, three stages of military operations are distinguished: the initial (second half of the 11th century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military figure Vladimir Monomakh (the first quarter of the 12th century), and the final period (until the middle of the 13th century) (it was part of the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”).

The situation in Rus' and in the steppes of the northern Black Sea region at the beginning of the clashes

By the middle of the 11th century. A number of important changes have occurred in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torques, who ruled the “Wild Steppe” for a century, weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, were unable to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by newcomers from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsians, also called Cumans. The new owners of the steppes defeated their enemies and occupied their nomadic camps. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of their proximity to neighboring countries. Long years of clashes between the Eastern Slavs and the steppe nomads developed a certain model of relations into which the Polovtsy were forced to fit into.

Meanwhile, the process of disintegration began in Rus' - the princes began to wage an active and ruthless struggle for inheritance and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Rus'.

Balance of forces and military organization of the parties

Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but their military organization was considered by contemporaries to be quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe inhabitants, was light cavalry units armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lassos and spears. Rich warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (since the second half of the 12th century) that the Polovtsians used heavy crossbows and “liquid fire,” borrowed, perhaps, from China from the time they lived in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire). The Polovtsians used the tactics of surprise attacks. They acted mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In field battles, the Polovtsian khans competently divided their forces, using flying detachments in the vanguard to start the battle, which were then reinforced by an attack from the main forces. Thus, in the person of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. It was not for nothing that the longtime enemy of Rus', the Pechenegs, were completely defeated by Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.

Nevertheless, Rus' had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century already amounted to over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The successes of the Polovtsians were due, first of all, to disunity and contradictions in the camp of their opponents.

The structure of the Old Russian army in the era of fragmentation changed significantly compared to the earlier period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. Russian military art was at a fairly high level.

First period of wars (second half of the 11th century)

Immediately after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), the Polovtsians invaded the Pereyaslavl principality, but made peace with Vsevolod Yaroslavich. In 1059, Vsevolod, and in 1060, all three senior Yaroslavichs, in alliance with Vseslav of Polotsk, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Torks in the steppes. The first clash between Russians and Cumans dates back to 1061. The Principality of Pereyaslavl became a victim of the nomads. From then on, the nomads began to make frequent raids within the borders of Rus'.

One of the largest Polovtsian invasions of Rus' occurred in 1068. The forces of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who together owned all of Russia at that time, acted against the Polovtsians. However, this army suffered a crushing defeat on the Alta River. Izyaslav Yaroslavich refused to give the Kievans horses and weapons from his arsenal a second time in order to fight the Polovtsians, and on the left side of the Dnieper, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich on November 1, with 3,000 soldiers, was able to stop the advance of 12,000 Polovtsians in the battle on the Snova River, and the Novgorod first chronicle reports the capture Sharukana is captured. An uprising occurred in Kyiv, forcing Izyaslav to flee to Poland.

For the first time, the Polovtsians were used in Russian civil strife not against the central government, but by the central government:

After the death of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich during the reign of Kiev in 1076, Izyaslav Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv, and Chernigov was retained by Vsevolod Yaroslavich. The Svyatoslavichs Roman and Oleg, in alliance with the Polovtsians, began to fight for the former possessions of their father, which led to the death of Izyaslav Yaroslavich and Oleg’s ally Boris Vyacheslavich in the Battle of Nezhatinnaya Niva in 1078. In 1079, Roman Svyatoslavich was also killed by the Polovtsians.

In 1078, Vsevolod Yaroslavich became prince in Kyiv and left his son Vladimir as governor in Chernigov. A new powerful attack on the Russian lands, led by the khans Bonyak and Tugorkan, was timed to coincide with the illness of Vsevolod of Kyiv in 1092. The following year, Vsevolod died, and Tugorkan besieged the city of Torchesk. The united Kiev-Chernigov-Pereyaslavl army, headed by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir and Rostislav Vsevolodovich, respectively, came to the aid of the defenders, as 25 years before, but in the battle on the Stugna River it was defeated, and Rostislav died during the retreat in stormy from the rains in the waters of the river. Torchesk fell, and Svyatopolk was forced to make peace with Tugorkan by marrying his daughter.

In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavich and the Polovtsians besieged Vladimir Vsevolodovich in Chernigov. After a long siege, Vladimir openly left the city ( don't boast about something bad), passing between enemy forces without a fight, but the strife continued in the northeastern lands - Rostov and Murom, during which Monomakh’s son Izyaslav died (1096). Taking advantage of the absence of the forces of Svyatopolk and Monomakh in southern Rus', two Polovtsian armies attacked the Russian principalities on both banks of the Dnieper. Khan Bonyak appeared near Kiev itself, and Tugorkan and Khan Kurya besieged Pereyaslavl. The latter suffered the first major defeat from the Russians. On July 19, 1096, on the Trubezh River, the army of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh defeated the enemy. Having learned about the defeat of Tugorkan, Bonyak, who had already managed to plunder the outskirts of Kyiv and burned the Pechersky Monastery, hastily went to the steppe. A year earlier, Monomakh killed two khans - Itlar and Kitan - during negotiations in Pereyaslavl.

Second period of wars (first quarter of the 12th century)

The blow dealt to the Polovtsians at Trubezh was very painful for the nomads. The largest Polovtsian commander Tugorkan died in the battle. But the strength of the steppe people was still great. In 1097, at the Lyubech Congress of Princes, a decision was made let everyone keep his fatherland(The Svyatoslavichs received their father’s inheritance), and Monomakh managed to convince the Russian princes of the need for retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians and to move the fight against them deep into the steppes.

In 1103, in the early spring, the allied army of the Russian princes moved to the steppes. The calculation was made to weaken the Polovtsian cavalry. After a long winter, the horses had not yet had time to gain strength, but the Russian army included, in addition to the princely squads, large forces of “footmen” - infantrymen. The foot army moved along the Dnieper on boats, the cavalry marched in parallel. Then the army turned deeper into the steppes. The decisive battle of the campaign took place on April 4 near the town of Suten. Monomakh and Svyatopolk defeated the Polovtsians, Khan Urusoba and 19 other princes were killed in this battle.

Four years later, the nomads went on the offensive again. In May, Khan Bonyak and his horsemen invaded the Pereyaslav Principality and besieged the city of Luben. Monomakh was again forced to defend his patrimony. Together with Svyatopolk, he came to the aid of the besieged and attacked the Polovtsians. This time Bonyak and his warriors did not resist for long: they fled, abandoning their baggage and booty. Once again, peace was concluded, sealed by two dynastic marriages: Vladimir’s son Yuri and Oleg Svyatoslavich’s son Svyatoslav married the daughters of Khan Aepa.

The truce did not last long. The Polovtsians were preparing a new attack on Rus', but this time Monomakh forestalled them. Thanks to the foray into the steppe of the army under the command of the governor Dmitry, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers for a large campaign against Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince invited the allies to attack the enemy themselves. This time we performed in winter. On February 26, 1111, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, at the head of a large army, moved deep into the Polovtsian nomads. The army of the princes penetrated as far into the steppes as never before - all the way to the Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But Khan Sharukan brought the main forces out of the attack. On March 26, hoping that the Russian soldiers were tired after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the prince's army returned home without hindrance.

After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsians (1116). In the last years of his life, Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army across the Don against the Polovtsians, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsians migrated away from the borders of Rus', to the Caucasian foothills.

Third period of wars (until the middle of the 13th century)

With the death of Monomakh's heir Mstislav, the Russian princes returned to the practice of using the Polovtsians in civil strife. One after another, the Polovtsian khans returned to the Don nomads. Thus, Yuri Dolgoruky brought the Polovtsians under the walls of Kyiv five times during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. Other princes did this too.

The resumption of campaigns of Russian princes in the steppes (to ensure the security of trade) is associated with the great reign of Kyiv Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).

In the 70s of the 12th century, in the steppe expanses from the Don to the southern borderlands of Rus', a large association of Polovtsian tribes arose, headed by Khan Konchak. The outskirts of Kyiv, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl again became victims of increasing raids by aliens from the steppes. In 1177, the Cumans defeated Russian troops at Rostovets.

In 1183, the forces of a coalition of southern Russian princes, led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kyiv, moved into the nomadic Polovtsians. A strong Russian army was defeated near the river. They attacked a large detachment of Polovtsian horsemen, capturing 7 thousand people, including Khan Kobyak, who then died in a Kyiv prison. On March 1, 1185, Konchak itself was defeated on the Khorol River. After this, Svyatoslav left for the northeastern lands of the Chernigov principality, preparing go to the Don against the Polovtsians for the whole summer, and the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich undertook a separate campaign in the steppes (this time unsuccessful, unlike the campaign of the previous year).

The army of the Seversky prince set out on a campaign on April 23, 1185. On the way, Igor was joined with his squads by his son Vladimir Putivlsky, nephew Svyatoslav Rylsky, Igor’s brother, Chernigov prince Vsevolod and Chernigov kovui: a total of 5 regiments. Also in this campaign, the sixth regiment was mentioned for the first time, consisting of archers from all regiments. The first meeting with the Polovtsy took place on the banks of the river. Syurli was successful for the Russians. Rich booty was captured, and part of the Russian forces (except for the regiments of Igor and Vsevolod) took part in the pursuit of the defeated enemy. The next day, the princely regiments clashed with the main forces of Khan Konchak. On the banks of the river A bloody battle broke out in Kayala. The horse squads could have escaped, but chose not to abandon black people, dismounted and began to make their way to the Donets. Having been wounded, Igor mounted his horse again. All day long, Igor’s warriors held back the onslaught of superior enemy forces, but at dawn the next day they faltered. The princely army was defeated, Igor himself and his son Vladimir were captured.

The Polovtsians invaded Rus', besieged Pereyaslavl, and took Rimov. Svyatoslav of Kyiv and his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich managed to build a defense, and upon news of their crossing the Dnieper, Konchak lifted the siege of Pereyaslavl and went to the steppe. The Novgorod-Seversk prince, who later escaped from Polovtsian captivity, managed to take revenge on his enemies: he made several victorious campaigns against the nomads. After 1185, the Cumans invaded Rus' only as allies of one of the coalitions of Russian princes fighting each other. At the same time, the largest campaigns in the steppes were undertaken by Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1198 (the Cumans migrated south to avoid conflict), Roman Mstislavich in 1202 (for which the chronicler earned comparison with his great ancestor Monomakh) and 1203.

In the first half of the 13th century, both the Russians and the Cumans became victims of the Mongol conquests. When the Mongols first appeared in Europe in 1222-1223, the Russian princes joined forces with the Polovtsian khans, although the Mongol ambassadors suggested that the Russian princes act together against the Polovtsians. The Battle of the Kalka River ended unsuccessfully for the Allies, but the Mongols were forced to postpone the conquest of Eastern Europe for 13 years. Western campaign of the Mongols of 1236-1242, also called in eastern sources Kipchak, that is, Polovtsian, did not meet the joint resistance of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans.

Results of the wars

The results of the Russian-Polovtsian wars were the loss of control by the Russian princes over the Tmutarakan principality and the White Vezha, as well as the cessation of Polovtsian invasions of Rus' outside the framework of alliances with some Russian princes against others. At the same time, the strongest Russian princes began to undertake campaigns deep into the steppes, but even in these cases the Polovtsians preferred to retreat, avoiding a collision.

The Rurikovichs became related to many Polovtsian khans. Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Prince of Chernigov), Rurik Rostislavich, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (Prince of Vladimir) were married to Polovtsian women at different times. Christianity became widespread among the Polovtsian elite: for example, of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned in Russian chronicles in 1223, two bore Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint campaign against the Mongols.

The Polovtsians belonged to the nomadic tribes. According to various sources, they also had other names: Kipchaks and Komans. The Polovtsian people belonged to the Turkic-speaking tribes. At the beginning of the 11th century, they expelled the Pechenegs and Torques from the Black Sea steppes. Then they headed to the Dnieper, and upon reaching the Danube they became the owners of the steppe, which became known as the Polovtsian steppe. The religion of the Polovtsians was Tengriism. This religion is based on the cult of Tengri Khan (the eternal sunshine of the sky).

The daily life of the Polovtsians was practically no different from other tribal peoples. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. By the end of the 11th century, the type of Polovtsian nomadism changed from camp to more modern. Each individual part of the tribe was assigned plots of land for pastures.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsians made constant raids on Russian lands. The struggle between Rus' and the Polovtsians lasted quite a long time. There were about 46 major raids on Rus', and this does not take into account smaller ones.

The first battle of Rus' with the Cumans was on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, they burned the surrounding area and robbed the nearest villages. In 1068, the Cumans defeated the troops of the Yaroslavichs, in 1078 Izyaslav Yaroslavich died in a battle with them, in 1093 the Cumans defeated the troops of 3 princes: Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and Rostislav, and in 1094 they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. Subsequently, several retaliatory campaigns were made. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the fight against Russia. In 1103 they were defeated by Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh, then they served King David the Builder in the Caucasus.

The final defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh and a Russian army of many thousands occurred as a result of the crusade in 1111. To avoid final destruction, the Polovtsians changed their place of nomadism, moving across the Danube, and most of their troops, along with their families, went to Georgia. All these “all-Russian” campaigns against the Polovtsians were led by Vladimir Monomakh. After his death in 1125, the Cumans took an active part in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, participating in the defeat of Kyiv as allies in 1169 and 1203.

The next campaign against the Polovtsy, also referred to as the massacre of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsy, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” took place in 1185. This campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich was an example of one of the unsuccessful ones. After some time, some of the Polovtsians converted to Christianity, and a period of calm began in the Polovtsian raids.

The Polovtsians ceased to exist as an independent, politically developed people after the European campaigns of Batu (1236 - 1242) and made up the majority of the population of the Golden Horde, passing on to them their language, which formed the basis for the formation of other languages ​​(Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Kazakh, Karakalpak , Kumyk and others).

By the middle of the 11th century. The Kipchak tribes, coming from Central Asia, conquered all the steppe spaces from the Yaik (Ural River) to the Danube, including the north of Crimea and the North Caucasus.

Individual clans, or “tribes,” of the Kipchaks united into powerful tribal unions, the centers of which became primitive wintering cities. The khans who headed such associations could raise tens of thousands of warriors on a campaign, welded together by tribal discipline and posing a terrible threat to neighboring agricultural peoples. The Russian name of the Kipchaks - “Polovtsy” - is believed to have come from the ancient Russian word “polova” - straw, because the hair of these nomads was light, straw-colored.

The first appearance of the Polovtsians in Rus'

In 1061, the Polovtsians first attacked Russian lands and defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. From that time on, for more than a century and a half, they continuously threatened the borders of Rus'. This struggle, unprecedented in its scale, duration and ferocity, occupied an entire period of Russian history. It unfolded along the entire border of forest and steppe - from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians.

Cumans

After spending the winter near the sea coasts (in the Azov region), the Polovtsians began to migrate north in the spring and appeared in the forest-steppe regions in May. They attacked more often in the fall to profit from the fruits of the harvest, but the Polovtsian leaders, trying to take the farmers by surprise, constantly changed tactics, and a raid could be expected at any time of the year, in any principality of the steppe borderland. It was very difficult to repel the attacks of their flying detachments: they appeared and disappeared suddenly, before the princely squads or militias of the nearest cities were in place. Usually the Polovtsians did not besiege fortresses and preferred to plunder villages, but even the troops of an entire principality often found themselves powerless before the large hordes of these nomads.

Polovtsian horseman of the 12th century.

Until the 90s. XI century The chronicles report almost nothing about the Polovtsians. However, judging by the memories of Vladimir Monomakh about his youth, given in his “Teachings”, then throughout the 70s and 80s. XI century a “small war” continued on the border: endless raids, pursuits and skirmishes, sometimes with very large forces of nomads.

Cuman offensive

In the early 90s. XI century The Polovtsians, who roamed along both banks of the Dnieper, united for a new attack on Rus'. In 1092, “the army was great from the Polovtsians and from everywhere.” The nomads captured three cities - Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and destroyed many villages on both banks of the Dnieper. The chronicler is eloquently silent about whether any resistance was given to the steppe inhabitants.

The next year, the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich recklessly ordered the arrest of the Polovtsian ambassadors, which gave rise to a new invasion. The Russian army, which came out to meet the Polovtsians, was defeated at Trepol. During the retreat, crossing in a hurry across the Stugna River, which had swollen from the rains, many Russian soldiers drowned, including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Svyatopolk fled to Kyiv, and huge forces of the Polovtsians besieged the city of the Torci, who had settled since the 50s. XI century along the Rosi River, - Torchesk. The Kiev prince, having gathered a new army, tried to help the Torques, but was again defeated, suffering even greater losses. Torchesk defended itself heroically, but in the end the city's water supplies ran out, it was taken by the steppe inhabitants and burned.

Its entire population was driven into slavery. The Polovtsians again ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv, capturing thousands of prisoners, but they apparently failed to plunder the left bank of the Dnieper; he was protected by Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in Chernigov.

In 1094, Svyatopolk, not having the strength to fight the enemy and hoping to get at least a temporary respite, tried to make peace with the Polovtsians by marrying the daughter of Khan Tugorkan - the one whose name the creators of epics over the centuries changed into “Snake Tugarin” or “Tugarin Zmeevich” " In the same year, Oleg Svyatoslavich from the family of Chernigov princes, with the help of the Polovtsians, expelled Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, giving the surroundings of his native city to the allies for plunder.

In the winter of 1095, near Pereyaslavl, the warriors of Vladimir Monomakh destroyed the detachments of two Polovtsian khans, and in February, the troops of the Pereyaslav and Kyiv princes, who have since become permanent allies, made their first trip to the steppe. Chernigov Prince Oleg avoided joint action and preferred to make peace with the enemies of Rus'.

In the summer the war resumed. The Polovtsians besieged the town of Yuryev on the Rosi River for a long time and forced the inhabitants to flee from it. The city was burned. Monomakh successfully defended himself on the eastern bank, winning several victories, but his forces were clearly not enough. The Polovtsians struck in the most unexpected places, and the Chernigov prince established a very special relationship with them, hoping to strengthen his own independence and protect his subjects by ruining his neighbors.

In 1096, Svyatopolk and Vladimir, completely enraged by Oleg’s treacherous behavior and his “majestic” (i.e., proud) answers, drove him out of Chernigov and besieged him in Starodub, but at that time large forces of the steppe inhabitants began an offensive on both banks of the Dnieper and immediately broke through to the capitals of the principalities. Khan Bonyak, who led the Azov Polovtsians, attacked Kyiv, and Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl. The troops of the allied princes, having nevertheless forced Oleg to beg for mercy, set off in an accelerated march towards Kiev, but, not finding Bonyak there, who left, avoiding a collision, crossed the Dnieper at Zarub and on July 19, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. Without giving the enemy the opportunity to form up for battle, the Russian soldiers, fording the Trubezh River, struck the Polovtsians. They, without waiting for the fight, ran, dying under the swords of their pursuers. The defeat was complete. Among those killed was Svyatopolk’s father-in-law, Tugorkan.

But on these same days, the Polovtsians almost captured Kyiv: Bonyak, making sure that the troops of the Russian princes had gone to the left bank of the Dnieper, approached Kyiv a second time and at dawn tried to suddenly break into the city. For a long time later, the Polovtsians remembered how the annoyed Khan used a saber to cut the gate doors that had slammed shut in front of his very nose. This time the Polovtsy burned the prince's country residence and destroyed the Pechersky Monastery, the most important cultural center of the country. Svyatopolk and Vladimir, who urgently returned to the right bank, pursued Bonyak beyond Ros, all the way to the Southern Bug.

The nomads felt the power of the Russians. From this time on, Torci and other tribes, as well as individual Polovtsian clans, began to come to Monomakh to serve from the steppe. In such a situation, it was necessary to quickly unite the efforts of all Russian lands in the fight against the steppe nomads, as was the case under Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, but different times were coming - an era of inter-princely wars and political fragmentation. The Lyubech congress of princes in 1097 did not lead to agreement; The Polovtsians also took part in the strife that began after him.

The unification of Russian princes to repel the Polovtsians

Only in 1101 did the princes of the southern Russian lands make peace with each other and the very next year “they decided to dare to attack the Polovtsy and go to their lands.” In the spring of 1103, Vladimir Monomakh came to Svyatopolk in Dolobsk and convinced him to set out on a campaign before the start of field work, when the Polovtsian horses, after wintering, had not yet gained strength and were not able to escape pursuit.

Vladimir Monomakh with princes

The united army of seven Russian princes in boats and on horses along the banks of the Dnieper moved to the rapids, from where they turned into the depths of the steppe. Having learned about the enemy’s movement, the Polovtsians sent a patrol - a “watchman”, but Russian intelligence “guarded” it and destroyed it, which allowed the Russian commanders to take full advantage of surprise. The Polovtsy, not ready for battle, fled at the sight of the Russians, despite their enormous numerical superiority. During the pursuit, twenty khans died under Russian swords. Huge booty fell into the hands of the victors: captives, herds, wagons, weapons. Many Russian prisoners were released. One of the two main Polovtsian groups was dealt a heavy blow.

But in 1107 Bonyak, who retained his strength, besieged Luben. The troops of other khans also came here. The Russian army, which this time included the Chernigovites, again managed to take the enemy by surprise. On August 12, suddenly appearing in front of the Polovtsian camp, the Russians rushed to the attack with a battle cry. Without trying to resist, the Polovtsians fled.

After such a defeat, the war moved to enemy territory - to the steppe, but first a split was introduced into its ranks. In winter, Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich went to Khan Aepa and, having made peace with him, became related, marrying their sons Yuri and Svyatoslav to his daughters. At the beginning of the winter of 1109, the governor of Monomakh, Dmitry Ivorovich, reached the Don itself and there captured “a thousand vezhas” - Polovtsian tents, which upset the Polovtsian military plans for the summer.

The second big campaign against the Polovtsians, the soul and organizer of which was again Vladimir Monomakh, was undertaken in the spring of 1111. The warriors set out in the snow. The infantry traveled to the Khorol River in sleighs. Then they walked to the southeast, “passing many rivers.” Four weeks later, the Russian army reached the Donets, donned armor and served a prayer service, after which it headed to the capital of the Polovtsians - Sharukan. Residents of the city did not dare to resist and came out with gifts. The Russian prisoners who were here were freed. A day later, the Polovtsian city of Sugrov was burned, after which the Russian army moved back, surrounded on all sides by strengthening Polovtsian detachments. On March 24, the Polovtsians blocked the way for the Russians, but were repulsed. The decisive battle took place in March on the banks of the small Salnitsa River. In a difficult battle, Monomakh’s regiments broke through the Polovtsian encirclement, allowing the Russian army to escape safely. Prisoners were captured. The Polovtsians did not pursue the Russians, admitting their failure. Vladimir Vsevolodovich attracted many clergy to participate in this campaign, the most significant of all those undertaken by him, giving it the character of a crusade, and achieved his goal. The glory of Monomakh's victory reached “even Rome.”

Old Russian fortress Lyubech from the times of the fight against the Polovtsians. Reconstruction by archaeologists.

However, the forces of the Polovtsy were still far from broken. In 1113, having learned about the death of Svyatopolk, Aepa and Bonyak immediately tried to test the strength of the Russian border by besieging the Vyr fortress, but, having received information about the approach of the Pereyaslavl army, they immediately fled - this was reflected in the psychological turning point in the war achieved during the campaign of 1111 G.

In 1113-1125, when Vladimir Monomakh reigned in Kyiv, the fight against the Cumans took place exclusively on their territory. The victorious campaigns that followed one after another finally broke the resistance of the nomads. In 1116, an army under the command of Yaropolk Vladimirovich - a constant participant in his father’s campaigns and a recognized military leader - defeated the nomadic camps of the Don Polovtsians, taking three of their cities and bringing many prisoners.

Polovtsian rule in the steppes collapsed. An uprising of tribes subject to the Kipchaks began. For two days and two nights, the Torquis and Pechenegs brutally fought with them near the Don, after which, having fought off, they retreated. In 1120, Yaropolk walked with his army far beyond the Don, but did not meet anyone. The steppes were empty. The Polovtsians migrated to the North Caucasus, Abkhazia, and the Caspian Sea.

The Russian plowman lived a quiet life in those years. The Russian border moved south. Therefore, the chronicler considered one of the main merits of Vladimir Monomakh to be the fact that he was “most feared by the filthy” - the pagan Polovtsians were afraid of him more than any of the Russian princes.

Resumption of Polovtsian raids

With the death of Monomakh, the Polovtsians perked up and immediately tried to capture the Torci and plunder the Russian border lands, but were defeated by Yaropolk. However, after the death of Yaropolk, the Monomashichi (descendants of Vladimir Monomakh) were removed from power by Vsevolod Olgovich, a friend of the Polovtsy, who knew how to keep them in his hands. Peace was concluded, and news of Polovtsian raids disappeared from the pages of chronicles for some time. Now the Polovtsians appeared as allies of Vsevolod. Ruining everything in their path, they went with him on campaigns against the Galician prince and even against the Poles.

After Vsevolod, the Kiev throne (reign) went to Izyaslav Mstislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, but now his uncle, Yuri Dolgoruky, began to actively play the “Polovtsian card”. Deciding to get Kyiv at any cost, this prince, the son-in-law of Khan Aepa, brought the Polovtsians to Kyiv five times, plundering even the environs of his native Pereyaslavl. In this he was actively helped by his son Gleb and brother-in-law Svyatoslav Olgovich, Aepa’s second son-in-law. In the end, Yuri Vladimirovich established himself in Kyiv, but he did not have to reign for long. Less than three years later, the people of Kiev poisoned him.

The conclusion of an alliance with some Cuman tribes did not at all mean the end of the raids of their brothers. Of course, the scale of these raids could not be compared with the attacks of the second half of the 11th century, but the Russian princes, more and more preoccupied with strife, could not organize a reliable unified defense of their steppe borders. In such a situation, the Torci and other small nomadic tribes settled along the Rosi River, who were dependent on Kyiv and bore the common name “black hoods” (i.e., hats), turned out to be indispensable. With their help, the warlike Polovtsians were defeated in 1159 and 1160, and in 1162, when the “mnozi Polovtsians” arrived at Yuryev and captured many Torki tents there, the Torki themselves, without waiting for the Russian squads, began to pursue the raiders and, having caught up , recaptured the prisoners and also captured more than 500 Polovtsians.

Constant strife practically negated the results of the victorious campaigns of Vladimir Monomakh. The power of the nomadic hordes weakened, but the Russian military force was also fragmented - this equalized both sides. However, the cessation of offensive actions against the Kipchaks allowed them to once again accumulate forces to attack Rus'. By the 70s. XII century In the Don steppe, a large state entity headed by Khan Konchak again formed.

Khan Konchak

The emboldened Polovtsians began to rob merchants on the steppe roads (paths) and along the Dnieper. The activity of the Cumans also increased on the borders. One of their army was defeated by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, but near Pereyaslavl they defeated the detachment of the governor Shvarn.

In 1166, the Kiev prince Rostislav sent a detachment of the governor Volodislav Lyakh to escort merchant caravans. Soon Rostislav mobilized the forces of ten princes to protect trade routes.

After the death of Rostislav, Mstislav Izyaslavich became the prince of Kyiv, and already under his leadership in 1168 a new large campaign was organized in the steppe. In early spring, 12 influential princes, including the Olgovichi (descendants of Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich), who had temporarily quarreled with their steppe relatives, responded to Mstislav’s call to “search for their fathers and grandfathers, their paths, and their honor.” The Polovtsians were warned by a defector slave nicknamed Koschey, and they fled, abandoning the “vezhi” with their families. Having learned about this, the Russian princes rushed in pursuit and captured the nomadic camps at the mouth of the Orelya River and along the Samara River, and the Polovtsians themselves, having caught up with the Black Forest, were pressed against it and killed, suffering almost no losses.

In 1169, two hordes of Polovtsy simultaneously on both banks of the Dnieper approached Korsun on the Ros River and Pesochen near Pereyaslavl, and each demanded the Kyiv prince to conclude a peace treaty. Without thinking twice, Prince Gleb Yuryevich rushed to Pereyaslavl, where his 12-year-old son then ruled. The Azov Polovtsians of Khan Togly, who were stationed near Korsun, as soon as they learned that Gleb had crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper, immediately rushed into a raid. Having bypassed the fortified line on the Rosi River, they ravaged the surroundings of the towns of Polonnoye, Semycha and Desyatinnoye in the upper reaches of the Sluch, where the population felt safe. The steppe inhabitants, who fell out of the blue, plundered the villages and drove the captives into the steppe.

Having made peace at Pesochen, Gleb, on the way to Korsun, learned that there was no one there anymore. There were few troops with him, and some of the soldiers had to be sent to intercept the treacherous nomads. Gleb sent his younger brother Mikhalko and governor Volodislav with one and a half thousand serving Berendey nomads and a hundred Pereyaslavl residents to recapture the captives.

Having found the trace of the Polovtsian raid, Mikhalko and Volodislav, showing amazing military leadership, in three successive battles not only recaptured the prisoners, but also defeated the enemy, who was at least ten times superior to them. Success was also ensured by the skillful actions of the Berendey reconnaissance, which famously destroyed the Polovtsian patrol. As a result, a horde of more than 15 thousand horsemen was defeated. One and a half thousand Polovtsians were captured

Two years later, Mikhalko and Volodislav, acting in similar conditions according to the same scheme, again defeated the Polovtsians and saved 400 captives from captivity, but these lessons were of no use to the Polovtsians: new ones appeared to replace the dead seekers of easy gain from the steppe. Rarely a year passed without a major raid noted in the chronicles.

In 1174, the young Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich distinguished himself for the first time. He managed to intercept the khans Konchak and Kobyak returning from the raid at the crossing of the Vorskla. Attacking from an ambush, he defeated their horde, capturing the prisoners.

In 1179, the Polovtsians, who were brought by Konchak, the “evil leader,” devastated the outskirts of Pereyaslavl. The chronicle noted that especially many children died during this raid. However, the enemy was able to escape with impunity. And the next year, by order of his relative, the new Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Igor himself led the Polovtsians Konchak and Kobyak on a campaign against Polotsk. Even earlier, Svyatoslav used the Polovtsians in a short war with the Suzdal prince Vsevolod. With their help, he also hoped to knock out Rurik Rostislavich, his co-ruler and rival, from Kyiv, but suffered a severe defeat, and Igor and Konchak fled from the battlefield along the river in the same boat.

In 1184, the Cumans attacked Kyiv at an unusual time - at the end of winter. The Kyiv co-rulers sent their vassals in pursuit of them. Svyatoslav sent the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, and Rurik sent the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Glebovich. The Torks were led by their leaders - Kuntuvdy and Kuldur. The thaw confused the plans of the Polovtsians. The overflowing Khiria River cut off the nomads from the steppe. Here Igor overtook them, who the day before refused the help of the Kyiv princes so as not to share the spoils, and, as the elder, forced Vladimir to turn home. The Polovtsians were defeated, and many of them drowned while trying to cross the raging river.

In the summer of the same year, the Kyiv co-rulers organized a large campaign into the steppe, gathering ten princes under their banners, but no one from the Olgovichi joined them. Only Igor hunted somewhere on his own with his brother and nephew. The senior princes descended with the main army along the Dnieper in nasads (ships), and a detachment of squads of six young princes under the command of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir, reinforced by two thousand Berendeys, moved along the left bank. Kobyak, mistaking this vanguard for the entire Russian army, attacked it and found himself in a trap. On July 30, he was surrounded, captured and later executed in Kyiv for his numerous perjuries. The execution of a noble prisoner was unheard of. This strained relations between Rus' and the nomads. The khans swore revenge.

In February of the following year, 1185, Konchak approached the borders of Rus'. The seriousness of the khan's intentions was evidenced by the presence in his army of a powerful throwing machine for storming large cities. Khan hoped to take advantage of the split among the Russian princes and entered into negotiations with the Chernigov prince Yaroslav, but at that time he was discovered by Pereyaslav intelligence. Quickly gathering their army, Svyatoslav and Rurik suddenly attacked Konchak’s camp and scattered his army, capturing the stone thrower that the Polovtsians had, but Konchak managed to escape.

Prince Igor with his retinue.

Svyatoslav was not satisfied with the results of the victory. The main goal was not achieved: Konchak survived and, in freedom, continued to hatch plans for revenge. The Grand Duke planned to go to the Don in the summer and therefore, as soon as the roads dried up, he went to gather troops in Korachev, and to the steppe - for cover or reconnaissance - he sent a detachment under the command of the governor Roman Nezdilovich, who was supposed to divert the attention of the Polovtsians and thereby help Svyatoslav will gain time. After the defeat of Kobyak, it was extremely important to consolidate last year's success. An opportunity arose for a long time, as under Monomakh, to secure the southern border, defeating the second, main group of Polovtsians (the first was headed by Kobyak), but these plans were disrupted by an impatient relative.

Igor, having learned about the spring campaign, expressed an ardent desire to take part in it, but was unable to do this due to severe mud. Last year, he, his brother, nephew and eldest son went out into the steppe at the same time as the Kyiv princes and, taking advantage of the fact that the Polovtsian forces were diverted to the Dnieper, captured some booty. Now he could not come to terms with the fact that the main events would take place without him, and, knowing about the raid of the Kyiv governor, he hoped to repeat last year’s experience. But it turned out differently.

The army of the Novgorod-Seversk princes, who intervened in matters of grand strategy, found themselves face to face with all the forces of the Steppe, where they understood the importance of the moment just as well as the Russians. It was prudently lured by the Polovtsians into a trap, surrounded and, after heroic resistance, on the third day of the battle almost completely destroyed. All the princes survived, but were captured, and the Polovtsians expected to receive a large ransom for them.

Bogatyrskaya outpost.

The Polovtsians were not slow to take advantage of their success. Khan Gza (Gzak) attacked the cities located along the banks of the Seim; he managed to break through the outer fortifications of Putivl. Konchak, wanting to avenge Kobyak, went west and besieged Pereyaslavl, which found itself in a very difficult situation. The city was saved by Kyiv aid. Konchak released the spoils, but, retreating, captured the town of Rimov. Khan Gza was defeated by Svyatoslav's son Oleg.

Polovtsian raids, mainly on Porosye (the region along the banks of the Ros River), alternated with Russian campaigns, but due to heavy snow and frost, the winter campaign of 1187 failed. Only in March, governor Roman Nezdilovich with the “black hoods” made a successful raid beyond the Lower Dnieper and captured the “vezhi” at a time when the Polovtsians went on a raid on the Danube.

The decline of Polovtsian power

By the beginning of the last decade of the 12th century. The war between the Polovtsians and the Russians began to subside. Only the Tor khan Kuntuvdy, offended by Svyatoslav, defected to the Polovtsians and was able to cause several small raids. In response to this, Rostislav Rurikovich, who ruled in Torchesk, twice made, albeit successful, but unauthorized campaigns against the Polovtsians, which violated the barely established and still fragile peace. It was the elderly Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich who had to correct the situation and “close the gates” again. Thanks to this, the Polovtsian revenge failed.

And after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, which followed in 1194, the Polovtsians were drawn into a new series of Russian strife. They took part in the war for the Vladimir inheritance after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky and robbed the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl; repeatedly attacked the Ryazan lands, although they were often beaten by the Ryazan prince Gleb and his sons. In 1199, the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest took part in the war with the Polovtsians for the first and last time, going with an army to the upper reaches of the Don. However, his campaign was more like a demonstration of Vladimir’s strength to the obstinate residents of Ryazan.

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, grandson of Izyaslav Mstislavich, distinguished himself in actions against the Polovtsians. In 1202, he overthrew his father-in-law Rurik Rostislavich and, as soon as he became the Grand Duke, organized a successful winter campaign in the steppe, freeing many Russian prisoners captured earlier during strife.

In April 1206, the Ryazan prince Roman “with his brethren” carried out a successful raid against the Polovtsians. He captured large herds and freed hundreds of captives. This was the last campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians. In 1210, they again plundered the outskirts of Pereyaslavl, taking “a lot of stuff,” but also for the last time.

Old Russian fortress Slobodka from the times of the fight against the Polovtsians. Reconstruction by archaeologists.

The loudest event of that time on the southern border was the capture by the Polovtsians of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich, who had previously reigned in Moscow. Having learned that the Polovtsian army was approaching the city, Vladimir came out to meet him and was defeated in a stubborn and difficult battle, but still prevented the raid. The chronicles do not mention any military actions between the Russians and the Polovtsians, except for the continued participation of the latter in Russian strife.

The significance of Rus''s struggle with the Polovtsians

As a result of a century and a half of armed confrontation between Rus' and the Kipchaks, the Russian defense crushed the military resources of this nomadic people, who were in the middle of the 11th century. no less dangerous than the Huns, Avars or Hungarians. This made it impossible for the Cumans to invade the Balkans, Central Europe or the Byzantine Empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Ukrainian historian V.G. Lyaskoronsky wrote: “Russian campaigns in the steppe were carried out mainly due to the long-standing, through long experience of the realized need for active actions against the steppe inhabitants.” He also noted the differences in the campaigns of the Monomashichs and Olgovichs. If the princes of Kyiv and Pereyaslavl acted in the general Russian interests, then the campaigns of the Chernigov-Seversk princes were carried out only for the sake of profit and fleeting glory. The Olgovichs had their own special relationship with the Donetsk Polovtsians, and they even preferred to fight with them “in their own way,” so as not to fall under Kiev influence in any way.

Of great importance was the fact that small tribes and individual clans of nomads were recruited into Russian service. They received the common name “black hoods” and usually served Rus' faithfully, protecting its borders from their warlike relatives. According to some historians, their service was also reflected in some later epics, and the fighting techniques of these nomads enriched Russian military art.

The fight against the Polovtsians cost Rus' many victims. Vast areas of fertile forest-steppe outskirts were depopulated by constant raids. In some places, even in the cities, only the same service nomads remained - “hunters and Polovtsians.” According to the calculations of historian P.V. Golubovsky, from 1061 to 1210 the Kipchaks made 46 significant campaigns against Rus', of which 19 were to the Pereyaslav Principality, 12 to Porosye, 7 to the Seversk Land, 4 each to Kyiv and Ryazan. The number of small attacks cannot be counted. The Polovtsians seriously undermined Russian trade with Byzantium and the countries of the East. However, without creating a real state, they were unable to conquer Rus' and only plundered it.

The fight against these nomads, which lasted a century and a half, had a significant impact on the history of medieval Rus'. The famous modern historian V.V. Kargalov believes that many phenomena and periods of the Russian Middle Ages cannot be considered without taking into account the “Polovtsian factor.” The mass exodus of the population from the Dnieper region and all of Southern Rus' to the north largely predetermined the future division of the Old Russian people into Russians and Ukrainians.

The fight against nomads preserved the unity of the Kyiv state for a long time, “revitalizing” it under Monomakh. Even the progress of the isolation of Russian lands largely depended on how protected they were from the threat from the south.

The fate of the Polovtsians, who from the 13th century. began to lead a sedentary life and accept Christianity, similar to the fate of other nomads who invaded the Black Sea steppes. A new wave of conquerors - the Mongol-Tatars - swallowed them up. They tried to resist the common enemy together with the Russians, but were defeated. The surviving Cumans became part of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, and everyone who resisted was exterminated.

In the middle of the 11th century, Kievan Rus faced a serious threat from the Polovtsians. These nomads came from the Asian steppes and captured the Black Sea region. The Polovtsians (or Cumans) ousted their predecessors, the Pechenegs, from these places. The new steppe inhabitants were not much different from the old ones. They lived by robberies and invasions of neighboring countries where settled populations lived.

New threat

The appearance of nomads coincided with the beginning of the process of political collapse of Rus'. The East Slavic state was united until the 11th century, when its territory was divided into several small principalities. Each of them was ruled by an independent native. The struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians was complicated by this fragmentation.

The rulers often quarreled among themselves, organized internecine wars and made their own country vulnerable to the steppe inhabitants. In addition, some princes began to hire nomads for money. Having your own small horde in the army became an important advantage on the battlefield. All these factors together led to the fact that Rus' was in a state of constant conflict with the Polovtsians for almost two centuries.

First blood

Nomads first invaded the territory of Rus' in 1054. Their appearance coincided with the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Today he is considered the last Kyiv prince who ruled all of Russia. After him, the throne passed to his eldest son Izyaslav. However, Yaroslav had several more offspring. Each of them received an inheritance (part of the state), although formally they were subordinate to Izyaslav. Yaroslav's second son, Svyatoslav, ruled in Chernigov, and the third, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, received Pereyaslavl. This city was located just east of Kyiv and was closest to the steppe. That is why the Polovtsians often attacked the Pereyaslav Principality in the first place.

When the nomads found themselves on Russian soil for the first time, Vsevolod managed to come to an agreement with them by sending an embassy with gifts to the uninvited guests. Peace was concluded between the parties. However, it could not be durable, since the steppe inhabitants lived by robbing their neighbors.

The Horde invaded again in 1061. This time, many peaceful, defenseless villages were plundered and destroyed. Nomads never stayed in Rus' for long. Their horses were afraid of winter, and besides, the animals needed to be fed. Therefore, the raids were carried out in the spring or summer. After a break for autumn and winter, the southern guests returned.

Defeat of the Yaroslavichs

The armed struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians was initially unsystematic. The rulers of the destinies could not fight the huge hordes alone. This state of affairs made an alliance between the Russian princes vitally necessary. The sons of Yaroslav the Wise knew how to negotiate with each other, so in their era there were no problems with coordinating actions.

In 1068, the united squad of the Yaroslavichs met with the steppe army, led by Sharukan. The site of the battle was the bank of the Alta River near Pereyaslavl. The princes were defeated and had to flee the battlefield in a hurry. After the battle, Izyaslav and Vsevolod returned to Kyiv. They had neither the strength nor the means to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsians. The apathy of the princes led to an uprising of the population, tired of the constant raids of the steppes and seeing the inability of their rulers to do anything to counter this terrible threat. The people of Kiev convened a people's meeting. City residents demanded that the authorities arm ordinary citizens. When this ultimatum was ignored, the dissatisfied destroyed the governor’s home. Prince Izyaslav had to hide with the Polish king.

Meanwhile, the Polovtsian raids on Rus' continued. In the absence of Izyaslav, his younger brother Svyatoslav, in the same year 1068, defeated the steppe inhabitants in the battle on the Snova River. Sharukan was captured. This first victory allowed the nomads to be temporarily paralyzed.

Polovtsy in the service of princes

Although the Polovtsian raids stopped, steppe inhabitants continued to appear on Russian soil. The reason for this was that Russian princes, who fought with each other in internecine conflicts, began to hire nomads. The first such case took place in 1076. The son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh, together with the Polovtsians, devastated the lands of the Polotsk prince Vseslav.

In the same year, Svyatoslav, who had previously occupied Kyiv, died. His death allowed Izyaslav to return to the capital and become a prince again. Chernigov (the hereditary inheritance of Svyatoslav) was occupied by Vsevolod. Thus, the brothers left their nephews Roman and Oleg without the lands that they should have received from their father. Svyatoslav's children did not have their own squad. But the Polovtsians went to fight with them. Often nomads went to war at the call of the princes, without even asking for a reward, since they received rewards during the robberies of peaceful villages and cities.

However, such an alliance was dangerous. Although in 1078 the Svyatoslavichs defeated Izyaslav in the battle on Nezhatina Niva (the Kiev ruler died in battle), very soon Prince Roman himself was killed by the Polovtsians, whom he called after him.

Fight on Stugna

At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. Vladimir Monomakh became the main fighter against the steppe threat. The Polovtsians decided to reassert themselves in 1092, when Vsevolod, who then ruled in Kyiv, fell seriously ill. Nomads often attacked Rus' when the country found itself without power or when it was weakened. This time the Polovtsians decided that Vsevolod’s illness would not allow the Kievans to gather their strength and repel the attack.

The first invasion went unpunished. The Cumans, having met no resistance, calmly returned to their winter nomadic places. The campaigns were then led by Khan Tugorkan and Khan Bonyak. A powerful onslaught of the steppe inhabitants after a long break became possible after the hordes that had been scattered for several years united around these two leaders.

Everything favored the Polovtsians. In 1093, Vsevolod Yaroslavich died. The inexperienced nephew of the deceased, Svyatopolk Yaroslavovich, began to rule in Kyiv. Tugorkan, together with his horde, besieged Torchesk, an important city in Porosye on the southern borders of Rus'. Soon the defenders learned of approaching help. The Russian princes temporarily forgot about mutual claims against each other and gathered their squads for a campaign in the steppe. This army included the regiments of Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh and his younger brother Rostislav Vsevolodovich.

The united squad was defeated in the Battle of the Stugna River, which took place on May 26, 1093. The first blow of the Polovtsians fell on the Kievites, who wavered and fled from the battlefield. Behind them the Chernigovites were defeated. The army found itself pressed against the river. The warriors had to hastily swim across the river in their armor. Many of them simply drowned, including Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Vladimir Monomakh tried to save his brother, but could not help him get out of the seething stream of Stugna. After the victory, the Polovtsians returned to Torchesk and finally took the city. The defenders of the fortress surrendered. They were taken captive, and the city was set on fire. The history of Kievan Rus was darkened by one of the most devastating and terrible defeats.

Backstab

Despite heavy losses, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians continued. In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavovich, who continued to fight for his father’s inheritance, besieged Monomakh in Chernigov. Vladimir Vsevolodovich left the city, after which it was given over to the nomads for plunder. After the concession of Chernigov, the conflict with Oleg was settled. However, the Polovtsians soon besieged Pereyaslavl and appeared under the walls of Kyiv. The steppe inhabitants took advantage of the absence of strong squads in the south of the country, who went north to participate in the next civil strife on Rostov soil. In that war, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, the Murom prince Izyaslav, died. Meanwhile, Tugorkan was already close to starving Pereyaslavl.

At the very last moment, a squad returning from the north came to the rescue of the city. It was led by Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich. The decisive battle took place on July 19, 1096. The Russian princes finally defeated the Polovtsians. This was the first major success of Slavic weapons in the confrontation with the steppes in the last 30 years. Under a powerful blow, the Polovtsy scattered. In this pursuit, Tugorkan died along with his son. The next year after the victory at Trubezh, the Russian princes gathered at the famous congress in Lyubech. At this meeting, the Rurikovichs regulated their own relations. The hereditary inheritance of the late Svyatoslav finally returned to his children. Now the princes could come to grips with the problem of the Polovtsians, which was what Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich insisted on, who formally continued to be considered the eldest.

Hiking in the steppe

At first, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians did not go beyond the borders of Rus'. The squads gathered only if nomads threatened Slavic cities and villages. This tactic was ineffective. Even if the Polovtsians were defeated, they returned to their own steppes, regained strength, and after some time crossed the border again.

Monomakh understood that a fundamentally new strategy was needed against the nomads. In 1103, the Rurikovichs met at the next congress on the shores of Lake Dolob. At the meeting, a general decision was made to march with the army into the steppe, into the lair of the enemy. Thus began the military campaigns of the Russian princes to the nomadic places of the Polovtsians. Svyatopolk of Kiev, Davyd Svyatoslavovich of Chernigov, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd Vseslavovich of Polotsk and Monomakh’s heir Yaropolk Vladimirovich took part in the campaign. After a general gathering in Pereyaslavl, the Russian army set off for the steppe in the early spring of 1103. The princes were in a hurry, hoping to overtake the enemy as quickly as possible. Polovtsian horses needed a long rest after previous campaigns. In March, they were still not strong, which should have been to the advantage of the Slavic squad.

The history of Kievan Rus has never known such a military campaign. Not only cavalry, but also a large foot army marched south. The princes counted on him in case the cavalry became too tired after a long journey. The Polovtsians, having learned of the unexpected approach of the enemy, began to hastily assemble a united army. It was headed by Khan Urusoba. Another 20 steppe princes brought their troops. The decisive battle took place on April 4, 1103 on the banks of the Suteni River. The Polovtsians were defeated. Many of their princelings were killed or captured. Urusoba also died. The victory allowed Svyatopolk to rebuild the city of Yuryev on the Ros River, which was burned back in 1095 and was empty for many years without inhabitants.

In the spring of 1097, the Polovtsians again went on the offensive. Khan Bonyak led the siege of the city of Lubena, which belonged to the Pereyaslav Principality. Svyatopolk and Monomakh together defeated his army, meeting him on the Sula River. Bonyak ran. Still, the peace was fragile. Subsequently, the military campaigns of the Russian princes were repeated (three times in 1109 - 1111). All of them were successful. The Polovtsians had to migrate away from the Russian borders. Some of them even moved to the North Caucasus. For two decades, Rus' forgot about the threat of the Polovtsians. It is interesting that in 1111 Vladimir Monomakh organized a campaign similar to the Catholic Crusade in Palestine. The struggle between the Eastern Slavs and the Polovtsians was also religious. The nomads were pagans (in the chronicles they were called “filthy”). In the same year 1111, the Russian army reached the Don. This river became her last frontier. The Polovtsian cities of Sugrov and Sharukan, in which the nomads usually spent the winter, were captured and plundered.

Long Neighborhood

Vladimir Monomakh became the prince of Kyiv. Under him and his son Mstislav (until 1132), Rus' was for the last time a single and cohesive state. The Polovtsians did not bother Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, or any other East Slavic cities. However, after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich, disputes began between numerous Russian princes over the rights to the throne. Some wanted to get Kyiv, others fought for independence in other provinces. In wars among themselves, the Rurikovichs again began to hire Polovtsians.

For example, the ruler of Rostov, together with nomads, besieged the “mother of Russian cities” five times. The Polovtsians were actively involved in internecine wars in the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1203, under the command of Rurik Rostislavovich, they captured and plundered Kyiv. Then Prince Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky ruled in the ancient capital.

Trade protection

In the XI-XII centuries. The Polovtsians did not always invade Rus' at the call of one of the princes. During periods when there were no other ways to rob and kill, nomads arbitrarily attacked Slavic settlements and cities. Under the Kiev prince Mstislav Izyaslavovich (reigned 1167-1169), for the first time in a long time, a campaign in the steppe was organized and carried out. The squads were sent to nomadic places not only to secure border settlements, but also to preserve Dnieper trade. For many centuries, merchants used the Route from the Varangians to the Greeks, along which Byzantine goods were delivered. In addition, Russian traders sold northern wealth in Constantinople, which brought great profits to the princes. Hordes of robbers were a constant threat to this important exchange of goods. Therefore, the frequent Russian-Polovtsian wars were also determined by the economic interests of the Kyiv rulers.

In 1185, the prince of Novgorod-Seversky undertook another campaign in the steppe. The day before there was a solar eclipse, which contemporaries regarded as a bad sign. Despite this, the squad still went to the Polovtsian lair. This army was defeated, and the prince was captured. The events of the campaign formed the basis of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This text is today considered the most significant monument of ancient Russian literature.

The emergence of the Mongols

Relations between the Slavs and the Polovtsians for almost two centuries fit into a system of regular alternation of war and peace. However, in the 13th century, the established order collapsed. In 1222, the Mongols first appeared in Eastern Europe. Hordes of these ferocious nomads had already conquered China and were now moving west.

Campaign 1222-1223 was a trial and was actually a reconnaissance mission. However, even then both the Polovtsians and the Russians felt their helplessness before the new enemy. These two peoples had previously constantly fought with each other, but this time they decided to act together against an unexpected enemy. In the Battle of Kalka, the Polovtsian-Russian army suffered a crushing defeat. Thousands of warriors died. However, after the victory, the Mongols suddenly turned back and went to their native lands.

It seemed that the storm had passed. Everyone began to live as before: the princes fought with each other, the Polovtsians plundered border settlements. A few years later, the unreasonable relaxation of the Polovtsians and Russians was punished. In 1236, the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu, began their great western campaign. This time they went to distant countries in order to conquer them. First the Polovtsians were defeated, then the Mongols plundered Rus'. The Horde reached the Balkans and only turned back there. New nomads settled in the former Gradually the two peoples assimilated. However, as an independent force, the Cumans disappeared precisely in the 1230-1240s. Now Rus' had to deal with a much more terrible enemy.

The history of Rus' is full of different events. Each of them leaves its mark in the memory of the entire people. Some key and turning events survive to this day and remain revered and worthy in our society. Taking care of your cultural heritage, remembering great victories and commanders is a very important duty of every person. The Princes of Rus' were not always at their best in terms of their governance of Russia, but they tried to be one family that makes all decisions together. At the most critical and difficult moments, a person always appeared who “took the bull by the horns” and turned the course of history in the opposite direction. One of these great people is Vladimir Monomakh, who is still considered an important figure in the history of Rus'. He achieved many complex military-political goals, while he rarely resorted to brutal methods. His methods consisted of tactics, patience and wisdom, which allowed him to reconcile adults who had hated each other for years. In addition, one cannot ignore the prince’s talent for fighting, because Monomakh’s tactics often saved the Russian army from death. Prince Vladimir thought through the defeat of the Polovtsy down to the smallest detail and therefore “trampled” this threat to Rus'.

Polovtsy: acquaintance

The Polovtsy, or Polovtsy, as historians also call them, are a people of Turkic origin who led a nomadic lifestyle. In different sources they are given different names: in Byzantine documents - Cumans, in Arab-Persian documents - Kipchaks. The beginning of the 11th century turned out to be very productive for the people: they ousted the Torci and Pechenegs from the Volga region and settled in these parts. However, the conquerors decided not to stop there and crossed the Dnieper River, after which they successfully descended to the banks of the Danube. Thus they became the owners of the Great Steppe, which stretched from the Danube to the Irtysh. Russian sources refer to this place as the Polovtsian field.

During the creation of the Golden Horde, the Cumans managed to assimilate many Mongols and successfully impose their language on them. It is worth noting that later this language (Kypchak) was used as the basis for many languages ​​(Tatar, Nogai, Kumyk and Bashkir).

Origin of the term

The word “Polovtsy” from Old Russian means “yellow”. Many representatives of the people had blond hair, but the majority were representatives with an admixture of Mongoloid hair. However, some scientists say that the origin of the name of the people comes from the place where they stopped - the field. There are many versions, but none are reliable.

Tribal system

The defeat of the Polovtsians was partly due to their military-democratic system. The entire people were divided into several clans. Each clan had its own name - the name of the leader. Several clans united into tribes, which created villages and wintering cities for themselves. Each tribal union had its own land on which food was cultivated. There were also smaller organizations, kurens - an association of several families. It is interesting that not only Polovtsy could live in the kurens, but also other peoples with whom natural mixing took place.

Politic system

The Kurens united into hordes, headed by a khan. The khans had supreme power locally. In addition to them, there were also categories such as servants and convicts. It should also be noted that women were divided into servants. They were called chagas. Kolodniks were prisoners of war who were essentially house slaves. They did hard work, had no rights and were the lowest rung on the social ladder. There were also koshes - heads of large families. The family consisted of cats. Each kosh is a separate family and its servants.

The wealth gained in battles was divided between the leaders of military campaigns and the nobility. An ordinary warrior received only crumbs from the master's table. In the event of an unsuccessful campaign, one could go broke and become completely dependent on some noble Polovtsian.

Warfare

The military affairs of the Polovtsians were at their best, and even modern scientists admit this. However, history has preserved to this day not too much evidence about the Polovtsian warriors. It is interesting that any man or youth who was able to simply carry a weapon had to devote his life to military affairs. At the same time, his state of health, physique, and even more so his personal desire were not taken into account. But since such a device has always existed, no one complained about it. It is worth noting that the military affairs of the Cumans were not well organized from the very beginning. It would be more accurate to say that it developed in stages. Historians of Byzantium wrote that these people fought with a bow, a curved saber and darts.

Each warrior wore special clothing that reflected his affiliation with the army. It was made from and was quite dense and comfortable. It is interesting that each Cuman warrior had about 10 horses at his disposal.

The main strength of the Polovtsian army was the light cavalry. In addition to the weapons listed above, warriors also fought with sabers and lassos. A little later they had heavy artillery. Such warriors wore special helmets, armor and chain mail. At the same time, they were often made to look very frightening in order to further intimidate the enemy.

It is also worth mentioning the use of heavy crossbows by the Polovtsians, and they most likely learned this in the times when they lived near Altai. It was these capabilities that made the people practically invincible, for few military leaders of that time could boast of such knowledge. The use of Greek fire many times helped the Cumans defeat even very fortified and guarded cities.

It is worth paying tribute to the fact that the army had sufficient maneuverability. But all the successes in this matter came to naught due to the low speed of movement of the troops. Like all nomads, the Cumans won many victories thanks to sharp and unexpected attacks on the enemy, lengthy ambushes and deceptive maneuvers. They often targeted small villages as targets of attack, which would not have been able to provide the necessary resistance, much less defeat the Polovtsians. However, the army was often defeated due to the lack of professional fighters. Not much attention was paid to training the younger ones. It was possible to learn any skills only during a raid, when the main activity was practicing primitive combat techniques.

Russian-Polovtsian wars

The Russian-Polovtsian wars are a long series of serious conflicts that played out for approximately a century and a half. One of the reasons was the clash of territorial interests of both sides, because the Cumans were a nomadic people who wanted to conquer new lands. The second reason was that Rus' was going through difficult times of fragmentation, so some rulers recognized the Cumans as allies, causing the anger and indignation of other Russian princes.

The situation was quite sad until Vladimir Monomakh intervened, who set his initial goal to unite all the lands of Rus'.

Background to the battle at Salnitsa

In 1103, the Russian princes carried out their first campaign against the nomadic people in the steppe. By the way, the defeat of the Polovtsians took place after the Dolob Congress. In 1107, Russian troops successfully defeated Bonyaki and Sharukan. Success infused the spirit of rebellion and victory into the souls of Russian warriors, so already in 1109, the Kiev governor Dmitry Ivorovich tore to pieces the large Polovtsian villages near the Donets.

Monomakh's tactics

It is worth noting that the defeat of the Polovtsians (date - March 27, 1111) became one of the first in the modern list of Memorable Dates in the military history of the Russian Federation. The victory of Vladimir Monomakh and other princes was a calculated political victory that had far-sighted consequences. The Russians prevailed despite the fact that the advantage in quantitative terms was almost one and a half.

Today, many are interested in the stunning defeat of the Polovtsians under which prince became achievable? The enormous and invaluable merit of the contribution of Vladimir Monomakh, who skillfully used his gift as a commander. He took several important steps. Firstly, he implemented the good old principle, which states that the enemy must be destroyed on his territory and with little loss of life. Secondly, he successfully used the transport capabilities of that time, which made it possible to timely deliver infantry soldiers to the battlefield, while preserving their strength and spirit. The third reason for Monomakh's thoughtful tactics was that he even resorted to weather conditions to achieve the desired victory - he forced the nomads to fight in weather that did not allow them to fully use all the advantages of their cavalry.

However, this is not the prince’s only merit. Vladimir Monomakh thought out the defeat of the Polovtsy down to the smallest detail, but in order to implement the plan, it was necessary to achieve the almost impossible! First, let's plunge into the mood of that time: Rus' was fragmented, the princes held on to their territories with their teeth, everyone tried to do their own thing, and everyone believed that only he was right. However, Monomakh managed to gather, reconcile and unite wayward, rebellious or even stupid princes. It is very difficult to imagine how much wisdom, patience and courage the prince needed... He resorted to tricks, tricks and direct persuasion, which could somehow influence the princes. The result was gradually achieved, and civil strife ceased. It was at the Dolob Congress that the main agreements and agreements were reached between different princes.

The defeat of the Polovtsians by Monomakh also occurred due to the fact that he convinced other princes to involve even the Smerds in order to strengthen the army. Previously, no one even thought about this, because only combatants were supposed to fight.

The defeat at Salnitsa

The campaign began on the second Sunday of Great Lent. On February 26, 111, the Russian army under the command of an entire coalition of princes (Svyatopolk, David and Vladimir) headed towards Sharukani. It is interesting that the march of the Russian army was accompanied by the singing of songs, accompanied by priests and crosses. From this, many researchers of the history of Rus' conclude that the campaign was a crusade. It is believed that this was a thoughtful move by Monomakh to raise morale, but most importantly, to inspire the army that it can kill and must win, for God himself tells them to do so. In fact, Vladimir Monomakh turned this great battle of the Russians against the Polovtsians into a righteous battle for the Orthodox faith.

The army reached the battlefield only after 23 days. The campaign was difficult, but thanks to the fighting spirit, songs and a sufficient amount of provisions, the army was content, and therefore in full combat readiness. On the 23rd day, the warriors reached the shores

It is worth noting that Sharukan surrendered without a fight and quite quickly - already on the 5th day of the brutal siege. Residents of the city offered wine and fish to the invaders - a seemingly insignificant fact, but it indicates that the people conducted here. The Russians also burned Sugrov. The two settlements that were destroyed bore the names of khans. These are exactly the two cities that the army fought with in 1107, but then Khan Sharukan fled from the battlefield, and Sugrov became a prisoner of war.

Already on March 24, the first initial battle took place, in which the Cumans invested all their strength. It took place near the Donets. The defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh occurred later, when a battle took place on the Salnitsa River. Interestingly, the moon was full. This was the second and most important battle between the two sides, in which the Russians came out on top.

The largest defeat of the Polovtsians by the Russian armies, the date of which is already known, shook the entire Polovtsian people, because the latter had a large numerical advantage in the battle. They were confident that they would win, however, they could not withstand the thoughtful and direct blow of the Russian army. For the people and soldiers, the defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh was a very joyful and cheerful event, because good booty was obtained, many future slaves were captured, and most importantly, a victory was won!

Consequences

The consequences of this great event were dramatic. The defeat of the Polovtsians (1111) became a turning point in the history of the Russian-Polovtsian wars. After the battle, the Polovtsy decided to approach the borders of the Russian principality only once. It’s interesting that they did this after Svyatopolk passed away (two years after the battle). However, the Polovtsians established contact with the new prince Vladimir. In 1116, the Russian army made another campaign against the Polovtsians and captured three cities. The final defeat of the Polovtsians broke their fighting spirit, and they soon went into the service of the Georgian king David the Builder. The Kipchaks did not respond to the last Russian campaign, which confirmed their final decline.

A few years later, Monomakh sent Yaropolk in search of the Polovtsy beyond the Don, but there was no one there.

Sources

Many Russian chronicles tell about this event, which became key and significant for the entire people. The defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir strengthened his power, as well as the people’s faith in their strength and their prince. Despite the fact that the Battle of Salnitsa is partially described in many sources, the most detailed “portrait” of the battle can only be found in

An extremely important event was the defeat of the Polovtsians. This turn of events came in handy for Rus'. And all this became possible thanks to the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh. How much strength and intelligence he put into ridding Rus' of this scourge! How carefully he thought through the course of the entire operation! He knew that the Russians always acted as victims, because the Polovtsians attacked first, and the population of Rus' could only defend themselves. Monomakh realized that he should attack first, because this would create the effect of surprise, and also transfer the warriors from the state of defenders to the state of attackers, which is more aggressive and strong in the general mass. Realizing that the nomads begin their campaigns in the spring, since they have practically no foot soldiers, he scheduled the defeat of the Polovtsians at the end of winter in order to deprive them of their main strength. In addition, such a move had other advantages. They consisted in the fact that the weather deprived the Polovtsy of their maneuverability, which was simply impossible in winter conditions. It is believed that the Battle of Salnitsa and the defeat of the Polovtsians in 1111 was the first major and well-thought-out victory of Ancient Rus', which became possible thanks to the leadership talent of Vladimir Monomakh.